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ZOO TECHNOLOGY PROGRAM
ANIMAL BEHAVIOR AND BREEDING
ANIMAL BEHAVIOR AND BREEDING
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction to Module I
Objectives – Module I – Animal Behavior
Pre-Test – Animal Behavior
Pre-Test Answer Key
Animal Behavior Text Material
Animal Behavior Learning Activity
Module I Post Test
Module I Post Test Answer Key
Module I Conclusion
3
4
5
7
9
32
33
37
41
Introduction to Module II
Objectives – Module II – Breeding and Reproduction
Pre-Test – Breeding and Reproduction
Pre-Test Answer Key
Breeding and Reproduction of Zoo Animals
Text Material
Learning Activity
Breeding Strategies Text Material
Module II Post Test
Post Test Answer Key
Module II Conclusion
42
43
44
46
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48
52
53
55
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INTRODUCTION
Animal behavior includes feeding behavior, maintenance behavior, responses to
predators or prey, play and of course activity that leads to reproduction. Because
a great part of the reproductive process involves behavior, we have included
breeding with this course.
The entry-level zookeeper needs to be alert to the body language and posturing
of animals. Everything from a greeting, to play, to aggression and fear can often
be recognized by observing ear position and body posture. Thus, interpretation
of animal behavior becomes a component of keeper safety. Observation permits
keepers to be aware of hostilities between exhibit mates before wounding or
serious injury results and gives keepers a chance to be proactive in preventing
problems related to behavior.
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MODULE 1
Animal Behavior
Terminal Objectives:
Upon completion of this module, you should be able to:
1.
Recognize the meaning of, and be able to record, various types of body
language in zoo animals,
2.
Be aware of instinctive and learned zoo animal behavior,
3.
Be able to apply this knowledge for the safety of both keepers and
animals.
Enabling Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
Be able to describe the difference between psychology and ethology.
Understand the difference between instinct and learned behavior.
Recognize the role of specific releasers in triggering particular behavior
patterns.
Look for and be able to recognize displacement activity and vacuum
activity in zoo species.
Be aware of how habituation of zoo species can make your work safer.
Appreciate that among social species a distress call by one member may
elicit attack by other members of the group.
Be sensitive to the ways territories are defended.
Be cognizant of and know how critical distance, breeding behavior and
feeding behavior can impact your contact with zoo species.
Recognize such innate forms of behavior as kinesis, taxes, instinct,
reflexes and fixed action patterns and be aware of their survival value to
organisms.
Be aware of such learned behavior as imprinting, habituation, classical
and operant conditioning, experience and insight or reasoning and know
how these may influence your working with zoo animals.
Recognize categories of behavior you might use in recording animal
behavior.
Be able to interpret animal’s body language for representative species.
Be aware of the tendency of certain territorial behavior patterns and know
when they develop.
Understand predator-prey relationships and how this knowledge can
assist you in working with predators.
Understand the benefits of social rank in some species groups.
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Pre-Test Animal Behavior
T or F 1.
An inherited behavior or pattern of response is called a reflex.
T or F 2.
Behavior that involves movement toward or away from a stimulus is
termed taxes.
T or F 3.
The suppression of response to a repeated harmless stimulus is
known as habituation.
T or F 4.
Insight or reasoning is the basis for trial and error learning.
T or F 5.
Operant conditioning involves a genetically programmed form of
learning in which a newly hatched or newborn learns to identify with
its species within a finite time by following or being exposed to
stimuli it learns to identify.
T or F 6.
Basic written observations of zoo animal behavior can often be of
benefit to zoo staff.
T or F 7.
Behavioral records should always include the time and date of the
observation.
T or F 8.
Expressional behavior or body language is used in a minimal
amount by zoo animals.
T or F 9.
Habitat could be considered analogous to an animal’s address,
niche to its occupation.
T or F 10.
A territory is the area within the species range occupied by an
animal or group of animals.
T or F 11.
Because animals come to feel secure within their enclosures, those
that have escaped confinement will often try to return to their
enclosure if given the opportunity.
T or F 12.
Biological rank recognizes dominance within a species.
T or F 13.
Social rank has to do with the position of dominance an animal
holds in a species whereas social behavior modifies the way
animals live together and communicate.
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T or F 14.
Ethology is the study of the interrelationships of organisms and
their environment.
T or F 15.
Poikilothermic vertebrates tend to have more temperature induced
activity restrictions than do homiotherms.
T or F 16.
All primates customarily pick up food in their hands to feed.
T or F 17.
Gibbons do not lap water.
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Pre-Test - Animal Behavior – Answer Key
F 1.
An inherited behavior pattern is called an instinct.
T 2.
Behavior that involves movement toward or away from a stimulus is
termed taxes.
T 3.
The suppression of response to a repeated harmless stimulus is
known as habituation.
F 4.
Experience is the basis of trial and error learning.
F 5.
Imprinting involves a genetically programmed form of learning in
which a newly hatched or newborn animal learns to identify with its
species within a finite time by following or being exposed to stimuli
it learns to identify.
T 6.
Basic written observations of zoo animal behavior can often be of
benefit to zoo staff.
T 7.
Behavioral records should always include the time and date the
observation was made.
F 8.
Expressional behavior or body language is the major way zoo
animals communicate.
T 9.
Habitat could be considered analogous to an animal’s address,
niche to its occupation.
F 10.
A territory is the area within a group’s or an animal’s range that is
defended from other members of the same or different species.
T 11.
Because animals come to feel secure within their enclosures, those
that have escaped confinement will often try to return to their
enclosure if given the opportunity.
F 12.
Biological rank exists when a dominance exists between different
species for feeding, watering or occupancy sites.
T 13.
Social rank has to do with the position of dominance an animal
holds in a species whereas social behavior modifies the way
animals live together and communicate.
F 14.
Ecology is the study of the interrelationships of organisms and their
environment. Ethology is the study of animal behavior.
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T 15.
Poikilothermic vertebrates tend to have more temperature induced
activity restrictions than do homiotherms.
F 16.
Some primates do not pick up food in their hands in normal feeding.
T 17.
Gibbons do not lap water.
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ANIMAL BEHAVIOR AND BREEDING
MODULE 1
BEHAVIOR
The behavior of an animal is what it does, how it cares for itself, and how it reacts
to other organisms and the environment in which it lives. The variety and
complexity of animal behavior has impressed naturalists for years. Early
naturalists were prone to attributing to animals the emotions of humans. They
often made anthropomorphic judgements and suggested that many of the
behaviors were “instinctive” without defining that term.
The scientific study of animal behavior really began with Margaret Morse Nice
who worked with some sparrows that nested in her garden as subjects. The
science of ethology or animal behavior grew out of these early studies with an
Austrian, Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen working in England being two early
giants in the field. Ethology, the study of animal behavior, has as its basic
premise: one must observe arrivals under natural conditions to understand their
behavior. Psychology is the science of mental processes and behavior in
humans. Psychologists study behavior in the lab. Ethologists stress the
importance of observation or seeing what the animal does in its natural setting
whereas psychologists stress the importance of tests and experiments with the
animals under control and finally ethologists are more concerned with instinctive
behavior; psychologists with the animals ability to learn.
When faced with a new behavior or series of behaviors, the ethologist asks a
number of basic questions. These include: the causes of the behavior - what
underlying mechanisms are responsible?
The function and biological
significance of the behavior - what use is the behavior and how does it benefit
the animal? How did the behavior evolve? What was its origin? How did a
particular behavior develop in the individual? Was it instinctive or learned or a
combination of both? Any behavior that an animal repeats in the same way is
stereotyped; any behavior that is the same in all members of a species is
species-specific. Any behavior that is performed without prior learning is called
innate or instinctive. Each instinctive behavior has its own set of internal factors,
hormonal and otherwise that, when they build to a certain level allow the
behavior to take place. Then if given an external stimulus the animal acts. This
buildup is called the specific action potential, meaning the power to perform a
certain act. The specific action potential is responsible for an animal performing
one behavior in preference to other behaviors. As the specific action potential
builds the animal becomes restless and performs appetitive behavior, an
introductory phase of the specific behavior pattern that “sets the stage” for the
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instinctive behavior. Predators may be roaming, following no particular path,
when a prey animal bolts. The actions of the predator become instinctive, it
pursues and kills the prey. The appetitive behavior is reduced when the prey is
seen and ceases with it being eaten. Sometimes when the specific action
potential is high and no external stimulus releases the accumulated specific
action potential the animal may act without a stimulus, at least without any
stimulus we are aware of. Such behaviors are termed vacuum activities. For
example a bird that hunts, catches and eats insects may perform all the actions
of hunting, catching and swallowing even though no insect or other visible
stimulus is present. A behavior pattern or structure, which serves to trigger a
behavior pattern, is called a releaser. There seems to be a specific release for
each behavior pattern. It is almost like a key opening a lock. The sounds of
young can serve as releasers as can color patterns. Sometimes a releaser
functions but a learned response such as fear interferes with the normal behavior
pattern. If two aggressive birds meet at the edge of a territory each may have a
releaser to attack but the fear of the opponent stifles the attack response and an
unusual behavior called displacement activity occurs. For example two herring
gulls in a conflict situation instead of attacking may preen and a young child may
chew fingernails. Occasionally one of two aggressive herring gulls instead of
attacking one another or fleeing instead pull up clumps of grass, a type of
behavior called redirected activity.
Feeding Behavior
As a keeper many of your behavioral observations will relate to feeding activity,
as you are present before, immediately after or during the presentation of food. It
is natural to notice that many, but not all, primates pick up food with their hands
as a normal means of eating and that gibbons do not lap water like a cat. You
may also notice hoofed stock with long horns or antlers may have trouble
reaching a feeding trough placed too close to a fence. It is not much work to
solve that problem by moving the trough to a more appropriate location but
sometimes it does not get done. A keeper should record such problems and
make recommendations for their solution.
ZOO ANIMAL BEHAVIOR
Animals’ response to the environment is considered under the general heading of
behavior. Instinct is the name we give inherited behavior. Learned behavior can
develop new patterns or modify instinctive behavior. Some of the kinds of innate
behavior include:
KINESIS:
This is a movement that lacks directional orientation and depends
upon the intensity of the stimulation. Essentially, the stimulus
produces a change of rate of random movements.
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TAXES:
This name is given to behavior that involves movement to or away
from a stimulus. An example would be cockroaches fleeing from
light.
INSTINCT:
This is an inherited or innate pattern of response.
newborn mammals is an instinctive behavior.
Suckling by
REFLEXES: These are responses of part of the body to a stimulus that does not
involve the higher brain centers. The blinking of an eye or knee
jerk are examples of reflexes.
FIXED ACTION PATTERNS: These are complex instinctive behaviors. An
example might be the series of behavioral
activities engaged in by birds that are not
sexually dimorphic that allows mate selection.
It may include bowing, mutual vocalization,
mutual preening and posturing. Sometimes a
series of dozens of behavioral acts, each
stimulating a response, follow one another.
LEARNED BEAHVIOR INCLUDES
IMPRINTING:
This is a genetically programmed form of learning in which a
newly hatched or newborn learns to identify with its species
within a finite time by following or being exposed to stimuli it
learns to identify. The sensitive period for imprinting baby
mallard ducks to follow a man instead of other ducks is 13 to 16
hours after hatching. This is the time when the female typically
leaves the nest and, by following, the ducklings learn they are
ducks.
HABITUATION: This is the suppression of response to a repeated harmless
stimulus. An example might be animals learning to ignore a
train or the sound of a horn near the enclosure. The stimulus
results in no reward or punishment.
CLASSICAL AND OPERANT CONDITIONING: Involves rewarding an animal for
a particular action while at the same time providing a
separate and distinct stimulus. Pavlov’s work giving a
dog food, which resulted in salivation while at the
same time ringing a bell was repeated. Then he
found just ringing a bell would elicit salivation. This
operant conditioning is used to train dolphins.
EXPERIENCE: This is the basis for trial and error learning. An example is the
frog that snaps up a wasp and gets its tongue stung. The frog
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learns to associate the color and pattern of the wasp with pain
and will not again try to eat a wasp.
When a young
insectivorous bird leaves its nest it picks at pebbles, leaves or
sticks until it finds and eats an insect. Once the bird has eaten
the insect, a reward, it greatly reduces the frequency with which
it picks at pebbles, sticks or other non-rewarding items.
INSIGHT OR
REASONING:
This is the most sophisticated form of learning where the
solution to an entirely different problem is used to solve a new
challenge. Chimpanzees using straws to fish termites from
burrows would be an example.
One of the most important skills a zookeeper can acquire is the ability to observe
animals and accurately record and interpret what is being seen. This ability
grows with experience and as you become more familiar with the individual
animals. The more you know about the animals, their normal appearance and
behavior, the easier it is to determine when something is wrong.
Often the sense that something is wrong is in the form of a feeling for something
undefined. At other times cues may be more obvious, such as a limp, a swollen
limb or lack of appetite. You must learn to make your mind receptive to the
information provided by your senses. The more receptive your mind is to what
you see, the easier it is for it to be registered in the conscious mind. Often your
subconscious may register small changes in deportment, posture or locomotion
that will trigger the feeling that something isn’t normal about an animal. Learn to
trust your instinctive response to what you see.
Try to really “see” what you are looking at and train yourself to observe details.
Zoo keeping is a profession where observation, retention and interpretation of
sensory information, plays an important role. You must not let your “book
learning” blind you to subconscious interpretations or signs.
Try to get to know all the animals in your care as individuals by individual
markings, color or tag or band number. Scars, cuts, lost feathers or missing
digits can all help you recognize individual animals. Look at things in the exhibit
for clues too. Fresh secretions indicate an animal marking its territory; hair or
feathers could indicate molting or a fight. The condition of the feces can be a
good indicator of the animal’s general condition.
Use your eyes, ears and nose to evaluate your animals. Know what a healthy
specimen’s stance, or posture, coat condition, smells and eye shine are like.
Look at the fences and buildings and see if there are holes, projecting nails,
broken boards or other hazards and if there are repair or report them.
Remember to:
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1.
2.
3.
4.
Observe your animals
Record what you see
Report what you see. Communicate
Follow-up (feedback)
Whenever you look at an animal you should be observing the following and
asking the following questions:
a)
b)
c)
d)
What is the overall feather or coat condition, eye shine, stance and
locomotion, state of hooves, claws, nails, cuts or injuries, discharges and
weight?
Is the animal behavior normal for the species and individual or out of the
ordinary?
Are the animal’s feces and urine normal?
Are all the members of the group present?
If an animal has stopped eating you should be able to determine if it is about to
shed its skin, give birth or if it is sick. If everything is not normal record it and try
to ascertain why.
RECORDING BEHAVIORAL OBSERVATIONS
Each observation should be recorded so that other zoo staff can benefit from it.
Note taking is a very important tool in observation. You may record observations
with a tape recorder, videotape, movie or still photography but basic written
records of observations are the most important tool. You should always record
the time and date the observation was made. For behavioral studies check
sheets are often created to save time writing. Keepers using abbreviations or
special terms should always include a legend so that others reading the
observation notes can understand what is meant.
Many categories can be used to define an animal’s action when describing
behavior or interaction. These include:
a)
Social Behavior:
1)
Structure: dominance, submission, courtship, reproduction,
adult/young etc.
2)
Compatibility: intra-species or inter-species.
3)
Environment: territorial marking or protection; the animals use of
the exhibit space, the effect of the environment on the animal and
vice-versa.
4)
Cyclic Behavior: seasonal or circadian changes – sleep, rest and
play cycles, reproductive behavior.
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b)
Maintenance Behavior
1)
Feeding: Social structure of the feeding group, food preferences,
etc.
2)
Grooming: Self and social grooming, preening, interaction with
plants or the exhibit.
3)
Communications: vocal, visual, olfactory and physical contact.
4)
Elimination: Fecal deposition, coprophagy, and urine marking.
5)
Locomotion: methods, sleep/rest position, aquatic, aerial, arboreal,
terrestrial, flight or other methods.
c)
Agnostic Behavior
1)
Flight
2)
Threat: bluffing, attack
3)
Thresholds: changes in critical and personal distances, etc.
4)
Communications: vocal, postural
5)
Cyclic behavior: aggression during feeding or rut; when with young,
etc.
d)
Reproduction Behavior
1)
Social Structure: group interaction or solitary
2)
Male/Female interaction
3)
Female/Male interaction
4)
Copulation
5)
Adult/young/parent: interaction
e)
Other Behavior
1)
Stress: boredom, pacing other nervous behavior
2)
Displacement activity: stress manifested in other behaviors.
3)
Reaction to enrichment
4)
Intra/Inter species: relationships with other animals
5)
Spatial occupation: use of various parts and levels of the exhibit.
Examples of agnostic and appeasement behaviors are shown in the next four
figures.
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EXPRESSIONAL BEHAVIOR IN CANINES
ATTACK
SUBMISSION OR DEFENSE
EXPRESSIONAL BEHAVIOR IN HORSES
Top row: Threat
Bottom row: Greeting
Note the positioning of the ears
(adapted from Trumler, 1959)
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Note the different positioning of the
ears between a dominant and
submissive animal. Also note the
increased gape of the mouth towards
the submissive expression.
Facial expressions:
top left: neutral expression
top center: light threat
top right: ready to attack
center: intermediate expression
between dominance and submission
bottom: intense submission
(fear)to fearful threat
(Adapted from Lorenz, 1963)
EXPRESSIONAL BEHAVIOR IN GULL, HERMIT THRUSH AND PHEASANT
AGGRESSION
APPEASEMENT
POSTURES OF A GOOSE
1) at ease
6) defense
2) alarm
7)inferiority
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3) threat
4) attack
8)approaching a mate
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5) aggression-fear conflict
BEHAVIOR LEADING TO A FIGHT
NORWAY RATS
Note: Attack directed to testis of opponent
(Adapted from Erbe-Eibesfeldt, 1963)
GRANT’S GAZELLE
Appeasement and threat display.
Adult exhibits “high horn threat”.
Horn nodding
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Approaching opponents.
Heads turned aside.
Head high throat display
17
Fighting-pushing with foreheads
horns interlocked
POSTURE IN A MONITOR LIZARD
NORMAL POSTURE
THREAT POSTURE
Development of a fight from Threat Posture
(adapted from Ruffenberg, 1981)
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OBSERVATION TIPS
Perhaps the most important item is to keep your recorded descriptions accurate.
Record what you see, not your interpretation of what you think you see.
Remember to listen as well as look. Knowing usual sounds and recognizing
alarm calls can alert you to problems. Geese, parrots and other animals have
alarm calls that you can hear even when out of sight of the animals. Learn to be
observant, know what the public is doing, what animals on site (both caged and
the uncaged) (magpies, squirrels, sparrows and crows) are doing and whether
they pose a risk. Be aware that thunderstorms can panic animals causing them
to run into fences or even be hit by lightning so consider moving them into
shelter. Try to understand why your animals behave the way they do and make
recordings when the observations occur. Don’t depend upon your memory to list
them later. Remember the dullest pencil is better than the sharpest mind when it
comes to remembering. It helps to share your observations with other zoo staff.
Problem solving is often the result of discussion following several people’s
observation of particular behavior.
BEHAVIOR IN ANIMALS AND KEEPERS
Ethology is the study of animal behavior. It involves the objective study of
animals and man from a biological aspect with emphasis on species specific
behavior, its function and evolution. Another definition of ethology might be the
study of an organism’s reaction to its environment. Ethology as a science began
in the early 1930’s.
Animal behavior is of critical importance to the zookeeper, and behavioral
awareness assists the keeper in doing a better job. The better you know the
animals the better you can care for them.
The major difference between ethology and psychology, the study of human
behavior, is that ethology avoids attributing human characteristics to the animal.
We should not be such egotists as to imagine that only humans have evolved
certain behavioral characteristics. Play activity, curiosity, fear and aggression
are common to many mammals as well as humans. To use ethology in
managing and caring for zoo animals you need to know certain basic tenets.
These include:
1)
Typical behavior: A keeper must recognize typical behavior
patterns in order to “read” the animal and detect abnormal
behavior. Take some time to observe your animals at various times
of the day. Different species very often have distinct typical
behavior, even when taxonomically closely related. For example
lions typically form family groups whereas tigers are solitary
animals except during mating and rearing young. Just because
closely related species have similar anatomy and physiology does
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not assure common typical behavior. Be aware that although
animals provide olfactory clues, auditory signals and activity
patterns most, or at least much, of their communication consists of
body posture and position (see figures on the preceding pages) that
we call body language.
2)
Unconditional and Conditioned Reflexes: Unconditioned reflexes
are automatic, unlearned reactions such as blinking when an object
approaches the eye or pulling a limb back from a hot surface.
Conditioned reflexes are indirect reactions associated with
experience or knowledge. Many examples of this reflex develop in
zoo animals, especially revolving around feeding routines, where
animals become accustomed to expect food in a particular place at
a given time.
3)
Instinct: Instinctual behavior includes inherited “programmed”
behavior patterns. Animals inherit these patterns and follow them
without conscious knowledge of their purpose. Be aware that they
may develop in different stages of growth. Territoriality for example
is typically absent in the young and develops with maturity. These
behavior patterns are often species specific. We believe the
behavior of some groups, snakes for example, is nearly completely
instinctual whereas other groups such as monkeys learn most of
their behavior within a social system.
4)
Stimulus and Response: Animals are programmed genetically to
respond in a certain way to certain stimuli. The central nervous
system has a selective mechanism, typically activated by stimuli
having meaning to a particular species. The “key”, or sign stimulus,
and the response it engenders fit together like a lock and key.
Stimuli are species-specific; only a particular set of stimuli is of
significance to each species and that species responds to those
stimuli with typical reactions. “Releasers” is the name given to
animal structures or responses that send or emit key stimuli that
trigger a response in another individual.
5)
Reproductive Behavior: Reproductive behavior is usually quite
complex and may involve a chain of releasers and responses. This
is an important way of controlling hybridization in nature. Where
geographic barriers keep species out of contact in nature sign
stimuli (for reproductive activity) may not vary enough to prevent
interbreeding when animals are brought together in zoos.
6)
Expressional Behavior: The primary means of communication
among humans consists of vocalizations. This is supplemented by
body language. In most mammals vocalizations only supplement
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such body language as motion, pose, coloration and posture. As a
zookeeper you must rely on observation to interpret an animal’s
mental state or intention. Without knowledge of the behavior of a
particular species we tend to interpret animal behavior on human
terms. This often leads to inaccurate observations and can
precipitate
dangerous
events.
The
sometimes-violent
precopulatory behavior of rhinos or mink or the copulatory neck
bites by carnivores may be mistaken for aggression.
A wide variety of expressional behaviors exist between species, between sexes
of the same species and even between adults, adolescents and juveniles. The
preceding pages show examples of expressional behavior in mammals, birds
and reptiles.
HOME RANGE, TERRITORY, TIME ELEMENTS AND
PREDATOR – PREY RELATIONSHIPS
Animals in captivity show all the behavior of their wild conspecifics, as well as
behavior stemming from their captive situation. The zookeeper must be aware
that all or a part of the exhibit may be a defended territory. A good grasp of
some concepts may create a safer workplace.
Animals don’t live completely free in a wild state because their living space is
confined by boundaries that are often invisible to the casual observer. The size
of the area used is determined often by individual and species needs and
environmental limitation. Distribution or range is the geographic distribution of
the species. Within this range only areas of suitable habitat are occupied. In the
case of migratory species distant areas connected by rather narrow migratory
corridors may comprise the range. Habitat is the area within the range that
contains the environmental factors and conditions needed to support the species.
You could think of habitat as the animal’s address. Ecological niche describes
the role of the animal within its community. It considers what the animal does in
relation to the food chain, plant and animal associations and energy flow. The
niche might be compared to an occupation.
To put this in perspective, the geographical distribution or range of the mountain
goat, Oreamnos americanus, is the Rocky Mountain cordillera from the North
Slope of Alaska to Yellowstone National Park plus the West Coast Cascade
Mountains. Its habitat is the steep craggy areas from near sea level to above
4000 m, generally wintering at very high altitudes. Its ecological niche is that of a
large herbivore living in small herds, preyed on by golden eagles, mountain lions
and grizzly bears. Home Range is the living area normally occupied and
inhabited by an animal. It may belong to a single individual, a mated pair or a
social unit, a cohesive group with a single dominant individual. Within the home
range there is often a defended area which is identified as a territory. Typical
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behavior is usually associated with establishing and defending or protecting the
animal’s territory. This behavior and reproductive behavior associated with the
territory is unique for each species, and allows several different animal species to
live in the same space without rivalry, using different niches within the habitat.
Some species maintain a permanent territory while others only establish one
during the breeding season. It seems uncommon for migratory birds to establish
winter territories.
Certain seabirds, seals and rodents live in large densely populated colonies
within which territories as small as a nest or breeding site are defended.
Territory size is often related to the body size of the animal and its feeding habits,
with larger forms usually having larger territories than smaller species and
carnivorous forms defending larger areas than herbivores.
Not every part of the home range is used evenly. Often trails lead from one
activity area to another. Preferred routes exist on the ground, through treetops in
water or air. Often parts of the home range may be used for loafing, feeding,
sleeping, drinking, bathing or defecating.
Animals are reluctant to change their patterns of movement, and familiar sites
provide security. The “home” aspect is as important to many other species as it
is to the human species as it provides a safety zone within the home range.
Animals that have escaped confinement in the zoo will often return to their
enclosure (home range) if given the opportunity.
The territory is important to those animals that possess one and it is most often
vigorously defended against conspecifics and to a lesser extent or sometimes not
at all against other species. The more similar species are, the more likely it is for
territorial disputes to occur. Territoriality is recognized as a component of
“personal space”. In group species this is the distance inside of which the
intrusion of a fellow member of the species creates stress where that intruder is a
mate or immature. In humans this distance is about an arm’s length in western
societies but is somewhat less in Mediterranean countries. Perhaps you have
felt discomfort when an Italian or Greek talked to you “in your face”. Another
component is what is recognized as critical distance. Encroachment of an
intruder within this distance may elicit an attack. Flight distance is recognized in
many prey species which, while they may defend a territory against conspecifics,
flee when a perceived potential predator gets within this distance. Flight distance
can be modified by habituation so zoo animals that would ordinarily flee from
humans in the wild tolerate the close approach of visitors within the zoo.
A territory may be delineated so other members of the species can recognize it in
several ways depending upon the species. Optical, acoustic or olfactory cues or
a combination of these are often used. Optical or visual demarcation may
involve using the whole body or even parts of it. It has been called static-optical
when the result arises from the presence or appearance of the animals’ body in
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the territory as in the giraffe, and dynamic-optical when the animal uses a special
signaling device in a stereotypical movement (the waving of the fiddler crabs
claw). Form and color are often important.
Acoustic demarcation includes the singing of birds, the calling of amphibians, the
bellowing of alligators, the hooting of some primates and the buzzing of some
insects. All serve to advertise the presence of a territory.
Olfactory demarcation is very common among mammals with a well-developed
sense of smell. Urine, feces and products of special scent glands are used alone
or in conjunction to mark out the territory. Generally male scent glands are more
elaborate than those of the females.
Just like people other animals are creatures of habit, awakening, moving within
their home range and feeding at routine times and places. These movement
patterns are often clearly visible in zoos. Llamas, rhinos, muntjac and stallions
routinely use special places for defecation. Even in small exhibits animals
establish specific routes for travel within the exhibit. Part of the exhibit may be
devoted to eating or sleeping.
BEHAVIOR RELATED TO TIME
Rhythms of differing lengths affect behavior. There are daily (circadian) rhythms,
monthly rhythms, estrus cycles and yearly, or annual, rhythms that bring about
differing responses. Circadian rhythms often govern the animal’s daily activity
and rest. Often these determine the way an animal functions in its niche, that is
whether it is nocturnal (active at night), diurnal (active during the day),or
crepuscular ( active during twilight times).
The onset of hibernation, aestivation, migration or breeding is often under the
influence of the yearly cycle. Estrus and the birth of young frequently occur at
set times, as does egg laying. The zookeeper needs to be familiar with the
species-specific cycles in order to provide for the changing needs of the animal
throughout the year. These needs may involve a change in amount or kinds of
food, adjustment in light periods, heat or humidity, the provision of nest boxes
and nesting materials.
PREDATOR – PREY RELATIONSHIPS
Free-living animals attempt to avoid contact with potential predators including
man. Wild animals constantly check their surroundings for danger. In the zoo
we see this in waterfowl, rodent groups, primates and meerkat sentries.
Because man is regarded as a universal enemy by both predator and prey
species, we can include enemy-prey relationships with predator-prey
relationships.
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Normally an animal that senses a predator responds with the escape reaction,
aimed at avoiding contact by fleeing, remaining motionless, hiding or using
camouflage. The escape reaction is specific for sex, age, the kind of predator
and surroundings. For instance a marmot that would ordinarily retreat to its
burrow may instead lie motionless if surprised at a distance from the burrow. An
enemy, or what is perceived to be an enemy, enters into the sequence of escape
reactions specific for sex, age, the kind of enemy, and surroundings.
a)
Flight distance: This is the distance at which an animal will begin to flee
when approached by an enemy. This distance is related to the perceived
significance of the intruder. Individual experiences of an animal may
increase or decrease the distance involved. Man could decrease the
distance (for example a keeper bringing food) or increase it (a hunter or,
initially, the zoo visitors). Sometimes, as when the protective impulse to
defend offspring exists, the flight distance can be greatly reduced, possibly
eliminated, on the flight reaction may even be modified to an attack.
b)
Critical distance: This is a component of the flight distance. A penned or
cornered animal without an escape corridor will tolerate the approach of
an enemy up to the point where it feels forced to defend itself; the
attack/defense takes place within the critical distance range. If an animal
feels the keeper is an enemy, and this can change depending upon the
circumstances, an otherwise inoffensive animal may attack when you
reach the critical distance.
c)
Personal or intimate distance is the individual distance within which
conspecifics are not tolerated. In contact species, such as horses, that
exhibit mutual grooming this distance may be 0. Mates, juveniles and
sometimes adolescents may also be allowed within the typical personal
distance but other members of the species are rebuffed or attacked when
they intrude within this space. These limits must be reduced for mating to
occur and males practice many strategies to penetrate the defensive
zone. Personal distance is often considered a component of territoriality
but often it closely resembles critical distance when an enemy is intruding.
GROUP AND INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR
The social position of an animal within a group, whether within one species group
or mixed groups, allows one to discern different levels of dominance. These are
often called hierarchies or peck orders after studies initially done with domestic
chickens. The following identify different behavioral associations.
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BIOLOGICAL RANK
Biological rank exists, when a dominance exists between different species, which
compete for food, water or space. It implies a situation where the competitors try
to avoid each other. The species of lower rank gives way to the dominant
species so flights are rare and the dominion species has preference over feeding
places and occupancy sites. Examples from the wild include gorilla over
chimpanzee, brown bear over black bear or Uinta Chipmunk over Colorado
Chipmunk. This may result in a unique situation in zoos when various species
not normally associated in the wild are exhibited together. Several years ago a
few bison were fatally injured when they were penned with mountain goats that
stabbed the bison in the abdomen with their stiletto like horns. A zookeeper must
detect a developing biological rank system and ensure all the animals in an
exhibit have access to food, water, shelter and a resting-place and are protected
from injury.
SOCIAL RANK
Social rank is the position an animal holds in a social group of the same species.
Nearly all animals that exist in packs, bands, herds, flocks, prides or other
collective terms are organized into a level of dominance, with each individual’s
status clearly delineated. The organization of some societies may be simple and
linear as the peck order in a flock of chickens. In other societies the interactions
are complex and reticulate.
The premier or alpha individual that takes a lead role occupies the dominant
position in the group. This individual has more privileges than any other member
of the social group. Some species (elk, African elephants, and sparrows) always
have a female as the alpha animal. Rhesus monkeys and Japanese macaques
may have a male or a female alpha and wolves always have a male occupying
the alpha position.
The dominant or alpha individual does not always lead or guide the group in its
movements. In some deer species the dominant males regularly follow a
subdominant, perhaps as a safety precaution. In some baboon troops highranking males act as perimeter guards.
The social rank of an individual may be determined by psychological
characteristics not simply physical strength. Often, as in canids, the position is
established while still puppies. In many societies the social position of the
mother has an impact on her offspring's social status later in life. An animal that
loses its alpha position usually never regains it. Often the subordinate, or beta,
animal takes over the alpha spot. It is believed that each individual in the social
group has an established and recognized rank, with the most submissive animal
at the bottom of the hierarchy. This animal has no subordinate just as the alpha
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animal has no superior. This established group structure enables the group to
replace a leader with a minimum of disturbance, fights or disorder that might
endanger the social group. Members constantly show their dominant and or
submissive behavior appropriate to their rank to other group members. Juveniles
are often under the fewest constraints until they reach adolescence. Until then
they often aren’t required to adhere to rank system rules, and may take liberties
denied other group members. The rank system provides benefit by reducing
agnostic encounters between members of the group because each recognizes its
position within the society, thus it serves to conserve energy, too.
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR
Social behavior modifies the way in which animals live together and
communicate. Formation of flocks of birds or schools of fish demonstrate how
hundreds or even thousands of individuals can fly or swim with precision. Herd
mammals synchronize activities so that feeding and resting are done together.
Most predators live solitary lives, whereas social insects may be formed into
castes, with different individuals morphologically adapted for different tasks.
CONTACT AND DISTANCE SPECIES
Contact species seek out or tolerate close physical presence with conspecifics
and sometimes with other species. (e.g. turtles, most primates, horses, elephants
and goats). These animals have no individual distance. Hippos act like contact
species when they are in the water by day but they are profoundly territorial at
night on the feeding grounds. Within their enclosure they may defend the area
and thus are potentially very dangerous to a keeper. Distance species neither
solicit nor tolerate physical contact, aside from the period of reproduction and
rearing the young. These animals maintain an individual distance (flamingos,
penguins, many deer, giraffes, and tigers)
PAIR FORMATION
Pair formation occurs in most species, although the duration of the pair bond is
extremely variable. Species such as many birds of prey, large parrots, geese,
swans, geese and swift foxes mate for life. Others maintain the pair bond only so
long as necessary to copulate or to raise the young (weasels, most small
migratory songbirds).
Most amphibians, reptiles, and fish do not form
established pairs at all but only come together for copulation or fertilization of the
eggs.
Harems are common strategies for many mammals as is transient pair formation
for mating only (bears, most cats, bats, lagomorphs, mink). Some species have
pairs or harems that last only the season (elk, fur seals, and elephant seals)
others hold permanent harems (sperm whales, horses, and pronghorns). During
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the nonbreeding season many species form herds that are all male or all female
with young (bighorn sheep, walrus, and elk).
FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS
Formation of a family bond is important to be successful for raising young for
many species. The family bond ensures a food supply and sometimes training
for the developing young and some protection from enemies or predators.
“Releaser” behavior initiated by the young animal stimulates the adult to feed its
offspring. Puppies biting the lips of adult canids cause the adults to regurgitate
food. Young gulls pecking the adult’s beak or baby penguins pecking at the gape
of the bill elicit a like reaction. Greeting and warning behaviors protect the
young. An adult crane seeing a coyote gives a call that causes the young sand
hill crane to drop flat and remain motionless until the adult sounds the “all clear”.
Without key releasers specific to each species, parents might well mistake their
young for food or threats and eat them. Where the male parent does not
normally participate in raising the young these protective mechanisms are not
developed. Such males often destroy young when they encounter them. Bears
are good examples but it also applies to some solitary cat species. Many
amphibians reptiles and fish have no parental/offspring ties at all and the young
may be eaten by the parents when they are encountered.
BREEDING BEHAVIOR
Breeding behavior is extremely variable and takes many forms. This behavior
can include elaborate courtship displays, combat, or even methods such as
those used by some salamanders, where the male deposits a spermatophore
that the female must pick up with the muscular lips of her cloaca in order for the
eggs to be fertilized. This is a method that most of us would probably consider
slipshod and unlikely to succeed.
The zookeeper must be aware of the behavioral changes associated with the
breeding season. Some male animals, such as elephants, may become very
aggressive and extremely dangerous. Female behavior usually changes after
impregnation and close to parturition time. Normally approachable animals can
react quite differently. Keepers must know when animal births are imminent so
that proper precautions can be taken to ensure the best possible chances of safe
delivery. In the past, many zoo animals or newborns have died during the birth
process so it is important to be prepared for the event by anticipating what might
go wrong and developing a mitigation plan. Mating strategies range from a
single mated pair to polygamous situations where a female may mate with many
males or males may mate with several females. In the peculiar mating strategy
of several birds and some mammals, males defend an area among several other
male’s territories. In this so-called lek the females come and mate with a male
that holds one of the small territories. Usually, this is near the center of the group
of defended areas.
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PLAY BEHAVIOR
Play behavior is more highly developed in mammals than in other classes.
Mammals have distinct, separate behavior for play but most of the actions can be
modified into prey capture, escape or fighting later in life. Young animals play
more than older ones and their motivation appears to be entertainment.
Play is most important in species that take a long time to mature. It can
sometimes be observed in group behavior in juveniles, adolescent and adult peer
group relationships. Playing youngsters may involve members from every level
of the hierarchy as well as their own siblings and cohort members. Play
encompasses mock situations that serve to train the young, develop survival
skills and provide practice in different behaviors. A single behavior may be
repeated or there may be a switch from - attack to defense, from fighting to prey
killing, or from attack to fleeing. Often a characteristic exuberance is evident and
play behavior often shares species-specific characteristics.
General physical fitness is promoted by play behavior. The young acquire
species-specific action patterns and improve actions requiring accurate
coordination. A young animal that does not learn to use these effectively may be
unable to escape predators or catch food. Play enlarges the individual’s
experience. As a communal activity it provides a reason for young animals to
seek the company of others while their mother is absent. For example puppies
deprived of contact with other dogs when they are 3-10 weeks old will not
develop normal social responses.
Play is a true activity in its own right and the internal motivating factors, which
affect it, change with age. The internal stimulus to play diminishes in intensity
with age, although adults do play. (The black-backed jackal uses play to
determine strength and social status without fighting). Adults will play with
babies and predators playing with prey learn by practice.
FEEDING BEHAVIOR
Species feed on a particular food in a particular way. Animals are designed to
effectively gather and use certain foods and evolution has functioned to make
them experts. The zookeeper needs to know what the animal has been evolved
to feed on and where and how it is gathered. Some animals eat high up in trees,
others on or even below ground. Some feed early in the morning, the evening, at
night, or all day. Many birds require food throughout the day as their bodies are
designed for regular food input. Some animals eat quickly, other animals are
slow eaters. Certain species such as the least weasel need feeding several
times a day. They will starve if just given one large feed per day. Other animals
such as many reptiles eat at extremely irregular intervals.
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THE ZOOKEEPER AND ANIMAL BEHAVIOR
The zookeeper without knowledge of animal behavior is significantly
handicapped and can be a distinct hazard to animals and their well being as well
as a hazard to his workmates. Together with proper observation, knowledge of
animal behavior can supply a wealth of detail about the needs, physical and
mental condition of the animals. In many cases it also allows the zookeeper to
deduce probable animal reactions to a variety of situations and restraints. It is an
appropriate tool for determining feeding and breeding, in providing shelter or
designing exhibits and can help the zookeepers in modifying their own reactions.
The following are critical for the safety of the zookeeper and the animals:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
The zookeeper must learn to interpret animal behavior accurately. It is
necessary to know what constitutes threat behavior and what is a greeting
for different species, as often the zookeeper’s behavior depends upon that
typical animal reaction, and a misinterpretation could mean injury or even
death.
The zookeeper should learn the typical behavior patterns of a species so
that abnormal behavior associated with injury, sickness or fear can be
recognized. Knowledge of animal behavior is needed to communicate
with the animal group. The zookeeper also needs to know how the animal
reacts to its environment so he can adjust his own reactions. Knowing
typical animal reaction enables a zookeeper to provoke the least stress
while working, and is thus safest for both the animal and the zookeeper.
Learn to know the expressive behavior of your animals.
Every prey species exhibits key stimuli or releasers that stimulate the
attack of its predators. These releasers constitute the Prey Schema.
Your behavior within the exhibit could fit the prey schema of that predator
and thus elicit an attack. You must know what behavior to avoid. Most
predators respond to running or sudden movements with an attack. Quick
movements may elicit escape behavior in prey species too.
Prey animals have an innate predator model that contains specific key
stimuli that allows it to recognize a predator or potential predator. A
keeper wearing a fur-trimmed parka entering a caribou enclosure is largely
ignored but if he should bend over and wind ruffles the fur the caribou may
panic from the resemblance to a wolf. Violent attempts to escape can
injure both the animals and the zookeeper. It is of paramount importance
to avoid eliciting this response thus reducing stress, danger and accidents.
It is essential that the zookeeper to develop behavior patterns and rates of
movement that allows animals to anticipate and respond with a minimum
of stress to the zookeeper’s routine.
Zookeepers should know the animal’s hierarchies, and where the keeper
is viewed to fit in the group’s rank order. It is generally safest if the keeper
occupies the alpha role.
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g)
h)
i)
It is important to recognize the animal’s territorial needs and the location of
its territory. It is imperative to recognize indications of territorial defense
and respond appropriately to such actions.
It is important to recognize animal’s daily routines and behavior associated
with these routines. An awareness of time and space orientation can be
of inestimable value.
An awareness of individual distance, flight distance and critical distance is
needed as well as circumstances that can lead to a significant modification
of these behavioral components.
Knowledge of animal behavior can assist the zookeeper in many ways. Knowing
small birds generally prefer to roost inside and high up, makes it possible to
locate roosts in this position – then if you ever need to move the birds you can
close the door and capture them more easily with less stress to the birds. Many
animals, especially birds, follow predictable flight patterns in the enclosure when
capture attempts are being made. Learning this behavior can be to your
advantage, because you can position one person at each end of the cage with
the capture equipment in position.
If you know you are going to have to move hoofed stock in a few days, you might
get them accustomed to going into the corral or loading area by feeding them in
there for a few days. Then, when it is time to move them, you can put in the feed
and, as they are eating, lock them in. Depending upon the zoo design, an even
better method is to establish a routine in which the animals are locked in daily.
This also enables inspection of the facility to take place without stressing the
animals or risking injury to the keeper.
KEEPER BEHAVIOR
In the same way a keeper learns to recognize his animals behavior the animals
learn to recognize a keeper’s deportment and react to it. An elephant that had
never done so before thumped a keeper’s sore leg with its trunk the day after the
keeper had injured his knee in a hockey game. Although the zookeepers (to
themselves) are obviously of a different species than their animals, the animals
may regard a keeper as a conspecific.
If you are to work effectively and safely within a confined space or restricted area
you need to be aware of how animals interpret your behavior. Although the
zookeeper may mean no harm, actions may send a danger, threat or challenge
signal to the animal. The keeper must avoid appeasement behavior for a
challenge by any member of the group may follow. Behavior is the zookeeper’s
means of communication with the animals and body language is the chief means
of communication.
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A zookeeper must concentrate on posture and body movements when within the
exhibit. If you are to work effectively and safely within confined space or
restricted area with your animal’s concepts of flight distance, critical distance and
individual distance must be remembered. Animals become sensitive to your
intentions, fear, apprehension, depression or glee. Knowing this, and with an
understanding of body language and a good body awareness, zookeepers can
work more easily and with less stress.
Different animals interpret specific actions in different ways (e.g. for some
species eye contact is antagonistic). Be aware of what your body and posture is
communicating. Make your movements slow and deliberate, not abrupt or fast.
Slow flowing movements that the animals can follow allow them to anticipate
your next move and adjust their position accordingly. Many animals quickly learn
set work routines within the exhibit and, once they are habituated, there is less
stress. As a keeper try to practice the following guidelines:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
Think before you enter a cage or exhibit. Move steadily, talk softly, whistle
or sing to your animals so they know where you are and that you are not a
threat. Predators are quiet when hunting. Your tone of voice can
communicate your alpha position.
Try to follow the same routine each day. This allows the animals to relax
knowing what you will do next.
Be sensitive to your lack of knowledge or sensitivity toward your animals
initially. It takes time to build familiarity and good rapport with those you
are working with. It does not happen quickly.
Know what your animals are doing and what it means. Try to interpret and
understand its behavior.
Avoid shouting or abrupt loud noises. Your natural advantage is brains
and experience. Don’t attempt to bluff your animals or your work mates.
If you, or an animal, are not in good shape treat the problem and find an
alternative safe arrangement for animal care. You cannot match many
animals in speed or strength.
Never lose your temper with animals. Either, or both you and the animal,
could end up injured.
Don’t rush – be deliberate and patient. Mistakes often happen when
people are not taking time to pay attention to what they are doing.
Watch your eyes or wear protective eyewear. Some animals (many birds
such as herons or cranes) aim for the eyes when pecking. Cultivate safe
work habits and behavior.
Some of these points may be made less relevant if such a safe working routine
as the daily locking of animals into a restricted area is established. The points
listed above should ideally be necessary only in isolated situations but these
situations do occur. There is no substitute for safety, and no keeper should have
to compromise safety to get the job done.
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ANIMAL BEHAVIOR
Learning Activities (to be submitted)
Go to a zoo and observe the behavior of any non-human primate for two hours
recording whether each action is social, maintenance, agonistic, reproductive,
stress, displacement reaction to enrichment activity, intra specific relationships
(including visitors) and spatial occupation within the enclosure. Comment on any
activity you feel a keeper should be especially aware of. Keep a record of the
duration of each activity. Design a check list so you can use a shorthand method
of recording the various behaviors being sure to record the legend so others
know what your shorthand notes mean.
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MODULE 1
ZOO
Post Test: Animal Behavior
1.
Which of the following is an example of learned behavior?
a.
b.
c.
d.
2.
Which of the following is an example of an innate form of behavior?
a.
b.
c.
d.
3.
range
habitat
home range
territory
What do we call it when someone attributes human emotions to the
behavior of animals?
a.
b.
c.
d.
5.
instinct
imprinting
insight or reasoning
operant conditioning
What name is given to an area an animal defends against other members
of the same, and sometimes different species?
a.
b.
c.
d.
4.
taxes
reflexes
kinesis
habituation
ethology
anthropomorphism
imprinting
appetitive behavior
What is the distance called at which an animal begins to flee from an
enemy?
a.
b.
c.
d.
personal distance
critical distance
flight distance
specific action potential
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6.
What is it safest for a keeper to project in the presence of dangerous or
potentially dangerous animals?
a.
b.
c.
d.
7.
Which of the following is the type of learning behavior used to train
dolphins?
a.
b.
c.
d.
8.
social behavior
maintenance behavior
agonistic behavior
displacement behavior
In which of the following groups of animals do we think most of the
behavior is completely instinctive?
a.
b.
c.
d.
10.
imprinting
experience
classical and operant conditioning
insight or readings
Under which of the following headings would such areas as feeding,
grooming, locomotion and communication be grouped?
a.
b.
c.
d.
9.
an alpha role
appeasement behavior
a prey schema
a predator model
primates
canids
artiodactyls
snakes
Which of the following types of behavior is it most important for a
zookeeper to be familiar with when using ethology in managing and caring
for zoo animals?
a.
b.
c.
d.
expressional behavior
unconditional reflexes
conditioned reflexes
instinct
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11.
What is the area called within a range that contains the environmental
factors and conditions needed to support the species?
a.
b.
c.
d.
12.
What name is given to a dominance between different species that
compete for food, water or space?
a.
b.
c.
d.
13.
it reduces agonistic encounters between members of the group
it allows one male to do most of the breeding
it assures all individuals will have a resting place
it makes it possible for all members of the group to get an adequate
amount of food
What function does play behavior have in mammals?
a.
b.
c.
d.
15.
personal rank
social rank
biological rank
personal space
How does having social rank benefit members of a species?
a.
b.
c.
d.
14.
territory
habitat
niche
home range
it allows members from only one hierarchy to interact
most of the actions can be modified into prey capture, escape or
fighting later in life
it reduces energy output
promotes aggression between interacting animals
Which of the following should keepers working with animals avoid doing?
a.
b.
c.
d.
moving slowly and deliberately when with the animals
setting work routines so the same tasks are conducted at the same
times
using bluffing with animals that show aggression to maintain your
status
shouting or making abrupt loud noises
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16.
What would be a good source of action if you notice that horned or
antlered hoofed stock, have trouble reaching the feeding trough because it
is mounted too close to the fence?
a.
b.
c.
d.
feed the animals on the ground away from the fence
move the feeding trough to a more appropriate location
record the observation in your daily log and discuss the solution
with the other keeper
do nothing, the animals have managed so far
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MODULE 1
ZOO
Post Test Answer Key: Animal Behavior
D
1.
Which of the following is an example of learned behavior?
e.
f.
g.
h.
A
2.
Which of the following is an example of an innate form of behavior?
e.
f.
g.
h.
D
3.
4.
5.
range
habitat
home range
territory
What do we call it when someone attributes human emotions to the
behavior of animals?
e.
f.
g.
h.
C
instinct
imprinting
insight or reasoning
operant conditioning
What name is given to an area an animal defends against other
members of the same, and sometimes different species?
e.
f.
g.
h.
B
taxes
reflexes
kinesis
habituation
ethology
anthropomorphic
imprinting
appetitive behavior
What is the distance called at which an animal begins to flee from
an enemy?
e.
f.
g.
h.
personal distance
critical distance
flight distance
specific action potential
Animal Behavior and Breeding
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A
6.
What is it safest for a keeper to project to dangerous or potentially
dangerous animals in his presence?
e.
f.
g.
h.
C
7.
Which of the following is the type of learning behavior used to train
dolphins?
e.
f.
g.
h.
B
8.
9.
10.
social behavior
maintenance behavior
agonistic behavior
displacement behavior
In which of the following groups of animals do we think most of the
behavior is completely instinctual?
e.
f.
g.
h.
A
imprinting
experience
classical and operant conditioning
insight or readings
Under which of the following headings would such areas as
feeding, grooming, locomotion and communication be grouped?
e.
f.
g.
h.
D
an alpha role
appeasement behavior
a prey schema
a predator model
primates
canids
artiodactyls
snakes
Which of the following types of behavior is it most important for a
zookeeper to be familiar with when using ethology in managing and
caring for zoo animals?
e.
f.
g.
h.
expressional behavior
unconditional reflexes
conditioned reflexes
instinct
Animal Behavior and Breeding
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B
11.
What is the area called within a range that contains the
environmental factors and conditions needed to support the
species?
e.
f.
g.
h.
C
12.
What name is given to a dominance between different species that
compete for food, water or space?
a.
b.
e.
f.
A
13.
f.
g.
h.
14.
g.
h.
15.
it reduces agonistic encounters between members of the
group
it allows one male to do most of the breeding
it assures all individuals will have a resting place
it makes it possible for all members of the group to get an
adequate amount of food
What function does play behavior have in mammals?
e.
f.
C
personal rank
social rank
biological rank
personal space
How does having social rank benefit members of a species?
e.
B
territory
habitat
niche
home range
it allows members from only one hierarchy to interact
most of the actions can be modified into prey capture,
escape or fighting later in life
it reduces energy output
promotes aggression between interacting animals
Which of the following should keepers working with animals avoid
doing?
e.
f.
g.
h.
moving slowly and deliberately when with the animals
setting work routines so the same tasks are conducted at the
same times
using bluffing with animals that show aggression to maintain
your status
shouting or making abrupt loud noises
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B
16.
What would be a good source of action if you notice that horned or
antlered hoofed stock, have trouble reaching the feeding trough
because it is mounted too close to the fence?
e.
f.
g.
h.
feed the animals on the ground away from the fence
move the feeding trough to a more appropriate location
record the observation in your daily log and discuss the
solution with the other keeper
do nothing, the animals have managed so far
Animal Behavior and Breeding
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Conclusion
The information provided in this module should make it possible for the
zookeeper to recognize different types of behavior. Use of this knowledge can
lead to better care of animals and reduce injury by recognizing problems
between exhibit mates before injury results. It also can reduce danger to
keepers by making them aware animals use body language to communicate their
emotions. Recognition of these emotions can allow keepers to avoid hostile and
potentially dangerous confrontations.
A solid understanding of animal behavior will enable the zookeeper to perform
his or her duties more safely and effectively. It is important to learn to read
animal body language and posturing in order to keep yourself safe and to get to
know the animals you care for as well as possible.
There is no substitute for safety on your shift. Accidents and injuries to animals
or keepers are often associated with trying to get things done quickly or cutting
corners on established zoo routines or procedures. Zoo animals, like people
react differently depending upon weather, their reproductive condition, conflict
with associates and a variety of other influences. Thus it is critical that you follow
the policies set up to avoid becoming an undesirable statistic.
Animal Behavior and Breeding
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MODULE II
BREEDING AND REPRODUCTION OF ZOO ANIMALS
INTRODUCTION
Today, most zoos depend upon maintaining their collections of animals by raising
their own display animals, or trading, or buying animals from other zoos. Thus, a
breeding program is usually a necessity as well as being a factor in promoting
natural behavior in the animals themselves. In many cases it is no longer
practical to buy wild captured specimens for display as it was a generation ago.
This module presents information about the International Species Inventory
System (ISIS). That program was designed to help ensure genetic diversity,
especially among rare and endangered species kept in zoos.
Part of the breeding program may involve hand rearing of newborns that for one
reason or another are not accepted by a parent. Suggestions for hand rearing
are included in this module.
Sometimes zoos need to limit reproduction of certain species and you will learn
about some ways to do that.
Pregnant females and those about to give birth require special handling and
environment. As a zookeeper, there are several things that you can do in order
to improve the survival rate of newborns.
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MODULE II
BREEDING AND REPRODUCTION OF ZOO ANIMALS
Training Objectives
Completing this module will allow you to understand why zoos carry out breeding
programs, appreciate how the International Species Inventory System (ISIS)
standardizes zoo breeding records and how the pedigrees of zoo animals are
maintained.
Enabling Objectives
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Appreciate that unlimited supplies of wild species are no longer available
to stock zoos.
Be aware that the convention on International Trade in Endangered
Species (CITES) to which Canada is a signatory, places restrictions on the
importing or exporting of species of plants or animals that appear in the
Appendices of rare or endangered species.
Recognize that zoos need breeding programs to replace stock and to
make stock available for sale or trading.
Understand the need for limiting reproduction of certain species in the zoo
and be aware of methods in use.
Know the needs of animals about to give birth and conditions that optimize
survival of newborns.
Be sensitive to conditions that make hand rearing of newborns necessary
and requirements that need to be met to make hand rearing successful
Animal Behavior and Breeding
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PRE TEST
MODULE II: BREEDING AND REPRODUCTION OF ZOO ANIMALS
T or F
1.
Zoos have always depended upon breeding programs to
replace animals in collections.
T or F
2.
The International Species Inventory System (ISIS) keeps
records of the pedigree of many zoo species.
T or F
3.
The offspring of animals that breed in zoos are often sold or
traded to other zoos.
T or F
4.
Castration or sterilization of zoo animals is generally
forbidden.
T or F
5.
Zookeepers do not normally record evidence of the onset of
incubation in birds or breeding activity in mammals because
it is of frequent occurrence.
T or F
6.
When female members of carnivorous species that are
typically solitary in the wild are about to give birth it is often
prudent to cage them separately from the males.
T or F
7.
The American Association of Zookeepers made a publication
listing the gestation period of various species of zoo animals
available.
T or F
8.
Reproduction of amphibians has not been feasible in zoos.
T or F
9.
Hand rearing the young of rare or endangered species in
zoos is usually more successful and preferred to having the
female raise the baby.
T or F
10.
It is desirable for newborn mammals to ingest colostrum
soon after birth.
T or F
11.
Mammalian milk is generally similar between species.
T or F
12.
Most young birds have imperfect temperature control of their
bodies until some days after hatching.
T or F
13.
Precocious birds hatched in the zoo incubator may need to
be taught to eat.
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T or F
14.
Newly hatched birds and reptiles need to be fed as soon as
possible after hatching.
T or F
15.
Rubbing a frog or earthworms over food to be offered to
newly hatched snakes sometimes induces them to feed.
T or F
16.
Under stress a new mother’s protective behavior may be so
enhanced she may kill or injure her young.
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PRE TEST ANSWER KEY
MODULE II: BREEDING AND REPRODUCTION OF ZOO ANIMALS
F
1.
Early zoos depended upon wild caught animals as
replacements.
T
2.
The International Species Inventory System (ISIS) keeps
records of the pedigree of many zoo species.
T
3.
The offspring of animals that breed in zoos are often sold or
traded to other zoos.
F
4.
Castration or sterilization is regularly practiced in zoos for
species that tend to reproduce easily and for which there is
little demand.
F
5.
Zookeepers need to record onset of incubation and
mammalian breeding activity in order to know dates of
hatching or birth.
T
6.
When female members of carnivorous species that are
typically solitary in the wild are about to give birth it is often
prudent to cage them separately from the males.
T
7.
The American Association of Zookeepers made a publication
listing the gestation period of various species of zoo animals
available.
F
8.
Several species of zoos have been successful in breeding
amphibians.
F
9.
Nearly all zoos prefer to have the mother raise her offspring
as naturally as possible.
T
10.
It is desirable for newborn mammals to ingest colostrum
soon after birth.
F
11.
Mammalian milk varies greatly in concentration of fat, protein
and carbohydrate in different species.
T
12.
Most young birds have imperfect temperature control of their
bodies until some days after hatching.
T
13.
Precocious birds hatched in the zoo incubator may need to
be taught to eat.
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F
14.
Birds and reptiles retain a portion of yolk inside their body so
can go without feeding a day or two after hatching.
T
15.
Rubbing a frog or earthworms over food to be offered to
newly hatched snakes sometimes induces them to feed.
T
16.
Under stress a new mother’s protective behavior may be so
enhanced she may kill or injure her young.
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MODULE II
BREEDING AND REPRODUCTION OF ZOO ANIMALS
The earliest zoos were stocked with wild captured animals and that avenue was
open until nearly the middle of the 20th century. In the early parts of the 1900’s
there were individuals who became rather well known for capturing and selling
African and Asian species to zoos in North America and Europe. Today zoo
animals are acquired primarily through trade with other zoos from such
government departments as fish and game agencies, the Society for the
Prevention of cruelty to Animals shelters and by donation from the public. The
American Zoological Association (AZA) publishes a monthly newsletter that lists
animals available from zoos in other regions of the world. They also send out
their lists of available animals from their own member institutions. New species
for display generally come from other zoos, a few from animal dealers.
Because of expense, the availability of animals and stress related problems
relating to transportation as well as permit requirements many zoos carry out
their own breeding programs. Many zoos in Canada belong to the International
Species Inventory System (ISIS) a computer-based information system for
animals in captivity and more details of this program will be given later. By
breeding animals in the zoo and having the ISIS resources available, zoos can
maintain genetic diversity in the zoo animals. Breeding programs thus keep the
captive populations viable and keeping the sexes together allows visitors to
observe natural reproductive behavior. Reproductive biology is an area of
considerable interest and an opportunity for research in many zoos.
Reproduction of zoo menagerie members is extremely important for several
reasons. Diminishing numbers of wild animals are available for capture. Habitat
destruction has reduced their numbers to the point many are listed as rare or
endangered. Most countries of the western world are signatories to the
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species which places tight
restrictions on either importing or exporting any species of wild animal or plant
that is listed in the appendices CITES has published. Thus zoos find it extremely
difficult to replace specimens native to other countries, and must rely on breeding
their own animals and trading with other zoos. In the past the option of
replenishing zoo stock from the wild was an option that today is largely absent.
A well-managed breeding program provides more than just a chance for visitors
to observe the animals mating behavior. Newborn and young animals provide a
focus for visitor interest, and excitement too, as they are often more active than
the adults. Their presence helps encourage natural behavior, increases the
value of the zoo collection and they may serve as a source of income through
sales or serve as stock for trades. For many species that have become
extirpated or endangered this is the only source. It needs to be emphasized that
breeding programs fulfill a zoo’s role in conservation and zoo born animals have
Animal Behavior and Breeding
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been reintroduced into native habitats from which they were extirpated.
Membership in ISIS helps ensure that genetic diversity is maintained so animals
reintroduced into the wild carry a maximum assortment of alleles. This helps
maintain a diverse gene pool in the species.
All zoos have limited space for displaying animals. The increasing success in
breeding animals has frequently led to new problems relating to surplus animals.
Some species that were once difficult or impossible to breed in captivity have
become avid breeders when introduced into environmentally correct habitats.
The result has been an overabundance of some animals thus decreasing their
price value or making it difficult to sell or trade them. Thus zoos have had to
engage in methods of population control. These have included castration or
sterilization of male animals, chemical implants in females to prevent estrus,
separation of males and females, culling herds of herbivores and feeding the
carcasses to carnivores, or euthanasia of extra animals.
Most birds and those female mammals that have an estrus period breed at
specific times of the year. Knowing the breeding season is important as it allows
the keeper to separate males and females during the time of nesting or sexual
receptivity and thus exercise control over whether or not reproduction will be
allowed. There are many species however that may breed at any season and
this strategy is inappropriate for them. From mating observations the date of
birth can be estimated providing the gestation period of the species is known.
The American Association of Zookeepers had as its first project the publication of
the gestation period for various species of zoo mammals. This organization has
also been active in producing an Infant Development Notebook that contains a
wealth of information on mother reared young.
Males of certain species of mammals also become sexually active at certain
times of the year and this may be associated with increased aggressiveness.
This period is called the rut and antlered and horned hoofed species as well as
male elephants may be very dangerous to be around when they are in rut. A
keeper should be sensitive to when rut occurs and be especially careful then.
More members of the deer family kill and/or injure zookeepers than do carnivores
and many of these accidents are attributed to males in rut. This is a major
reason for locking in hoofed stock daily while inspection, cleaning and other
activity is taking place within the enclosure. Remember there is no substitute
for safety.
For many birds the date incubation commences can serve as a guide to hatching
dates. Knowing the date offspring are expected allows appropriate preparation
for the new arrival. For some species of birds a diet change suitable for feeding
chicks may be necessary. A dark den with suitable bedding needs to be
available to many carnivores. Some female hoofed stock may be moved to
birthing stalls or paddocks where they remain apart from the herd for some time.
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49
In many cases, especially in those carnivores that are solitary in nature, the
female and young should be kept separate from the male.
Modifications to the environment of a pregnant mammal could potentially impact
the development of her offspring as increased stress levels cause certain
hormone levels to be elevated in the mother’s blood. These increased hormone
levels eventually reach the fetus and can affect its own hormone production and
development. Thus all pregnant mammals should be closely monitored when
changes that might be stressful are made to their environment.
The final success of any zoos breeding program depends upon the keepers. It is
their knowledge, skills, care and attention that assure the program will be
successful. Knowledge of breeding dates, incubation times and gestation
periods means the new arrivals can be anticipated. This is far better than being
unprepared for the first hours after birth or hatching are often most critical to
survival of the infant. By carefully observing the animals and recording their
behavior the keeper supplements information available for the individual animal
as well as for the species. Sometimes obtaining this information will involve
spending extra time with the animal conducting observations and recording the
activity. Copulation will not always be seen so the keeper must be alert for a
different posture, especially in female hoofed stock, that indicates breeding has
occurred. In some cases behavioral changes and visible swelling indicates
pregnancy and this should be recorded even if the breeding date is unknown.
Many species are easy to breed and zoos can expect regular additions to their
population. Other species have been difficult to get to breed with any
consistency.
Better record keeping and exchange of information has
occasionally resulted in brilliant successes. A few dozen years ago it was
considered impossible to breed falcons or condors in captivity. Today it is rather
routine. Recent successes in breeding amphibians and snakes of the boid family
are noteworthy. Alligators are routinely bred in captivity today and large primates
have responded to better enclosures by not only reproducing but also raising
their young to adulthood. As knowledge of what is necessary to encourage
successful breeding and raising young increases, and the standards of
husbandry rise, further successes may occur but it will only happen when
conscientious keepers observe behavior and record the conditions that
encouraged birth and survival. The role of the animal’s environment and captive
conditions is undoubtedly critical to breeding success.
ISIS
Earlier the International Species Inventory System was mentioned. This
computer-based information system for animals in captivity began in 1973 when
Drs. U.S. Seal and D.G. Makey received seed money from The American
Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums, the U.S. Department of the
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Interior, a private grant and other funds to begin the project at the Minnesota
Zoo.
The system now includes data on nearly three hundred thousand living animals
and 1.4 million of their ancestors belonging to 7500 species. Over 550
institutions in 54 countries are contributing members. Basic biological data such
as age, sex, parentage, place of birth and circumstances of death is collected
and used in reporting the status of many different kinds of captive populations.
Basic laboratory data (blood chemistry and hematology) of normal individuals
may assist in disease detection.
The mammal data collection started in 1974 with birds added in 1975.
Participating institutions receive directories of the world’s mammals and birds as
part of the ISIS material. These include all possible species and many
subspecies of those groups on record.
ISIS has its own web site at
http://www.ISIS.org and further help can be obtained at support@isis.org Their e
mail address is isis@isis.org It is the intent of ISIS to provide inbreeding
evaluation, and demographic analysis as well as to.assist zoos in setting up their
computerized record systems.
The origin of ISIS was engendered by a realization that a spectacular loss of
habitat for naturally occurring populations was accelerating. This suggested
captive populations needed to be self-sustaining and zoos could not rely on wild
caught stock for replacements. Thus it became apparent good biological data on
all zoo animals needed to be available to everyone. Having such data also made
it easier to find animals for loans as breeders and a standard computerized
inventory system helps each zoo with their own collection’s management
requirements. New keepers should contact the primary ISIS representative.
It is possible that soon captive populations may be all we have left of many
species, as is the case with cattle, horses and dromedaries today. For those
captive populations, future existence will depend upon careful cooperative
management of the population’s genetics and demography. This requires good,
available biological information covering several generations. ISIS accumulates
and disperses this information. To create these records each participating
institution uses a two-part form provided by ISIS, and either submits a computer
disc or e mails the information to ISIS. ISIS in turn distributes reports on each
institution’s own collection. A Species Distribution Report on the ISIS website
shows all known individuals of every species and also makes special reports
available on request.
The more than 550 zoos, primate centers, animal farms and related facilities are
critical for providing data. A small staff manages and operates the system out of
Minnesota and they are funded by a number of zoo related organizations that
contribute financially to ISIS.
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Learning Activity (to be submitted)
Use a computer to access ISIS on the Internet, determine the following and list
the contact information available from the respective institutions for:
1.
Four zoos that may have White-handed Gibbon or Lar gibbon (Hylobates
lar) genealogy available in Canada.
2.
Any zoos in North America that have successfully bred the Takin
(Budorcas taxicolor).
3.
Any North American zoos that have successfully bred the Puerto Rican
Crested Frogs (Peltophyrne lemur).
4.
Name any Canadian zoos that have succeeded in breeding Moose in
captivity.
Animal Behavior and Breeding
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BREEDING STRATEGIES
The mechanics of getting animals to breed in captivity is not always easily
solved. With species that have a period of estrus or heat the female reaches a
point where she will tolerate copulation for a brief period. If males and females
are penned in adjacent cages the male will typically be sensitive through olfaction
to when estrus occurs and will rub against the females fence and try to reach her.
When the female approaches the male as well it is usually safe to allow them
together but watch carefully and usually allow the male into the females
enclosure or put them both into a new enclosure so territorial defense does not
precipitate conflict. Female bears have been killed when introduced into a cage
that the male defended as his territory. Species that exhibit a solitary existence
in nature are those most apt to fight when penned together although many zoos
are able to keep mates penned together continuously.
Most zoos prefer to have animals raise their own young as naturally as possible;
hand reared, human-oriented young often imprint on humans and do not adapt
well later to living with conspecifics. Sometimes it becomes necessary to handraise an animal because the baby has been rejected (or the mother is dead).
Then it is best to hand-raise the youngster, wean it as soon as practical and then
introduce it to the herd or group in order that it can learn natural behavior.
Sometimes in the case of hoofed stock the young one is placed in with the herd
or near by in an adjacent pen and bottle-fed. When the mother rejects the
offspring at birth, begins killing some of the litter, dies at or soon after birth while
still caring for or feeding the offspring, or if she or the infant require medical
treatment hand-rearing may be prescribed.
If the delivery requires human intervention through pulling, in an assisted delivery
or through caesarian section, keepers should try to get the young to suckle from
the female. This is so the baby will get the colostrum, as the first milk produced
by the dam after birth is called. This milk contains an abundance of antibodies
and proteins that assist the infant in developing its immune system. If the baby
cannot or will not suckle try to hand-milk or use a breast pump on the female to
extract colostrum to feed the baby.
A baby mammal that must be hand-reared should be taken to the nursery and if
cold given a warm bath followed by rubbing it with a towel and blowing it dry with
hot air from a hair dryer. If the baby does not voluntarily suckle fluids may be
given but a finger dipped in milk and introduced to the mouth will often initiate
suckling. Depending upon the age and kind of animal different nipple and bottle
sizes are required and feeding frequency has to be that appropriate for each
species. The fed formula must be that suitable for each different species. Baby
seals require milk that is nearly half oil. The American Association of Zoological
Parks and Aquariums has published an Infant Care Diet Handbook on handraising techniques for mammals, including feeding schedules and milk formulae.
Animal Behavior and Breeding
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Where necessary vitamin injections may be prescribed and in areas where
selenium deficiency is present all young hoofed babies are given a selenium
injection shortly after birth. Young carnivores may require vaccination against
feline and canine distemper and rabies.
Babies should be kept in warm, draft free areas for at least a few days. If a baby
animal has not received colostrum from its mother, cow or goat colostrum
extracted soon after the birth of the calf or kid and kept frozen until needed can
be used. If the mother can accept the baby for feeding try to encourage them to
be together at least for that time. That allows you to monitor the condition of both
the mother and the baby.
Sometimes young altricial birds may be abandoned in the nest or adults die
before the young can care for themselves. Hand-raising altricial birds, especially
insectivorous ones is difficult and time consuming as they need to be fed every
half hour to an hour during the day. Freeze dried hamburger can substitute for
insects but it should be hydrated and mixed with vitamins before being fed. A
human simply is not as efficient at collecting insects as parent birds are.
Young precocial birds raised from eggs hatched in the incubator do not require
as much attention as altricial birds. However, keepers need to ensure that the
young learn how to feed, sometimes by picking up bits of food and dropping it.
The diet needs to be watched so growth is not too rapid or leg bending and
deformed wings may result. Young precocious birds do not need to feed for the
first day or two after hatching as they have an internal yolk reserve. However,
they are not hatched with good temperature control so must be kept warm for the
first week or more. A sudden rainstorm that soaks and chills young precocious
birds may appear to have killed them but if they are brought inside, dried with a
hair dryer and placed under warm – not hot – heat lamps they may miraculously
recover. DO NOT TRY TO DRY OR WARM ANY ANIMAL IN A MICROWAVE
OVEN!
Newly emerged reptiles and amphibians also retain an internal supply of yolk and
thus do not need to feed immediately. Amphibians with their prolonged larval
period require daily monitoring of food and water quality. Cage mates may
quickly consume smaller animals, so try to separate them by size.
Extra effort may be needed to get newly emerged reptiles to feed. Be certain
they are warm, then, try a number of different prey items. Sometimes it helps to
rub earthworms or a frog over the proffered item, as reptiles seem quite sensitive
to smell. Some snakes prefer dark objects and will refuse white mice others
prefer baby hairless rodents for their initial meal. Some reptiles will only feed
when alone, others seem to be stimulated when littermates are present.
Although baby reptiles may require extra attention the satisfaction of success is
well worth the effort.
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MODULE II
Post Test
Breeding and Reproduction of Zoo Animals
1.
What is a major function of the International Species Inventory System?
a.
b.
c.
d.
2.
Under what circumstances is it not advisable to pen a birthing female
mammal or hatching bird separate from her mate?
a.
b.
c.
d.
3.
when the members of the species are generally solitary in nature
when the species members only come together during copulation
when both mates assist in gathering food for or rearing the young
when the male has many female mates
Which organization produced a publication listing the gestation period of
various species of zoo animals?
a.
b.
c.
d.
4.
counting all the animals in member zoos
keeping records if the pedigrees of most zoo species in member
zoos
making certain appropriate permits for sending animals
internationally are available
maintaining records of vaccination and sterilization of animals in
member zoos
Canadian Association of Zoos and Aquariums
International Species Inventory System
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species
American Association of Zookeepers
What is the main reason for keeping newly hatched precocious birds warm
for several days?
a.
b.
c.
d.
they have not developed independent temperature control on
hatching
they grow much faster when they are warm
if they are chilled there is a high risk of sex reversal
abnormal behavior patterns often develop in chilled chicks
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5.
What name is given to the time of male sexual activity in mammals that
have a distinct breeding time?
a.
b.
c.
d.
6.
What is the most acceptable method of warming a newborn mammal that
is chilled and may need to be hand-reared?
a.
b.
c.
d.
7.
b.
c.
d.
increased activity as a result of modifying the environment may
reduce the nutrients available to the fetus
often modifying the environment increases stress levels which
cause certain hormone levels to be elevated in the dam and this
can affect the hormone production of the fetus.
Modifying the environment creates anxiety in the pregnant female
and this may lead to abortion
Often the stress associated with environmental modification of the
pregnant female’s area prevents her from producing milk.
What defects are sometimes associated with overfeeding hand-reared
precocious birds?
a.
b.
c.
d.
9.
bathe in warm water, towel, then dry with a hair dryer
leave it with the mother and let her care for it
put in a microwave for a couple of minutes
give warm milk using the appropriate sized nipple
How can modifying the environment of a pregnant mammal potentially
impact the development of her offspring?
a.
8.
niche
estrus
rut
heat
lack of proper feather development
endocrine imbalance leading to gigantism
inability to move properly indicated by sitting in one place
development of bent legs and deformed wings
What precautions need to be addressed when raising larval amphibians?
a.
b.
c.
d.
keeping them at a constant temperature
avoid changing their water
assort them by size so smaller ones are not eaten by larger ones
keeping them on a normal night and day light regime
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10.
What is the main way zoos replace animals in their collection today?
a.
b.
c.
d.
purchase from or trade with other zoos
purchase from wild animal catchers
purchase from game farms
acquisitions from government agencies
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MODULE II
Post Test Answer Key
Breeding and Reproduction of Zoo Animals
B
1.
What is a major function of the International Species
Inventory System?
a.
b.
counting all the animals in member zoos
keeping records if the pedigrees of most zoo species
in member zoos
making certain appropriate permits for sending
animals internationally are available
maintaining records of vaccination and sterilization of
animals in member zoos
c.
d.
C
2.
Under what circumstances is it not advisable to pen a
birthing female mammal or hatching bird separate
from her mate?
a.
when the members of the species are generally
solitary in nature
when the species members only come together
during copulation
when both mates assist in gathering food for or
rearing the young
when the male has many female mates
b.
c.
d.
D
3.
Which organization produced a publication listing the
gestation period of various species of zoo animals?
a.
b.
c.
Canadian Association of Zoos and Aquariums
International Species Inventory System
Convention on International Trade in Endangered
Species
American Association of Zookeepers
d.
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A
4. What is the main reason to keep newly hatched
precocious birds warm for several days?
a.
b.
c.
d.
C
A
5.
What name is given to the time of male sexual activity
in mammals that have a distinct breeding time?
a.
b.
c.
d.
niche
estrus
rut
heat
6.
What is an acceptable method of warming a newborn
mammal that is chilled and may need to be handreared?
a.
bathe it in warm water, towel, then dry with a hair
dryer
leave it with the mother and let her care for it
put it in a microwave for a couple of minutes
give it warm milk using the appropriate sized nipple
b.
c.
d.
B
they have not developed independent temperature
control on hatching
they grow much faster when they are warm
if they are chilled there is a high risk of sex reversal
abnormal behavior patterns often develop in chilled
chicks
7.
How can modifying the environment of a pregnant
mammal potentially impact the development of her
offspring?
a.
increased activity as a result of modifying the
environment may reduce the nutrients available to the
fetus
often modifying the environment increases stress
levels which cause certain hormone levels to be
elevated in the dam and this can affect the hormone
production of the fetus
Modifying the environment creates anxiety in the
pregnant female and this may lead to abortion
Often the stress associated with environmental
modification of the pregnant female’s area prevents
her from producing milk.
b.
c.
d.
Animal Behavior and Breeding
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59
D
8. What defects are sometimes associated with overfeeding
hand-reared precocious birds?
a.
b.
c.
d.
C
9.
What precautions need to be addressed when raising
larval amphibians?
a.
b.
c.
keeping them at a constant temperature
avoid changing their water
assort them by size so smaller ones are not eaten by
larger ones
keeping them on a normal night and day light regime
d.
A
lack of proper feather development
endocrine imbalance leading to gigantism
inability to move properly indicated by sitting in one
place
development of bent legs and deformed wings
10.
What is the main way zoos replace animals in their
collection today?
a.
b.
c.
d.
purchase from or trade with other zoos
purchase from wild animal catchers
purchase from game farms
acquisitions from government agencies
Animal Behavior and Breeding
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CONCLUSION
Breeding and reproduction is an important aspect of zookeeping. Many zoo
species require special conditions and care in order to breed successfully in
captivity.
The information on animal breeding provides knowledge of how to access the
International Species Information System that provides a registry for zoo species.
Tips were provided on initial care for animals that need to be hand reared.
A professional zookeeper needs to understand the important role breeding and
reproduction play in maintaining the zoo population. Pregnant females require
special handling and care in order to ensure healthy, live offspring.
Animal Behavior and Breeding
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