Chapter 10 Rogers: Person-Centered Theory
Chapter 10
Rogers: Person-Centered Theory
Learning Objectives
After reading Chapter10, you should be able to:
1.
Identify the formative and actualizing tendencies.
2.
Discuss Rogers' concept of self and its development.
3.
State the basic needs of individuals according to person-centered
theory.
4.
Distinguish among self, self-actualization, self-concept, and ideal
self.
5.
List and describe Rogers' necessary and sufficient conditions for
psychological growth.
6.
Discuss the concept of the person of tomorrow and its implications
for future humanity.
7.
Discuss Rogers' philosophy of science.
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Chapter 10 Rogers: Person-Centered Theory
8.
Discuss the methods, procedures, and results of Rogers' research on
the effectiveness of client-centered therapy.
9.
Discuss research on Rogers' facilitative conditions in situations
outside the therapeutic relationship.
10. Critique Rogers' person-centered theory on the six criteria of a
useful theory.
I.
Overview of Rogers's Person-Centered Theory
Although Carl Rogers is best known as the founder of clientcentered therapy, he also developed an important theory of
personality that underscores his approach to therapy.
II.
Biography of Carl Rogers
Carl Rogers was born into a devoutly religious family in a
Chicago suburb in 1902. After the family moved to a nearby farm,
Carl became interested in scientific farming and learned to
appreciate the scientific method. When he graduated from the
University of Wisconsin, Rogers intended to become a minister,
but he gave up that notion and completed a PhD in psychology
from Columbia University in 1931. In 1940, after nearly a dozen
years away from an academic life working as a clinician, he took a
position at Ohio State University. Later, he held positions at the
University of Chicago and the University of Wisconsin. In 1964,
he moved to California, where he helped found the Center for
Studies of the Person. He died in 1987 at age 85.
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Chapter 10 Rogers: Person-Centered Theory
III.
Person-Centered Theory
Rogers carefully crafted his person-centered theory of personality
to meet his own demands for a structural model that could explain
and predict outcomes of client-centered therapy. However, the
theory has implications far beyond the therapeutic setting.
A. Basic Assumptions
Person-centered theory rests on two basic assumptions: (1) the
formative tendency that states that all matter, both organic and
inorganic, tends to evolve from simpler to more complex forms
and (2) an actualizing tendency, which suggests that all living
things, including humans, tend to move toward completion, or
fulfillment of potentials. However, in order for people (or plants
and animals) to become actualized, certain identifiable conditions
must be present. For a person, these conditions include a
relationship with another person who is genuine, or congruent, and
who demonstrates complete acceptance and empathy for that
person.
B. The Self and Self-Actualization
A sense of self or personal identity begins to emerge during
infancy, and once established, it allows a person to strive toward
self-actualization, which is a subsystem of the actualization
tendency and refers to the tendency to actualize the self as
perceived in awareness. The self has two subsystems: (1) the selfconcept, which includes all those aspects of one's identity that are
perceived in awareness, and (2) the ideal self, or our view of our
self as we would like to be or aspire to be. Once formed, the self
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Chapter 10 Rogers: Person-Centered Theory
concept tends to resist change, and gaps between it and the ideal
self result in incongruence and various levels of psychopathology.
C. Awareness
People are aware of both their self-concept and their ideal self,
although awareness need not be accurate. For example, people
may have an inflated view of their ideal self but only a vague
sense of their self-concept. Rogers saw people as having
experiences on three levels of awareness: (1) those that are
symbolized below the threshold of awareness and are ignored,
denied, or not allowed into the self-concept; (2) those that are
distorted or reshaped to fit it into an existing self-concept; and (3)
those that are consistent with the self-concept and thus are
accurately symbolized and freely admitted to the self-structure.
Any experience not consistent with the self-concept—even
positive experiences—will be distorted or denied.
D. Needs
The two basic human needs are maintenance and enhancement, but
people also need positive regard and self-regard. Maintenance
needs include those for food, air, and safety, but they also include
our tendency to resist change and to maintain our self-concept as it
is. Enhancement needs include needs to grow and to realize one's
full human potential. As awareness of self emerges, an infant
begins to receive positive regard from another person, that is, to be
loved or accepted. People naturally value those experiences that
satisfy their needs for positive regard, but unfortunately, this value
sometimes becomes more powerful than the reward they receive
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Chapter 10 Rogers: Person-Centered Theory
for meeting their organismic needs. This sets up the condition of
incongruence, which is experienced when basic organismic needs
are denied or distorted in favor of needs to be loved or accepted.
As a result of experiences with positive regard, people develop the
need for self-regard which they acquire only after they perceive
that someone else cares for them and values them. Once
established, however, self-regard becomes autonomous and no
longer dependent on another person's continuous positive
evaluation.
E. Conditions of Worth
Most people are not unconditionally accepted. Instead, they
receive conditions of worth; that is, they feel that they are loved
and accepted only when and if they meet the conditions set by
others.
F. Psychological Stagnation
When the organismic self and the self-concept are at variance with
one another, a person may experience incongruence, anxiety,
threat, defensiveness, and even disorganization. The greater the
incongruence between self-concept and the organismic experience,
the more vulnerable that person becomes. Anxiety exists
whenever the person becomes dimly aware of the discrepancy
between organismic experience and self-concept, whereas threat is
experienced whenever the person becomes more clearly aware of
this incongruence. To prevent incongruence, people react with
defensiveness, typically in the forms of distortion and denial.
With distortion, people misinterpret an experience so that it fits
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Chapter 10 Rogers: Person-Centered Theory
into their self-concept; with denial, people refuse to allow the
experience into awareness. When people's defenses fail to operate
properly, their behavior becomes disorganized or psychotic. With
disorganization, people sometimes behave consistently with their
organismic experience, and sometimes in accordance with their
shattered self-concept.
IV.
Psychotherapy
For client-centered psychotherapy to be effective, six conditions
are necessary: (1) A vulnerable client must (2) have contact of
some duration with a counselor who is (3) congruent and who
demonstrates (4) unconditional positive regard and who (5) listens
with empathy to a client. In addition, the client must (6) perceives
the congruence, unconditional positive regard, and empathy. If
these conditions are present, then the process of therapy will take
place and certain predictable outcomes will result.
A. Conditions
Three of these conditions are crucial to client-centered therapy,
and Rogers called them the necessary and sufficient conditions for
therapeutic growth. The first is counselor congruence, or a
therapist whose organismic experiences are matched by an
awareness and by the ability and willingness to openly express
these feelings. Congruence is more basic than the other two
conditions because it is a relatively stable characteristic of the
therapist, whereas the other two conditions are limited to a specific
therapeutic relationship. Unconditional positive regard exists
when the therapist accepts and prizes the client without conditions
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Chapter 10 Rogers: Person-Centered Theory
or qualifications. Empathic listening is the ability of the therapist
to sense the feeling of a client and also to communicate these
perceptions so that the client knows that another person has
entered into his or her world of feelings without prejudice,
projection, or evaluation.
B. Process
Rogers saw the process of therapeutic change as taking place in
seven stages: (1) clients are unwilling to communicate anything
about themselves; (2) they discuss only external events and other
people; (3) they begin to talk about themselves, but still as an
object; (4) they discuss strong emotions that they have felt in the
past; (5) they begin to express present feelings; (6) they freely
allow into awareness those experiences that were previously
denied or distorted; and (7) they experience irreversible change
and growth.
C. Outcomes
When client-centered therapy is successful, clients become more
congruent, less defensive, more open to experience, and more
realistic. The gap between their ideal self and their true self
narrows and as a consequence, clients experience less
physiological and psychological tension. Finally, clients'
interpersonal relationships improve because they are more
accepting of self and others.
V.
The Person of Tomorrow
If people receive the three necessary and sufficient conditions for
psychological health person, then they will grow toward becoming
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Chapter 10 Rogers: Person-Centered Theory
the "fully functioning person" or the "person of tomorrow."
Rogers listed seven characteristics of the person of tomorrow.
First, persons of tomorrow would be more adaptable and more
flexible in their thinking. Second, they would be open to their
experiences, accurately symbolizing them in awareness rather than
denying or distorting them. Persons of tomorrow would listen to
themselves and hear their joy, anger, discouragement, fear, and
tenderness. A third characteristic would be a tendency to live fully
in the moment, experiencing a constant state of fluidity and
change. They would see each experience with a new freshness and
appreciate it fully in the present moment. Rogers (1961) referred
to this tendency to live in the moment as existential living. Fourth,
persons of tomorrow would remain confident of their own ability
to experience harmonious relations with others. They would feel
no need to be liked or loved by everyone, because they would
know that they are unconditionally prized and accepted by
someone. Fifth, they would be more integrated, more whole, with
no artificial boundary between conscious processes and
unconscious ones. Because they would be able to accurately
symbolize all their experiences in awareness, they would see
clearly the difference between what is and what should be. Sixth,
persons of tomorrow would have a basic trust of human nature.
They would experience anger, frustration, depression, and other
negative emotions, but they would be able to express rather than
repress these feelings. Finally, because persons of tomorrow are
open to all their experiences, they would enjoy a greater richness
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Chapter 10 Rogers: Person-Centered Theory
in life than do other people. They would live in the present and
thus participate more richly in the ongoing moment.
VI.
Philosophy of Science
Rogers agreed with Maslow that scientists must care about the
phenomena they study and that psychologists should limit their
objectivity and precision to their methodology, not to the creation
of hypotheses or to the communication of research findings.
VII. The Chicago Studies
When he taught at the University of Chicago and again at the
University of Wisconsin, Rogers along with colleagues and
graduate students conducted an experimental investigation on the
effectiveness of psychotherapy. These studies, though now old,
remain as some of the best designed and most sophisticated of all
such investigations.
A. Hypotheses
This study at the University of Chicago tested four broad
hypotheses. As a consequence of therapy (1) clients will become
more aware of their feelings and experiences, (2) the gap between
the real self and the ideal self will lessen; (3) clients' behavior will
become more socialized; and (4) clients will become both more
self-accepting and more accepting of others.
B. Method
Participants were adults who sought therapy at the University of
Chicago counseling center. Experimenters asked half of them to
wait 60 days before receiving therapy while beginning therapy
with the other half. In addition, they tested a control group of
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Chapter 10 Rogers: Person-Centered Theory
"normals" who were matched with the therapy group. This control
group was also divided into a wait group and a non-wait group.
C. Findings
Rogers and his associates found that the therapy group—but not
the wait group—showed a lessening of the gap between real self
and ideal self. They also found that clients who improved during
therapy showed changes in social behavior, as reported by their
friends.
D. Summary of Results
Although client-centered therapy was successful in changing
clients, it was not successful in bringing them to the level of the
fully functioning persons or even to the level of "normal"
psychological health.
VIII. Related Research
More recently, other researchers have investigated Rogers'
facilitative conditions both outside therapy and within therapy.
A. Self-Ideal, Congruence, and Mental Health: SelfDiscrepancy Theory
In the 1980s, E. Tory Higgins developed a version of Rogers'
model called self-discrepancy theory. Higgins hypothesized that
individuals with high levels of self-discrepancy were most likely
to experience high levels of negative affect in their lives, such as
anxiety and depression. Ann Phillips and Paul Silvia (2005)
predicted that the negative emotion experienced from either realideal or real-ought discrepancies would be greatest when people
are more self-aware or self-focused. Their hypothesis was
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Chapter 10 Rogers: Person-Centered Theory
supported by their findings when they compared participants
completing their questionnaires in front of a mirror to participants
without a mirror.
Other researchers have found that college students with a high
discrepancy between real and ideal self-perceptions tended to
drink more alcohol in a controlled setting (Wolfe & Maisto,
2000). Others applied Higgins’ self-discrepancy theory to eating
disorders (Veale, Kinderman, Riley, & Lambrou, 2003), and to
general mental health (Liao & Fan, 2003). In general, these
results supported Rogers' notion that people whose ideal self is at
variance with their real self may turn to unhealthy behaviors as a
means of coping with this discrepancy.
B. Motivation and Pursuit of Goals
Rogers proposed (1951) that we all have an organismic valuing
process (OVP), or a natural instinct guiding us toward the most
fulfilling pursuits. Ken Sheldon and colleagues (2003) explored
the existence of an OVP in college students. Their hypothesis that
if people have an OVP, over time they will rate more inherently
fulfilling goals as more desirable than materialistic goals, was
supported by their findings. Schwartz and Waterman found from
their longitudinal study (2006) that the more self-realizing
experiences people have, the more intrinsic motivation they are
likely to experience, just as Carl Rogers would have predicted.
IX. Critique of Rogers
Rogers' person-centered theory is one of the most carefully
constructed of all personality theories, and it meets quite well
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Chapter 10 Rogers: Person-Centered Theory
each of the six criteria of a useful theory. It rates very high on
internal consistency and parsimony, high on its ability to be
falsified and to generate research, and high average on its ability
to organize knowledge and to serve as a guide to the practitioner.
X.
Concept of Humanity
Rogers believed that humans have the capacity to change and
grow—provided that certain necessary and sufficient conditions
are present. Therefore, his theory rates very high on optimism. In
addition, it rates high on free choice, teleology, conscious
motivation, social influences, and the uniqueness of the individual.
Test Items
Fill-in-the-Blanks
1.
Rogers wanted to be a ______________________ after he
graduated from the University of Wisconsin, but he switched to
psychology when he went to Columbia University.
2.
Rogers's system of therapy is called ______________________,
and his theory of personality can be called person-centered.
3.
The ______________________ tendency suggests that all matter
tends to evolve from simpler to more complex forms.
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Chapter 10 Rogers: Person-Centered Theory
4.
The ______________________ tendency suggests that people tend
to move toward completion or fulfillment of potentials.
5.
A state of ________________________ exists when the organismic
self, the perceived self, and the ideal self are in harmony.
6.
To Rogers, the real self and the __________________ self are the
same concept.
7.
Rogers believed that each of us has an _____________________
self, that is, a picture of our self as we would wish to be.
8.
Discrepancies between the _________________________ and the
organismic self results in incongruence.
9.
A discrepancy between self-concept and organismic experiences is
called ____________________.
10. People often deny or ____________________ both positive and
negative experiences because these experiences threaten an
established self-concept.
11. All of us, Rogers said, have a need for ______________________,
that is, a feeling of self-confidence and self-worth.
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Chapter 10 Rogers: Person-Centered Theory
12. We experience ______________________ of worth whenever a
significant other accepts only our positive behaviors and traits.
13. The need for _______________________ would include the need
for food, sleep, and the tendency to resist change.
14. The need for ________________________ includes the need to
grow, to develop, and to become a more fully-functioning person.
15. The first condition for therapeutic growth is that a
_____________________ client comes into contact with a
congruent therapist.
16. A _____________________ person is one whose organismic
experiences are matched by an awareness of them and a willingness
to communicate them honestly.
17. Unconditional ____________________________ exists when the
therapist prizes the client regardless of the client's behavior.
18. A state of ______________________ exists when therapists
accurately sense the feelings of their clients and are able to
communicate these perceptions so that the clients know that another
person is on their wavelength.
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Chapter 10 Rogers: Person-Centered Theory
19. According to Rogers, _____________________ living is the
tendency to live in the moment.
20. The issues of freedom and control of human behavior were at the
heart of a series of debates between Rogers and
________________________.
True-False
______1. Carl Rogers' parents were teachers, and they encouraged him
to become a teacher.
_____ 2. Rogers's theory of personality grew out of his experiences as a
psychotherapist.
______3. Rogers' approach to psychotherapy is most accurately called
nondirective.
______4. As a schoolboy, Rogers became interested in scientific
farming, an interest that contributed to his later research
abilities.
______5. After receiving his PhD, Rogers spent more than 10 years in
clinical practice, mostly isolated from the academic
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Chapter 10 Rogers: Person-Centered Theory
community, and this isolation helped him develop an approach
to therapy that was unique.
______6. According to Rogers, all living organisms possess the
actualizing tendency.
______7. Once the self-concept is formed, change becomes difficult.
______8. Self-actualization is a subsystem of the actualizing tendency.
______9. In Rogerian theory, the actualizing tendency refers to the
person's organismic or physiological experiences.
_____10. Rogers believed that healthy people adjust their organismic
self in order to make it congruent with their ideal self.
_____11. Receiving praise or compliments can be threatening to a
person's self-concept.
_____12. Maintenance needs include the need to resist change.
_____13. After people have established unconditional positive selfregard, they no longer depend on others for unconditional
positive regard.
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Chapter 10 Rogers: Person-Centered Theory
_____14. Rogers held that healthy people evaluate their experience from
the viewpoint of significant others.
_____15. According to Rogers, people with low self-worth who receive
positive external evaluations will assimilate these evaluations
into their self-concept, and thus will grow toward
psychological health.
_____16. According to Rogers, a vulnerable person is unaware of the
discrepancy between self and experience.
_____17. Rogers was more interested in building a theory than in
conducting psychotherapy.
_____18. The three necessary conditions for therapeutic growth, Rogers
believed, are counselor congruence, unconditional positive
regard, and empathic listening.
_____19. Rogers believed that when client-centered therapy is
successful, clients become their own therapists.
_____20. A strong criticism of Rogers' theory is that it has not produced
any research.
Multiple Choice
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Chapter 10 Rogers: Person-Centered Theory
_____ 1. At the height of his career, Rogers engaged in a series of
debates with
a. George Kelly.
b. Carl Jung.
c. B.F. Skinner.
d. Albert Bandura.
______2. As a young boy, Rogers
a
was shy and frequently teased by his older brothers and sisters.
b. spent 2 years in a detention home for wayward boys.
c. wanted to be a physician.
d. held deep-seated animosity toward his mother.
______3. Rogers described the formative tendency as the tendency for
a. humans to form intimate interpersonal relationships.
b. matter to evolve from simpler to more complex form.
c. people to strive toward self-actualization.
d. people to return to an inorganic state.
______4. Rogers believed that all behavior relates to one's
a. enhancement needs.
b. ideal self.
c. safety needs.
d. actualizing tendency.
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Chapter 10 Rogers: Person-Centered Theory
______5. Healthy people evaluate their experiences as good or bad
according to this criterion.
a. the self-concept
b. perceived self
c. reflected appraisal of others
d. the actualizing tendency
______6. In Rogerian theory, the actualization tendency
a. is synonymous with the formative tendency.
b. has the same or nearly the same meaning as self-actualization.
c. refers to the person's organismic experiences.
d. refers to the tendency to actualize the perceived self.
______7. Inner tension arises, Rogers said, when a conflict exists
between the
a. self-actualization tendency and the organismic self.
b. emotion and cognition.
c. the values of others and one's own values.
d. the formative tendency and the actualization tendency.
______8. A discrepancy between the self-concept and the ideal self
results in
a. ego defense mechanisms.
b. safe-guarding tendencies.
c. the person of tomorrow.
d. incongruence.
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Chapter 10 Rogers: Person-Centered Theory
_____9. Taylor's parents praise her whenever her behavior meets with
their standards. However, they punish Taylor when her
behavior fails to meet with their approval. From this
information it appears that Taylor is experiencing
a. low self-esteem.
b. conditions of worth.
c. disorganization.
d. high self-esteem.
_____10. Tyler has a negative view of himself. To increase his selfconcept, his parents and teachers continually praise and
compliment him. Rogers believed that such praise and
compliments are most likely to
a. enhance Tyler's self-esteem.
b. reinforce Tyler's negative behavior.
c. be easily accepted into Tyler's self-concept.
d. be distorted by Tyler.
_____11. According to Rogers, the two basic human needs are
a. sex and safety.
b. self-actualization and self-enhancement.
c. power and submission.
d. maintenance and enhancement.
_____12. Rogers believed that, for psychologically healthy individuals,
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Chapter 10 Rogers: Person-Centered Theory
a. the self and experience are congruent.
b. denial of organismic functioning is essential.
c. the ideal self replaces the real self.
d. an incongruence exists between their organismic self and their
ideal self.
_____13. Which statement is consistent with Rogers' theory?
a. Self-regard is originally dependent on self-concept.
b. Once achieved, self-regard can exist independently of others'
opinions and attitudes.
c. Self-regard is symptomatic of malignant egoism.
d. Self-regard stems from the negative appraisals received from
others.
_____14. An unawareness of a discrepancy between self and experience
leads to
a. psychological health.
b. anxiety.
c. threat.
d. vulnerability.
e. guilt.
_____15. According to Rogers, the two primary defensive strategies are
______.
a. repression and denial
b. repression and reaction formation
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Chapter 10 Rogers: Person-Centered Theory
c. denial and distortion
d. repression and regression
_____16. Rogers believed that a person with a disorganized personality
may at times behave consistently with organismic experience
and at other times consistently with
a. the ideal self.
b. others' expectations.
c. the shattered self-concept.
d. the actualizing tendency.
_____17. Rogers hypothesized that empathy, unconditional positive
regard, and congruence are
a. necessary and sufficient conditions for therapy.
b. necessary but not sufficient conditions for therapy.
c. sufficient but not necessary conditions for therapy.
d. neither necessary nor sufficient for therapy.
_____18. In the Chicago studies,
a. clients who received no therapy experienced the same level of
growth as did the clients in the therapy group.
b. clients who received no therapy received no psychological
growth.
c. Carl Rogers was the sole therapist.
d. all the therapist were graduate students.
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Chapter 10 Rogers: Person-Centered Theory
_____19. Clients are better able to listen to themselves when the
therapist possesses
a. sympathy for them.
b. empathy for them.
c. conditions of worth toward them.
d. a professional attitude toward them.
_____20. Rogers hypothesized that persons of tomorrow would
a. mistrust others.
b. be free of psychological conflict.
c. be open to their experience.
d. reach a high-level stage where continued change was
unnecessary.
_____21. In the Chicago studies, Rogers and his associates found that
a. clients who received client-centered therapy became fully
functioning.
b. empathy, unconditional positive regard, and congruence were
neither necessary nor sufficient.
c. clients who received client-centered therapy improved, but
they did not reach an "average" level of psychological
functioning.
d. clients who received cognitive behavior therapy showed no
gain.
_____ 22. Which statement is most consistent with Rogers' concept of
humanity?
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Chapter 10 Rogers: Person-Centered Theory
a. People have a natural tendency to move toward actualization.
b. People move inevitably toward actualization.
c. People move inevitably toward self-actualization.
d. People are free to become what they will.
Short Answer
1. Compare Rogers' concepts of the formative tendency and the
actualizing tendency.
2. Discuss Rogers' concept of self-actualization.
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Chapter 10 Rogers: Person-Centered Theory
3. Define conditions of worth.
4. List and briefly explain the "necessary and sufficient" conditions for
psychological growth.
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Chapter 10 Rogers: Person-Centered Theory
5. Define incongruence and discuss how a person might become
incongruent.
6. Discuss implications for the future if Rogers' view of the person of
tomorrow is realized.
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Chapter 10 Rogers: Person-Centered Theory
Answers
Fill-in-the-Blanks
True-False
Multiple Choice
1.
minister
1.
F
1.
c
2.
client-centered
2.
T
2.
a
3.
formative
3.
F
3.
b
4.
actualization
4.
T
4.
d
5.
congruence
5.
T
5.
d
6.
organismic
6.
T
6.
c
7.
ideal
7.
T
7.
a
8.
self-concept
8.
T
8.
d
9.
incongruence
9.
T
9.
b
10.
distort
10.
F
10.
d
11.
self-regard
11.
T
11.
d
12.
conditions
12.
T
12.
a
13.
maintenance
13.
T
13.
b
14.
enhancement
14.
F
14.
d
15.
vulnerable
15.
F
15.
c
16.
congruent
16.
T
16.
c
17.
positive regard
17.
F
17.
a
18.
empathy
18.
T
18.
b
19.
existential
19.
T
19.
b
20.
control (freedom)
20.
F
20.
c
21.
c
22.
a
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