NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS CURRICULUM SUPPORT
Religious, Moral and
Philosophical Studies
Morality in the Modern World:
Islam
[INTERMEDIATE 2;
HIGHER]
Amanullah de Sondy
in corroboration with
Brady Robertson
The Scottish Qualifications Authority regularly reviews
the arrangements for National Qualifications. Users of
all NQ support materials, whether published by LT
Scotland or others, are reminded that it is their
responsibility to check that the support materials
correspond to the requirements of the current
arrangements.
Acknowledgement
Learning and Teaching Scotland gratefully acknowledge this contribution to the National
Qualifications support programme for RMPS.
© Learning and Teaching Scotland 2005
This resource may be reproduced in whole or in part for educational purposes by educational
establishments in Scotland provided that no profit accrues at any stage.
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Contents
Introduction
4
Section 1:
Crime and punishment
The purpose of punishment
Capital punishment
8
8
10
Section 2:
Gender
Gender stereotyping
Economic issues
13
13
15
Section 3:
International issues
Globalisation
International aid
18
18
19
Section 4:
Medical ethics
Genetic engineering
Euthanasia
20
20
21
Section 5:
War and peace
Responses to war
Modern armaments
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INTRODUCTION
Introduction
Morality in Islam – An overview of Islamic law
Before understanding a Muslim’s sense of what is right and wrong it is necessary to
explore Islamic law (Shariah), its nature, sources and development. The term Shariah
literally means ‘the way to the water hole’ but it can also mean ‘the right path’ and
thus came to mean the right way of living, or law. Islamic law is God’s law and by
following the Shariah Muslims are living a life that is pleasing to Him.
Muslims believe the Prophet Muhammad was the final messenger of God (Allah), sent
to guide people on how to live their lives. He lived in the region that is modern-day
Saudi Arabia from 570 to 632 CE. Muhammad preached the revelations that he
received from Allah with the central message to worship one God. These messages
from Allah are reproduced in the Holy Qur’an exactly as they were dictated to the
Prophet. Muslims receive guidance on morality from the Qur’an and also the
teachings of Muhammad. Muhammad’s understanding and wisdom played an
essential role in conveying the message of the Qur’an to Muslims.
Before Muhammad died he preached a final sermon on the mount of Arafat. He said
that he was leaving behind the Qur’an and his way of living to guide Muslims. The
sayings of the Prophet Muhammad (Hadith), and his actions, are used as tools to
determine his Sunnah (way, path, guidance). The Sunnah basically attempts to find a
solution to any problem through the vantage point of the Prophet Muhammad’s life,
sayings and actions.
After the Prophet Muhammad’s death, the Muslim community was divided about who
should be his successor. This led to the emergence of two main branches of Islam:
Shi’i and Sunni. It is widely accepted that the Qur’an and Sunnah are recognised as
basic sources for both Sunni and Shi’i Muslims, but the Shi’i place greater emphasis
on their Imams, who are said to be divinely guided leaders descended from
Muhammad.
The Prophet Muhammad was not a legal expert; this was not his role as a messenger
of God. It was only after the Prophet’s death that Islamic law began to develop.
Students of Islam regularly attended and participated in heated debate on theology.
This led to four main schools of law in Sunni Islam: the Hanafi, Shafi’i, Maliki and
Hanbali. Each school of law is popular in different parts of the Arabic world. Their
ideas vary on how best to work out what is right and wrong. However, the historical
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INTRODUCTION
development of Islamic law provides an interesting observation of unity through
diversity; the different schools of law have more in common than in dispute.
What is permissible in Islam?
Muslims believe that the things which God has created, and the benefits derived from
them, are essentially for man’s use, and so are permissible. This main principle comes
from the Qur’an: ‘It is He Who hath created for you all things that are on earth…’
(2:29). Nothing is unlawful except what is prohibited by a sound and explicit passage
from the Qur’an or Hadith.
When Islam was a young religion the followers of Muhammad tried to sort out exactly
what was allowed and what wasn’t. Salman al-Farsi, who was a well-known
companion of the Prophet, asked the Prophet one day whether people were permitted
to use animal fat, cheese and fur. The Prophet answered ‘permissible is that which
God has made lawful in his Book and the unlawful is that which he has forbidden, and
that concerning which He is silent he has permitted as a favour to you.’
How do Muslims work out what is right or wrong? When making moral decisions,
Muslims use the Qur’an and the practice and sayings of the Prophet Muhammad
(Sunnah). However, the Qur’an and Sunnah do not give explicit guidance on all
issues. When guidance is not clearly given in the Qur’an there are several other
sources of law. For example, guidance can be sought from Fiqh, which means
‘understanding’ and is the science of jurisprudence: the science of human intelligence,
debate and discussion.
The other sources of law developed over time. Just after the death of the Prophet,
Islamic law was still being formalised. Early Islamic scholars exercised their own
personal opinion known as Ra’y. Qiyas developed after Ra’y and became universally
recognised as the third source of law. Qiyas is translated as ‘analogical reasoning’ and
it allowed the development of new laws by analogy with existing ones: for example,
the prohibition of alcohol, which is based upon an understanding of Qur’an 5:901 and
also the Hadith,2 led to some legal experts prohibiting the taking of recreational drugs.
‘O ye who believe! Intoxicants and gambling, (dedication of) stones, and (divination by)
arrows, are an abomination – of Satan’s handwork: eschew such (abomination), that ye may
prosper’ (Qur’an 5:90).
2
The Prophet Muhammad said ‘Alcohol is the mother of all evils and it is the most shameful of
evils.’ Taken from the compiler of Hadith, Ibn Majah, Volume 3, Book of Intoxicants, Chapter
30 Hadith No. 3371. Also in same collection Volume 3, Book of Intoxicants, Chapter 30
Hadith No. 3380, ‘God’s curse falls on ten groups of people who deal with alcohol. The one
who distils it, the one for whom it has been distilled, the one who drinks it, the one who
transports it, the one to whom it has been brought, the one who serves it, the one who sells it,
the one who utilises money from it, the one who buys it and the one who buys it for someone
else.’
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INTRODUCTION
Scholars of Islamic law believe that Qiyas emerged after the Prophet had returned to
Madinah; messengers of the kings of Yemen came to him announcing that they and
the people of Yemen had become Muslims. They requested that some teachers should
help them to teach Islam to the people.
For this task the Prophet chose Muadh Ibn Jabal. He then put the following question to
Muadh:
‘According to what will you judge?’
‘According to the Book of God,’ replied Muadh.
‘And if you find nothing therein?’
‘According to the Sunnah of the Prophet of God.’
‘And if you find nothing therein?’
‘Then I will exert myself (exercise ijtihad and qiyas) to form my own judgment.’
The Prophet was pleased with this reply and said: ‘Praise be to God Who has guided
the messenger of the Prophet to that which pleases the Prophet.’
From Qiyas came Ijtihad: independent creative legal reasoning which is left at the sole
discretion of a learned legal scholar, who may conclude a ruling based upon their
insight on a variety of matters.
Ijtihad lost its fervour in Islamic history based on another source of Islamic law, Ijma,
which means ‘consensus of the community’. This was based on a Hadith of the
Prophet in which he said ‘my people will never agree together on an error’. The
community here is the community of scholars and learned ones. However, on a
practical level it is difficult to achieve a consensus of the scholars of Islam. This is one
of the reasons why contemporary scholars are asking for Ijtihad to be reinstated fully.
There is also another source of Islamic law: Urf, or ‘custom’. As the Arabs at the time
of the Prophet had no written legal system it was their customs and traditions that
regulated their social system. The leaders who followed Muhammad (Caliphate)
adopted some important customs that were pre-Muhammad. Customs were endorsed
so long as they were compatible with what is written in the Qur’an and Hadith.
However, some customs could never be endorsed: for example the drinking of alcohol
may become a common practice of a particular society but it can never be lawful in
Islamic law.
Istihsan is a method of exercising personal opinion (ra’ay) to avoid any rigidity and
unfairness that might result from literal application of law.3 Legal scholars are known
as Ulama, which literally means ‘those who are learned’. The Ulama offer guidance
and support to the Muslim community.
3
http://www.ymofmd.com/books/uaf/istihsan_and_maslaha.htm
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INTRODUCTION
Activity
Jonathan is doing a project in RE looking at Islamic morality. He wants to know
whether it is acceptable for Muslim children to join in the craze of Scoubidou (making
models out of plastic string, using a special knotting technique). Trace the steps that
Jonathan would have to use to find out whether Muslims should take part in this game.
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CRIME AND PUNISHMENT
Section 1: Crime and punishment
The purpose of punishment: On what grounds can punishment be
morally justified?
It is said that a crime is an act or conduct whereby a person (i) breaks the law, and (ii)
infringes upon the rights of others. In Islamic law this would be noted as a ‘sin’. In
Islamic thought every crime must be punished for the sole purpose of upholding
justice in society. This is in line with the fact that every Muslim is free to choose good
or bad behaviour and must accept that their actions will affect their relationship with
God and the society around them. In Islam, punishment is not seen as atonement or a
means of being forgiven for sins, because this can only be achieved by faithful
repentance before God. Muslims believe punishment should educate the criminal and
act as a deterrent for others.
Punishment in Islamic thought is morally justified because of its deep root in scripture
and divine laws. It is stated in the Qur’an: ‘We sent aforetime our apostles with Clear
Signs and sent down with them the Book and the Balance (of Right and Wrong), that
men may stand forth in justice’ (Qur’an 57:25) and ‘O ye who believe! stand out
firmly for justice, as witnesses to Allah’ (Qur’an 4:135).
Harsh punishments are found within Islamic teaching:



In some Islamic countries, people are flogged for drinking alcohol. Qur’anic
teaching is clear that drinking alcohol is wrong because of the problems it leads
to in society: for example, crime, violence and poor health.
In some Muslim countries, thieves who persistently offend have a hand
amputated. However, this takes place only after a thorough investigation is
carried out to ensure that the thief wasn’t stealing because of hardship.
The Qur’an teaches that adultery should be punished by 100 lashes.
There are basically three categories of punishment in Shariah:4
The first is Hadd, which includes divinely prescribed forms of fixed punishment based
upon the Qur’an and Sunnah. These are punishments set to preserve the public
interest; they cannot be lightened or made heavier, nor can the offender be pardoned.
4
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http://www.islam-online.net
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CRIME AND PUNISHMENT
The crimes for which the offender has been punished instil a deep feeling of
abhorrence in the society. Such crimes include drinking alcohol, armed robbery, theft,
illicit sexual relations, the rejection of Islam by a Muslim, and slanderous accusations
of promiscuity.
The second form of punishment is called Qisas, which is the punishment for homicide
and assault. Whenever a person causes physical harm or death to another, the injured
person, or the family of the deceased, has the right to retaliation. A unique aspect of
Qisas is that the victim’s family has the option to insist upon execution, accept
monetary recompense, or forgive the offender, which could even involve avoiding
punishment altogether. This leaves the door open to compassion and forgiveness.
Settlements are therefore encouraged out of court, as within a court the judge must
decide the punishment.
All other crimes are punished by the third category of punishment, Ta’zir, which is a
discretionary punishment decided by the court. Some of the more common Ta’zir
crimes are: bribery, selling tainted or defective products, usury (charging interest on
loans) and selling obscene pictures. Different countries have different punishments for
these crimes: for example, counselling, fines, public or private censure (being told
off), seizure of property, confinement in the home or in a place of detention.
Ultimately Muslims believe that punishment is something which should be carried out
by God. All people are judged at the end of time and receive reward or punishment
which is dependent on how they have lived. The reason that people punish criminals is
to educate them, to deter others and so that justice is seen to be done. However, it is
Allah who will ultimately decide what people deserve.
God is indeed very Merciful, Loving and Compassionate, but He is also Just and
Severe in punishment. According to the Qur’an, Allah is ‘Forgiver of sins,
Accepter of repentance, the Stern in punishment, the Powerful…’ (Qur’an 40:3).
It is wrong to accept only some aspect of Allah and ignore or negate some other
aspects. When people believe only in the love of Allah and ignore His justice
and power they become careless and do whatever they wish. When people
believe in the justice and power of Allah and ignore His love and compassion
they become hermits and monks and run away from the world and its
enjoyments. Islam teaches a balanced life and so it teaches both aspects of
Allah’s being.
(Dr Muzammil H. Siddiqi, former President
of the Islamic Society of North America)
Allah says in the Qur’an:
O man! What has seduced thee from thy Lord Most Beneficent? – Him Who
created thee. Fashioned thee in due proportion, and gave thee a just bias; In
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CRIME AND PUNISHMENT
whatever Form He wills, does He put thee together. But no, ye do reject Right
and Judgment! But verily over you (are appointed angels) to protect you, – Kind
and honourable, – Writing down (your deeds): They know (and understand) all
that ye do. As for the Righteous, they will be in bliss; And the Wicked – they
will be in the Fire, Which they will enter on the Day of Judgment’
(Qur’an 82:6–15)
Capital punishment: Is capital punishment morally justifiable?
It is difficult to say whether Islamic law is for or against capital punishment in
principle, because this is dependent on the circumstances of each individual case. The
Qur’an says:
...take not life, which Allah hath made sacred, except by way of justice and law:
thus doth He command you, that ye may learn wisdom.
(Qur’an 6:151)
‘..if any one slew a person – unless it be for murder or for spreading mischief in
the land – it would be as if he slew the whole people: and if any one saved a life,
it would be as if he saved the life of the whole people.
(Qur’an 5:33)
These two statements from the Qur’an give an insight into the sacredness of life in
Islamic thought but are also evidence to support capital punishment. Muslims believe
that all life is a gift from God and so is sacred. However, capital punishment can be
justifiable in supporting and upholding justice in society.
Murder
If a murder was intentional, the Qur’an legislates the death penalty for this, although
forgiveness and compassion are strongly encouraged. The murder victim’s family is
given a choice to either insist on the death penalty, or to pardon the perpetrator and
accept monetary compensation for their loss.
O ye who believe! the law of equality is prescribed to you in cases of murder:
the free for the free, the slave for the slave, the woman for the woman. But if
any remission is made by the brother of the slain, then grant any reasonable
demand, and compensate him with handsome gratitude, this is a concession and
a Mercy from your Lord. After this whoever exceeds the limits shall be in grave
penalty…
(Qur’an 2:178)
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Case Study 1
Three women in Saudi triangle
Australian nurse Yvonne Gilford, 55, was found stabbed to death at a military hospital
complex in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, on Christmas Eve 1996. British nurse Deborah
Parry, 39, was convicted of murdering Yvonne Gilford, and was sentenced to death. A
British colleague, Lucille McLauchlan, 32, was sentenced to 500 lashes and eight
years in prison after being convicted of involvement in the murder. Both women had
confessed to their involvement in the crime; however, later they retracted their
confessions saying that they had been threatened with rape.
Frank Gilford, the brother of Yvonne Gilford, agreed to accept around £750,000 in
return for deciding to waive his right to call for the death penalty on Parry and
McLauchlan. By accepting ‘blood money’ Frank Gilford symbolically showed
forgiveness to the two British nurses. Saudi King Fahd pardoned both nurses who
were released from prison and allowed to return home to Britain.
Defending Saudi Arabia’s death penalty, the King of Saudi Arabia’s youngest son,
Prince Abdul Aziz Bin Fahd, said that murder cases were 20 times rarer than in other
countries, and said: ‘Our laws are based on Islamic Shariah law, God’s own law. We
believe in its wisdom, especially in capital punishment cases.’
When asked about the nurses’ claims that they had been threatened sexually during
interrogation and that their trial had been unfair, the prince replied: ‘It is only natural
that they might say such a thing. Nobody likes to be seen as a criminal.’
From the BBC News website: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/143386.stm
Fasaad fi al-ardh
The second crime for which capital punishment can be applied in Islamic law is
‘spreading corruption in the land’, which can mean many different things. It is
generally interpreted to mean those crimes that affect the community as a whole, and
destabilise society: for example, drug dealing, treason, apostacy (when someone
leaves the Islamic faith and joins the enemy in fighting against the Muslim
community), terrorism, or land, sea or air piracy.
Actual methods of capital punishment vary from place to place. In some Muslim
countries, methods have included beheading, hanging, stoning, and death by firing
squad. Executions are held publicly, to serve as warnings to would-be criminals.
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CRIME AND PUNISHMENT
It is important to note that there is no place for vigilantism in Islam – a criminal must
be properly convicted in an Islamic court of law before the punishment can be meted
out. The severity of the punishment requires that very strict standards of evidence
must be met before a conviction is made. For example, before a person is found guilty
of adultery there must be four witnesses to the crime, or there must be a confession.
The court also has flexibility to order less than the ultimate punishment (for example,
imposing fines or prison sentences), on a case-by-case basis.
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INTERNATIONAL ISSUES
Section 2: Gender
Gender stereotyping: Is the stereotyping of male and female roles
morally justifiable?
According to Islam, men and women complement each other. They are equal members
of society, and they have their duties and responsibilities. Islam does not teach that
women are inferior to men. God has created both men and women, and they are equal
in the Sight of God. If they are equal in the Sight of Allah, then they cannot be inferior
in society or in the sight of men. The whole notion of gender stereotyping is
challenged by looking at historical examples. The Prophet Muhammad was known to
mend his own clothes and also cook. He married one of the most powerful women in
Arabia, Khadija, who was an astute businesswoman.
There are some who would argue that there are some differences between the roles of
men and women in society, but these differences do not make one gender superior and
the other inferior. Women are equal to men in the pursuit of education and knowledge.
Muslim men and women must both seek knowledge in order to deepen their spiritual
relationship with God.
In Islam, women are entitled to freedom of expression as much as men are. Women
narrate a large number of Hadith. Aisha, the Prophet’s wife, contributed greatly to the
narration and commentary of Muhhamad’s Hadith. Her sound opinions are taken into
consideration and cannot be disregarded. It is reported in the Qur’an, and in historical
sources, that women not only expressed their opinions freely but argued and
participated in serious discussions with the Prophet himself, as well as with other
Muslim leaders.
There were also occasions when Muslim women expressed their views on legislative
matters of public interest, and stood in opposition to the Caliphs (spiritual leaders),
who then accepted the sound arguments of these women. There were four Caliphs who
succeeded Muhammad after he died. The second Caliph, ’Umar ibn al-Khatab, had
tried to limit the amount of money paid to women on marriage. ’Umar had declared
that, if anyone paid more to his wives on marriage than Muhammad did, then the
excess should be taken away and put into the Public Treasury. A woman from the
Quraish came to him and said ‘You have just prohibited the people from giving an
excessive amount for dower but Allah has stated in His Book, “And if you have given
them a great amount of gold as dower, take not the least bit of it back”’ (4:20). And
then ’Umar said two or three times ‘Woman is correct and ’Umar is mistaken.’
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GENDER
Historical records show that women participated in public life with the early Muslims,
especially in times of emergencies. Women used to accompany the Muslim armies
engaged in battles, to nurse the wounded, prepare supplies, serve the warriors and so
on.
On the issue of equality, Ibn Baz, who was the Grand Mufti (lawyer) of Saudi Arabia,
appointed by King Fahd in 1994, says:
Islam has given woman rights and privileges. This can be understood when the
matter is studied as a whole in a comparative manner, rather than partially. The
rights and responsibilities of a woman are equal to those of a man but they are
not necessarily identical with them. Equality and sameness are two quite
different things. This difference is understandable because man and woman are
not identical but they are created equals.
While the Qur’an clearly promotes equality between the genders there is also teaching
in the Qur’an which supports women adopting a role which is subservient to, but not
inferior to, their husbands. Man is not the master of women, God is. However,
Muslims believe that the family works better when there is a clear leader. A woman
who loves and respects her husband will be happy for him to take that role. If she is
not happy, divorce is simple within Islam. No woman is expected to be obedient if her
husband is acting against the teaching of Islam.
Men are the protectors and maintainers of women, because Allah has given the
one more (strength) than the other, and because they support them from their
means. Therefore the righteous women are devoutly obedient, and guard in (the
husband’s) absence what Allah would have them guard.
(Qur’an 4:34)
While Muslims are clearly in favour of equality between the sexes they also argue that
it is better for the family and society if men and women take on different roles.
Muslim women often care for their husbands and children in the home. Men provide
for their families financially. However, these roles are not compulsory within Islam,
and many Muslim women work.
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Economic issues: Will economic equality between the sexes lead to a
more just society?
Economic equality is supported within Islamic teaching and practice. There should be
no obstacles in society to prevent an individual from making a living according to
their capacity and talents; nor should there be any social distinctions that safeguard the
privileges of a certain class, race, dynasty or group of people.
Islam has always permitted women to work inside or outside the home. The wives of
the Prophet Muhammad used to work at home. For example, they used to dye their
own clothing and tan hides, in addition to their other housework activities, such as
preparing food, cleaning their houses, and serving and taking care of the Prophet. The
Prophet’s wife Aishah used to prepare the herbal medicine prescribed by his
physicians, and she herself also used to give it to the Prophet, and nurse him, in
addition to her housework.
Furthermore, the wives of the Prophet’s companions used to do housework and other
work, and Muhammad did not disapprove of this. For instance, Fatimah (daughter of
the Prophet) used to run the quern (hand mill for grain) herself until her hands became
swollen. Asma’ bint Abi Bakr, wife of Az-Zubayr ibn Al-`Awwam, used to feed the
camel and the horse, look after her husband and children, and go on foot to fetch the
fodder from her husband’s land three kilometres from Medina; the Prophet once saw
her on her way and he did not show any disapproval. Other examples of working
women during the lifetime of the Prophet Muhammad are Rufaydah Al-Aslamiyyah,
the first female doctor in Islam, for whom the Prophet specified a tent in his mosque in
Madinah in order to treat and nurse the injured Muslim warriors; Ar-Rabaiyyi` bint
Mu`awwidh and Umm Sulaim, who used to set out with the Prophet in his various
battles to provide water for the Muslim warriors, hand weapons to them, prepare food
for them, treat the injured, and carry the martyrs to the burial places; and Ash-Shifa’
bint `Abdullah, who used to go out to teach Muslim women to read and write, and to
practise medicine. The Umar ibn Al-Khattab appointed a woman named Ash-Shifa’ to
occupy a position called al-hisbah, or market inspector; she checked that scales were
just and accurate, and that transactions were carried out according to the rulings of
Islam.
While economic independence is something that Muslims believe is a right of all, they
do not believe economic equality should be enforced. Muslims do not agree with the
Marxist view that all should receive equal pay or an equal share of wealth. Muslims
believe that Allah has chosen the role of each in society. People should work to
improve their position but society should not force economic equality on people.
The case study which follows shows moves to establish greater economic equality in
the Muslim country of Pakistan. The story was written in March 2002.
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GENDER
Case Study 2
Pakistan: Musharraf promises women equality
Pakistani President Pervez Musharraf has told women his government will end
discrimination and violence against them.
General Musharraf said his administration
wanted to ensure Pakistani women enjoyed
greater political and economic rights.
He was addressing a gathering of hundreds
of women at a meeting in Islamabad on the
eve of International Women’s Day.
“Political empowerment will
enable women to fight for
their rights”
President Pervez Musharraf
‘It is through political empowerment that women can emancipate themselves.
Political empowerment will enable women to fight for their rights themselves,’ he
said.
In January, President Musharraf expanded the country’s National Assembly to 350
seats and reserved 60 of these for women.
Violent discrimination
That may not be enough to free Pakistani women from the difficult lives they are
often forced to lead. Last year human rights organisations reported that many
women suffer beatings by male members of their own families.
Some husbands, and occasionally fathers and brothers, have been known to torture
their womenfolk for minor mistakes or small disagreements. There have even been
reports of ‘honour killings’ of young women who married against the wishes of
their male relatives.
President Musharraf said he was moved by tales of discrimination told by delegates
attending the meeting. He identified the lack of education as a root cause of
women’s problems.
Nearly two-thirds of all Pakistani women are illiterate, compared to just about half
of Pakistani men. The president said this inequality would be addressed on a
priority basis and discrimination in primary education would be removed by 2010.
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Hopeful signs
Some women in Pakistani cities have already taken the initiative to take charge of
their lives.
They have taken up jobs usually considered a male
preserve in this male-dominated society. Last year,
Pakistan’s first women’s post office opened in
Karachi.
It is managed and staffed entirely by women.
But while many Pakistani women from affluent
families have joined the professions, it is harder for
poorer women to break into job areas traditionally
dominated by men.
“Women can take
charge of their own
lives – why should we
be dependent on our
husbands?”
Postmistress Farzana
Nisar
From the BBC News website: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/1859556.stm
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INTERNATIONAL ISSUES
Section 3: International issues
Globalisation: Is the process of globalisation morally justifiable?
Effective globalisation to create a more just and peaceful world is strongly welcomed
in Islamic thought.
Globalisation is the spread and exchange of people, goods, and ideas across the globe.
Characteristically, it is directly associated with change, modernisation and an
increasingly interdependent relationship between different regions of the world.
‘Globalisation is an aspect of human life that has always been there since the
beginning of humanity. Human beings are “social animals.” The tendency of humans
to exchange ideas and experiences with others around [them], in order to achieve and
realise the best chances of life is natural and is what God wants.’5
At the heart of Islam is a sense of cooperation, to be helpful to one another according
to principles of goodness and piety (but not to cooperate in evil or malice). This
principle was stated by the Prophet Muhammad who said that a Muslim must help
their fellow human being regardless of anything. Globalisation can result in greater
cooperation and understanding for all.
M. Miasami, who has worked for the Global Policy Forum in the USA, states:
The relationship between Islam and globalisation has been open to much
interpretation and acrimonious debate. At the crux of the current debate is the
idea that Islam is somehow opposed to the process of globalisation. [I would
say] this debate should more accurately be deemed as a debate between Islam
and Westernisation. I argue that Islam is not against the process of globalisation
per se, but rather that the tension is due to the process of Westernisation.
‘Globalisation targets the narrowing of the gaps separating different
communities. This is done by exchanging benefits in all aspects of life –
economic, social, scientific, and political governance. That is, they exchange
information, understand each other’s values and codes of ethics and build a
common ground.’6 In contrast, Westernisation does not consider such an
understanding or building of such common ground to be worthwhile enterprises.
5
6
http://www.islam-online.net
http://www.islam-online.net
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Globalisation is a process in which ‘the whole world becomes like a small
village, where the less advanced communities can develop their capacities’ and
that ‘tends to be a two-way street process, which makes it possible for each
community to take as well as to give.’7
(M. Miasami, ‘Islam and globalisation’, Fountain, issue 43, August 2003)
Many Muslims object to Westernisation as they feel that it doesn’t promote an
exchange of ideas; it simply spreads its own ideas.
International aid: Is international aid an appropriate moral
response to world poverty?
Muslims believe that international aid is only one way the world’s poor can be helped.
While the governments of Muslim countries, like those of non-Muslim countries, send
money to help peoples of the world who are experiencing hardship, Muslims believe
international aid is not the only appropriate response to world poverty.
Islamic thought stipulates clearly that every individual has a responsibility to alleviate
poverty throughout the world. In response to poverty, Islam has prescribed some
mechanisms such as Zakat, which is a tax of 2.5% per year on the total accumulated
wealth of every Muslim. Zakat makes up one of the five key pillars of Islamic practice
and wisdom for Muslims. The annual Zakat should also be charged, at a specified rate,
on cattle owned by anyone who has more than a certain minimum number. The
amount of Zakat collected each year is spent on the poor, the orphans and the needy in
Islamic society. The giving of compulsory tax (Zakat) and voluntary contributions
(Sadaqah) are a means of building a closer relationship with God and humanity and of
cleansing the soul of sin. This system aims to provide a means of social insurance
whereby everyone in an Islamic society is provided with at least the necessities of life.
There are many Muslim international relief organisations which aim to provide
immediate aid, and also help with development, in areas of need around the world. For
example, Islamic Relief is a charity that works throughout the world to help the poor.
It was founded in 1984. Much of the work of Islamic Relief is aimed at helping those
who are the victims of natural disasters or war. The work includes giving emergency
help, such as medicine, food and shelter, in times of need. The organisation also helps
to provide education and health care, and encourages people to sponsor orphans. The
Red Crescent is another organisation that helps those in need of emergency care or
those affected by famine. The Red Crescent is the Muslim branch of the Red Cross.
7
http://www.islam-online.net
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MEDICAL ETHICS
Section 4: Medical ethics
Genetic engineering: Can any form of human genetic engineering be
morally justified?
Muslims are divided on whether genetic engineering can be justified. Many Muslims
believe that only Allah can decide the genetic make-up of a human being. A child born
into the world is as God intended, and any attempt to alter this process is against
Allah’s will. However, there are Muslims who believe that every step should be taken
to help those who are suffering and alleviate pain. The Qur’an clearly encourages
Muslims to help others.
…if any one saved a life, it would be as if he saved the life of the whole people.
(Qur’an 5:32 )
For many Muslims, genetic engineering is an acceptable method of curing illness and
saving lives. Muslims accept research on embryos as they do not believe that embryos
are living beings until the soul has been ‘breathed in’ by Allah. Some Muslims believe
that this is 42 days into the development of the embryo; others believe that it is 120
days. Muslims will allow the use of embryos which are left over from IVF treatment,
but they do not believe embryos should be created specially for the purpose of
research.
Cloning is the technique of producing a genetically identical duplicate of an organism.
Muslims believe that, from conception to the point of death, human life is a divine act
in Islam. There is no scope for replication:
We created you out of dust, then out of sperm, then out of a leech-like clot, then
out of a morsel of flesh, partly formed and partly unformed, in order that We
may manifest (our power) to you; and We cause whom We will to rest in the
wombs for an appointed term.
(Qur’an 22:5)
However, Muslims also believe that if cloning was to become successful one day then
it would be in accordance with divine will. It would not compromise the beliefs of
Muslims, as the primary materials, namely the somatic cell and the unfertilised egg,
are both a result of the handiwork of God. Some Muslims do support therapeutic
cloning if it is done for the purpose of saving lives.
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MEDICAL ETHICS
Muslims are concerned about the impact of cloning on the family involved. Who are
the parents of a cloned child? A child born from a process of cloning would be robbed
of ancestral roots, and this would undermine the Islamic laws of inheritance. Therefore
the majority of Islamic law councils are against cloning in any form.
Euthanasia: Can any forms of euthanasia be morally justified?
Muslims are completely opposed to euthanasia. Life does not belong to people. It is on
loan from God and only He has a right to take it away. People who kill themselves or
help another to die are interfering with Allah’s will. Allah decides the length of time
that a person will live.
In the Qur’an it is clearly stated: ‘Nor take life – which Allah has made sacred –
except for just cause’ (Qur’an 17:33). The Prophet Muhammad spoke of a man who
was injured in battle. The man was so badly injured that he cut his own wrists in order
to die more quickly. Muhammad said that Allah spoke these words to him: ‘My Slave
hurried in the matter of his life therefore he is deprived of the garden (Paradise).’
Muslims believe that the fate of this man is also the fate of those who commit suicide
or euthanasia.
Muslims believe that they should accept all that God gives to them as part of their
submission. Allah does not test people with more than they can endure. Illness is part
of the challenges that God gives, which are part of the test of life. People must
experience death with patience and faith. It is the responsibility of others to do all they
can to help a dying person, and to alleviate suffering, but that should be in the form of
comfort and medicine, not death.
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WAR AND PEACE
Section 5: War and peace
Responses to war: Is war ever morally justifiable?
Muslims seek peaceful means to ending conflicts and disputes. However, they will
support war in some circumstances. Imam Dr Jalil Sajid, a UK-based Islamic scholar
and political scientist, states:
Islam permits fighting in self-defence, in defence of religion, or on the part of
those who have been expelled forcibly from their homes. It lays down strict
rules of combat that include prohibitions against harming civilians and against
destroying crops, trees and livestock. For Muslims, injustice would be
triumphant in the world if good people were not prepared to risk their lives in a
righteous cause.
(www.preparingforpeace.org/sajid_islam_and_ethics_of_war_and_peace.htm)
For Muslims the Qur’an declared:
Fight in the cause of Allah those who fight you, but do not transgress limits; for
Allah loveth not transgressors
(Qur’an 2:190)
And fight them on until there is no more Tumult or oppression, and there prevail
justice and faith in Allah. But if they cease, let there be no hostility except to
those who practise oppression
(Qur’an 2:193)
But if the enemy incline towards peace, do thou (also) incline towards peace,
and trust in Allah. For He is One that heareth and knoweth all things
(Qur’an 8:61)
War is therefore the last resort, and is subject to the rigorous conditions laid down by
the sacred law of the Shariah. The Qur’an supports a war against injustice:
And why should ye not fight in the cause of Allah and of those who, being
weak, are ill-treated (and oppressed)? – Men, women, and children, whose cry
is: ‘Our Lord! Rescue us from this town, whose people are oppressors; and raise
for us from thee one who will protect; and raise for us from thee one who will
help!’
(Qur’an 4:75)
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The aim of war according to the Qur’an is not to spread Islam, nor is it to expand the
territory of the Islamic State or to dominate, politically or militarily, non-Muslim
regions. The obligation to protect the right of Muslims, and all religious communities,
to promote their beliefs and values should be carried out through peaceful means and
in a friendly manner. Muslims believe that they should not use violence to force
people to accept Islam. Religion is a matter of choice: people should be free to accept
or reject Islam.
The often misunderstood and overused term ‘Jihad’ literally means ‘struggle’, not
‘holy war’ (a term not found anywhere in the Qur’an, Hadith or in the Shariah law).
Jihad, as an Islamic concept, can be: an inner struggle against evil within oneself; a
struggle for decency and goodness on the social level; or a struggle on the battlefield,
if and when necessary.
Modern armaments: Can the use of any types of modern armaments
be morally justified?
When war is justified through Islamic law, the use of weapons and arms is inevitable.
Muslims throughout history used a variety of arms in warfare. In Islamic history we
read about battles that took days to complete because of the long process of war that
was conducted with fairly simple weapons such as daggers or bow and arrows. In the
contemporary world we have seen a great boom in modern armaments, and many
nations of the world pride themselves on having their own source of modern
armaments. For the warrior it was an achievement if their simple arrow killed an
enemy but today a touch of a lethal button can detonate nuclear weapons, devastating
the lives not just of one person but of many thousands at a time, and also leaving
remnants for future generations to suffer. The American nuclear bombs dropped on
Nagasaki and Hiroshima in 1945 caused extensive damage and destruction at that time
but caused a rippling effect in years to come also.
Because of the sanctity and sacredness of life, a Muslim aims to minimise destruction
and chaos on earth in view of the life hereafter. God’s wrath becomes a central
guiding factor in the actions of the warrior. Modern warfare and armaments may well
have benefits in promoting justice, but they also carry enormous danger. The use of
high-tech missiles and fighter jets would allow the destruction of the enemy in a
matter of moments, but they can also cause serious collateral damage. Islamic law
clearly stipulates that women, children and animals must be protected during warfare,
but this protection is difficult to uphold when a nation is being sprayed with cluster
bombs. Muslims also oppose the use of biological and chemical weapons because of
the devastating impact on civilians.
As modern armaments can cause widespread suffering of innocent human beings,
wildlife and animals, this clearly contravenes Islamic law. Every Muslim is obligated
to uphold the rights of God and the rights of their fellow human being. A Muslim must
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WAR AND PEACE
obey God’s sacred law, which aims to guide a God-fearing human being in becoming
a ‘good’ human being. When a Muslim achieves this they will remain committed to
protecting rather than destroying society.
However, it must be acknowledged that many Muslim countries do pride themselves
on possessing modern and up-to-date armaments. Pakistan became the first and
(currently) only Muslim country to possess nuclear weapons, which some argued was
not something to be proud of. Some other Muslim countries have attempted to follow
suit but with little support from the international community. Saddam Hussein’s
regime in Iraq was overthrown based on the assumption that he had ‘weapons of mass
destruction’. Iran has recently come under the wrath of the international community
for stating its commitment to producing nuclear power, which it says is solely to be
used as an alternative energy source, but which would also enable the enrichment of
uranium to produce devastating nuclear weapons.
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