SOVEREIGNTY AND PARTITION
1912 TO 1949
CHAPTER 1
IRELAND AT THE START OF THE 20TH CENTURY
1.1 Ireland and the UK
A rural country
Direct rule. 103 of 665.
Men over 21 only.
Lord Lieutenant or Viceroy
Chief Secretary a cabinet member.
Under Secretary in Dublin Castle. Could do nothing without approval from Westminster.
RIC and DMP officers English.
1.2 Union or Self-government? The Unionist View
Reasons for and against:
 Ethnic identity
 Religion
 Economic considerations (fear of trade barriers)
Differences Between Northern and Southern Unionists
Northern:
 All classes
 Presbyterian
 Orange Order
 Industrialised
 Represented by Ulster Unionist Council
Southern:
 Wealthy minority
 Big business and House of Lords
 C of I
 Represented by Irish Loyal and Patriotic Union
UUC and ILPU joined to form the Unionist Party in 1886 under Ernest Saunderson
1.3 Union or Self-government? The Nationalist View
Moderate Nationalism
Nationalist Party (Home Rule)
Redmond, Dillon, and Joe Devlin (Belfast)
80 MPs
Sinn Fein
Griffith’s ‘Resurrection of Hungary’ and Dual Monarchy
Self-sufficiency (protectionism)
Peaceful
Failed due to success of Home Rule
Name was good and became a catchall name for Irish Ireland groups.
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1.4 Cultural Nationalism and the Emergence of New Movements
GAA
Gaelic League
Irish Literary Revival
Patrick Pearse
Joined GL at 16
Became editor of ‘An Claidheamh Soluis’
Trained lawyer but became a teacher.
‘Murder machine’
St Enda’s in 1908
Seemed happy with Home Rule for a while.
Went broke and students left.
This and the HR crisis in 1912 seems to have turned him from being a language enthusiast and educationalist
to being a republican separatist
Socialism
Connolly. Citizen’s army
Larkin. Lockout and ITGWU
Feminism
Hannah Sheehy-Skeffington and the Irish Women’s Franchise League. Home Rule party did not like the idea
or the violence.
Countess Markievicz. Soup kitchens in Lockout. With Hobson started Fianna Eireann. Joined Citizen’s army.
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CHAPTER 2
THE HOME RULE CRISIS: 1910-1914
2.1 Opening the Way for Home Rule
Redmond, Dillon and Devlin V Carson and Craig
British Reasons against Home Rule:
 Strategic Reasons
 Break-up of the Empire
 Racism
Reasons for:
 Embarrassed by bad government (Famine and poverty)
 Clear will of the majority of the Irish
 Disruption of parliament
Conservatives under Bonar Law were Unionist.
Liberals under Asquith were officially for Home Rule.
Labour for also but small.
1909 Lloyd George’s Budget
1910 Home Rule Party wins balance of power
1911 Parliament Act
1912 Home Rule Act. Westminster still had control of Foreign affairs, foreign trade, army, police, post, the
monarchy and taxation.
2.2 Unionists Oppose Home Rule
September 1912 Solemn League and Covenant.
1913 UVF
2.3 Partition and the Nationalist Response
Craig for and Carson against.
Redmond against but Liberals said talk or no Home Rule.
Secret talks with Carson concluded that in order to avoid civil war, Ulster would be excluded from Home
Rule.
What was Ulster? It was agreed that Antrim, Armagh, Down and Derry were certain but by 1914 the fate
of Tyrone and Fermanagh was undecided.
IRB
Revival by Hobson, MacCullough, MacDiarmada, and Clarke.
1913 Eoin MacNeill’s ‘The North Began’
November. The Irish National Volunteers
Women not allowed so Cumann na mBan set up (Hannah and Countess M)
March 1914 Curragh Mutiny
April Larne
June Redmond took over the Irish Volunteers.
July Howth
July Buckingham Palace Conference. A worried King George V brought all sides together but failed.
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CHAPTER 3
IRELAND 1914-1918
CRISIS AND CHANGE
3.1 Opening the Way for Home Rule
Reasons why Redmond at Woodenbridge urged Volunteers to join British Army:
 Catholic Belgium
 To show British fears concerning HR unfounded.
 To win a sympathetic ear in discussions about Tyrone and Fermanagh
 ‘Over by Christmas’.
206,000 joined up.
UVF joined the 36th Ulster Division and were slaughtered at the Somme.
Irish National Volunteers split up between the 10th and 16th. Did not have their own officers. Great losses
at Gallipoli and in France.
Irishmen joined because:
 Redmond and Carson told them
 Idealism
 Money
 Nationalism or Unionism
Economic Effects
Boom for farmers, shipbuilding and linen.
Emigration to UK banned.
Unemployment, so wages did not go up and opportunities for women did not increase either.
Reasons for Redmond’s decline in popularity
 HR won
 Ulster nationalism felt betrayed by partition.
 Failure to get an Irish Brigade
 War not over by Christmas
3.2 Planning a Rebellion
Split in the Irish National Volunteers.
10000 of 180000 under MacNeill became the Irish Volunteers They paraded with rifles.
Redmond knew MacNeill would not rebel unless the British tried to disarm them. He told Augustine Birrell
(Chief Secretary) that they were harmless and to let them alone.
IRB divided
Hobson wanted no rebellion without the consent of the majority of the Irish people.
MacDiarmada and Clarke forced him off the Supreme Council.
They set up a Military committee joined by Pearse, Plunkett, McDonagh and Ceannt.
Casement
Sent to Germany to get troops, arms, and Irish POWs.
So few POWs were interested the Germans sent 20,000 captured rifles and 10 machine guns but no troops.
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Casement came home on a submarine to stop the rebellion as he felt it had no chance but was captured on
Banna Strand.
The British thought he was the main leader and the rebellion would not go ahead.
Plans
Obsessed with secrecy, so numbers were always going to be small.
To put up a good fight always seemed to be the aim.
Clarke and MacDiarmada hoped to win.
Pearse, Connolly, MacDonogh and Plunkett on for a ‘Blood Sacrifice’
‘The Mother’ and ‘The Fool’
War up to WW1 was romantic and honourable death admired.
Connolly, a socialist, was not trusted and not told until he threatened to go it alone.
The Aud
Arrived as planned on Friday but the plans had changed to Sunday and they had no radio.
Captured and scuttled.
Castle Document
Forged. Leaders to be arrested. MacNeill ordered rising for Sunday.
He found out and heard of the Aud and called it off.
3.3The Rising and the Aftermath.
Easter Monday. Bank holiday. Fairyhouse.
Pearse and Proclamation.
Connolly, once a soldier, in charge of military operations.
Confusion limited rising to Dublin and Thomas Ashe in Ashbourne.
GPO, Four Courts, South Dublin Union, St. Stephen’s Green, Boland’s Mill and Jacobs Factory.
Failure to take Dublin Castle important.
Cumann na mBan were nurses, secretaries and couriers.
Tuesday, General Maxwell put in charge.
Helga.
GPO on fire.
Mount St Bridge.
Saturday surrender unconditionally.
450 dead. Most civilians. City ablaze.
Rebels needed protection.
It took a week for people to realise what it was all about.
Reaction and Changing of minds.
British and Unionists saw it as a stab in the back
Dillon warned Redmond who warned Asquith not to overreact, but Maxwell given a free hand.
3000 arrested.
88 death sentences.
Shootings in batches over 6 days.
William Pearse and Connolly created sympathy.
Bowen Colthurst
Dillon rushed to House of Commons and stopped the killings but the damage was done.
The rest got life.
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Lloyd George’s Part
Became PM in 1916.
He persuaded Redmond to accept a temporary 6 counties but told Carson it was permanent.
Nationalists furious with partition.
1917 DLG proposed Conscription. This really helped SF.
3.4 The Victory of Sinn Fein
To win public opinion in the USA, DLG released the prisoners from Frongoch.
This included Collins and Griffith.
‘Sinn Feiner’ had come to mean anyone who was nationalist but not a Home Ruler.
Griffith had not even taken part. He had offered but Pearse sent him home to work on propaganda.
Ashe died on hunger strike and Collins became President of the IRB.
Count Plunkett’s victory in the North Roscommon bye-election showed the IRB that politics could be useful.
1917 DeValera won east Clare.
Griffith stepped aside and the new Sinn Fein emerged.
Abstention and a republic was its aim.
DLG set up ‘The Irish Convention’ to sort out differences between Unionist and Nationalists but SF would
not attend and it failed.
1918 Conscription bill passed and support for SF increased.
1918 the ‘German Plot’ to import arms led to the arrest of 73 SF including DeV. More support.
This also left the more militant in control.
The 1918 General Election
In Britain DLG’s coalition government succeeded but depended on Conservatives and this affected DLG’s
decisions regarding Ireland.
Redmond was dead so John Dillon was leader.
SF members were young and well organised.
Their leaders in jail, meetings banned all added to support.
The executions, the ‘German Plot’ and conscription helped.
They promised a republic without any talk of fighting.
Women over 30 could now vote if they or their husbands paid rates.
Sinn Fein won 73 and Home Rule won 6.
Markievicz was the first woman elected to the House of Commons Unionists increased their seats from 19
to 26.
The Irish people had voted for a republic. For some, like Griffith, this meant more independence than home
rule. To Collins and DeV this meant a completely separate state. This ambiguity helped contribute to Civil War.
CHAPTER 4
REVOLUTION AND PARTITION
6
1919-1921
4.1 The Government of Dáil Éireann
January 1919 First Dail
HR or Unionists did not attend.
Only 27 attended as most of the rest were in jail over the ‘German Plot’.
Collins and Boland helping Dev escape from Lincoln Jail.
 Repeated the Declaration of the Republic (Proclamation)
 Message to the Free Nations of the World. Rejected by W Wilson who did not want to offend GB.
 Passed the Democratic Programme. This was a promise to implement educational and social reform.
Largely to reward the Labour Party for not contesting the election.
April Dail Government formed
DeV president.
Collins Finance
Brugha Defence
Markievicz Labour
W T Cosgrave Local Government
Young, inexperienced, no civil service, no police or army. Few took them seriously.
June 1919 to December 1920 DeV in the USA
Got involved in quarrels between leading Irish-Americans.
Failed to get recognition from either big party.
Got a lot of money
At Home
Griffith was Acting President. He set up an effective court system where local priests, doctors or teachers
acted as judges. Punishments were beatings, banishment and execution.
Did a lot to make the new government acceptable.
Collins sold government bonds while on the run.
Cosgrave made sure SF controlled most councils and tried to end corruption.
Sean T O Kelly in Paris after the Peace Conference and worked to win recognition.
4.2 The War of Independence
Griffith and many SF rank and file thought passive resistance might work.
Collins, Brugha, Mulcahy and many local commanders prepared for war.
The Irish Volunteers were organised into battalions.
Mulcahy was Chief-of-Staff and Collins Director of Intelligence.
15,000 were willing to fight. Guns were smuggled, stolen and bought from British soldiers.
Changed their name to IRA after the first Dail.
January 1919: Soloheadbeg
Same day as the First Dail but the Dail never approved it.
IRA paid little attention to their political wing.
Mulcahy and Collins tended to ignore Brugha the Minister for Defence.
Collin’s Spy Network
Maids, porters, civil servants, police passed information to Collins.
He warned the G-division to stop spying. Some did not so he formed ‘The Squad’. One was killed and the
rest eased off.
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Alan Bell, employed to trace Dail bank accounts, was shot.
Around the Country
Some IRA commanders were very active.
Sean Treacy, Tom Barry, Michael Brennan in Clare and Sean MacEoin in Longford.
1919 attacks on small RIC barracks.
The RIC moved to fortified barracks in large towns. These too were attacked.
Many began to leave the RIC.
DLG
Had to keep Conservative views on Unionism in mind so he decided to:
 Defeat the IRA so he could be in a strong bargaining position.
 Partition so Unionists would get control in Ulster.
He put a more hard-line regime in Dublin Castle.
He made Sir Hamar Greenwood Chief Secretary, General Macready in charge of the army and General Tudor
in charge of the Police.
He recruited police in Britain, as he did not want to call it a war.
Black and Tans and Auxiliaries. Brave, ruthless and undisciplined.
IRA went on the run and formed ‘flying columns’. These men were paid and trained.
Reprisal
Looting, burning, and shooting.
Increase in support for IRA.
Bad press in GB and abroad.
March 1920 Tomás MacCurtain, Lord Mayor of Cork shot.
His successor Terence MacSwiney died on hunger strike after 73 days. Big funeral.
Kevin Barry hanged.
21st November 1920 Bloody Sunday
14 most from ‘Cairo Gang’ shot by the Squad with help from the country.
Croke Park 12 killed.
That evening 3 was shot in Dublin Castle.
28 November Kilmichael.
Tom Barry. Did they shoot after surrender? One survived.
11 December after another ambush, Cork was burned.
Martial law declared in some counties.
IRA under Pressure
In 1921 many IRA in jail.
Many civilians getting shot.
People were giving information and were shot.
Some Protestants were shot for no other reason.
Brugha did not approve of IRA tactics and may have been jealous of Collins.
Collins and Mulcahy regarded him as a part-timer.
DeV, who returned in December, sided with Brugha who wanted more open battles.
This led to the Customs House fiasco.
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4.3 Partitioning Ireland
Unionists horrified at SF victory in 1918 and strengthened their determination.
IRA sectarian violence confirmed their fears.
Dev got it wrong when he believed that once we got independence the Unionists would fall into line.
1920 IRA attacks on RIC in the North led to sectarian violence. Catholics run out of the shipyards. Houses
burned. 500 killed over the next few years.
‘Special Constables’ were set up and given a free hand.
As a protest the Dail had a ‘Belfast Boycott’ of northern goods. This convinced unionists that the south would
try to ruin their economy.
Carson and Craig did not want 9 counties in case they lost a majority. 6 would give them 65%.
The Government of Ireland Act 1920
 2 states both with HR
 Westminster would control foreign affairs, post, coinage, tax and the army.
 Both would send MPs to Westminster.
 A Council of Ireland would handle affairs common to both like trade and fisheries.
May 1921 elections Unionists won 40 of 52 seats.
SF used it to elect a second Dail. No one contested the seats and no one voted.
Truce
Bad publicity for Black and Tans.
June 1921 GeorgeV pleaded for peace.
IRA out of ammunition and many in jail.
The people were tired of war and might start to turn against them.
A truce was agreed. Prisoners were released and the IRA was allowed keep their guns.
DLG was treating the IRA like an army.
Now a republic could not be won.
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CHAPTER 5
FROM TREATY TO CIVIL WAR
5.1 Negotiations July to October 1921. Case Study
By agreeing to talk, both sides would have to compromise.
DLG’s coalition government meant he was answerable to Conservatives.
Dev was answerable to pacifists like Griffith and hardliners like Brugha.
July 1921 Dev meets DLG in London
DLG offered Dominion Status for the 26 counties only with exceptions:
 GB could move troops into Ireland at times of war
 No interference with trade with GB.
Dev rejected these, talks ended, and he went home.
However by letter and telegram they agreed to form delegations.
The Irish Delegation
Dev said he would not go because:
 He could control militants at home
 Delegates had to refer to him so they would not sign anything under pressure.
Some say:
 Others to take the blame
 If he signed he had to support it.
Militants like Brugha and Stack refused to go so they were never going to accept compromise.
Dev tried to balance between hardliner and moderate.
Collins went very reluctantly.
Griffith was the leader.
Robert Barton was a strict republican as was Childers who was to be secretary.
George Gavan Duffy and Eamonn Duggan were lawyers.
The Dáil voted them as ‘plenipotentiaries’ (could sign on their behalf)
Dev instructed them to offer ‘external association’ instead of partition.
‘External Association’ meant that we would leave the Empire and become a republic. Then we would make
an alliance with the Empire and the king would be the head of that alliance.
This was rejected as unionists already had their parliament and the whole idea was too convoluted to explain
to the British people.
The British Delegation
The Liberals were represented by DLG and Winston Churchill.
The Conservatives by Lord Birkenhead and Austin Chamberlain.
Their brief was to protect Ulster’s position and keep Ireland in the Empire.
5.2 Negotiations October to December. Case Study (ctd)
An Uneven Match
 Leadership and experience
 Location of the talks
 Imbalance of power. Big army in Ireland and IRA in trouble. Millions had already died for the Empire.
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Early on it became clear that sovereignty and partition would be the stumbling blocks.
There were tensions between Griffith and Childers who was pushing for a republic even though Childers was
only the secretary.
From then on Griffith and Collins met privately with DLG. The others broke into sub-committees to discuss
various issues.
Partition
DLG promised to make Craig accept an all-Ireland parliament in return for a letter from Griffith agreeing to
the Crown as the head of an association of states of the Commonwealth. DLG promised to resign if he could
not deliver.
Craig would not even meet him but if DLG resigned, a Conservative would take over. His secretary, Tom
Jones suggested a Boundary Commission.
When they reported back to Dublin, the Cabinet agreed to the Boundary Commission.
At least it would bring many nationalists into the South.
DLG managed to persuade Collins that the Boundary Commission would leave Ulster so it could not survive
economically.
Partition seemed to be resolved for the moment.
Sovereignty
Irish unhappy with Dominion Status. They argued that GB would not interfere in Canada as it was too big
and too far away.
DLG proposed an Irish Free State with the same independence as Canada. If Ireland’s independence was
reduced, so would Canada’s and they would not allow this.
DLG set a deadline. The NI parliament was to open on the 6th December. Agreement or war within 3 days?
He reminded Griffith of his letter.
He changed the oath to make it similar to Dev’s suggested one.
In Canada MPs had to swear ‘true faith and allegience’ to the king.
TDs would have to swear allegiance to their own constitution and to be faithful to the king.
Other Terms
 Governer General
 Queenstown, Berehaven and Lough Swilly.
 Special treatment for any religion banned.
Why did Collins accept?
IRA could not defeat British army but if the British army left it would be difficult for them to return.
He knew that the independence of the other dominions was increasing rapidly.
5.3 Dividing over the Treaty December 1921 to January 1922
It had taken from July to December to reach agreement.
‘truceleers’ were men who joined the IRA after the truce to get the glory.
They were often difficult to control.
Some IRA commanders robbed banks, forced people from their homes and even murdered them as ‘spies’ or
‘traitors’. Some just because they were protestant.
People feared lawlessness and were glad when the treaty appeared.
However dedicated republicans were not.
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The Public Debate 19th December to 7th January
The Case Against
Hardliners like Brugha, Stack and the 6 women made it clear they would not accept the Treaty even if the Dail
passed it. They preferred war.
These TDs argued:
 Good men had died for a republic.
 All TDs had taken an oath to the republic.
Moderates like Childers wanted a renegotiation but not war. Their arguments against:
 Canada bigger and farther away
 Impossible to remain neutral with the ports.
The Case For.
 A war this time would have no element of surprise. Leaders were well known. Spy network was exposed.
The British would have the support of people at home and could be more ruthless.
 Stepping-stone.
 The other Dominions would protect our independence or their own would be at risk
 Far better than HR
Popular support was behind the treaty and this may have changed some TDs mind when they went home for
Christmas.
5.4 Civil War June1922 to May 1923
Collins took Dublin Castle in January.
The British had until December 1922 to leave. They did.
The Provisional Government was headed by Griffith and Collins.
They had to set up an army, police force, judiciary and civil service.
A constitution was also needed.
The biggest problem was anti-treaty IRA.
Anti-treaty IRA
Headquarters staff in Dublin supported Collins and Mulcahy.
Most country commanders were against.
Many IRA would settle for a Republic only.
Many liked the importance of being ‘heroes of the republic’.
The British didn’t help by leaving barracks to local commanders.
March, the Army Convention, led by Mellows and O Connor rejected the Dail.
April they seized the Four Courts.
The North
IRA violence continued during the truce to resist partition.
Sectarian violence against Catholics increased.
Collins met Craig several times but Craig was either unwilling or unable to stop it.
Collins arranged with anti-treaty IRA to send arms to the north.
He hoped this would help prevent the split.
DeValera’s Tatics.
Set up a new party to oppose the Treaty.
Talked about ‘wading through Irish blood’.
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Collins and Dev made a pact to form a coalition government after the elections in July.
The British View
Churchill demanded an end to the Four Courts.
They insisted on no change to the reference to the king and the oath.
Collins called off the pact.
Election June 1922
58 for 35 against.
War Starts
Sir Henry Wilson, military advisor to Craig’s government, was killed by IRA.
Churchill ordered General Macready to attack the Four Courts.
The anti-treaty soldiers captured JJ O Connell, Deputy chief-of-staff of the Free State army.
The Civil war was on in earnest.
Fighting in Dublin lasted a week. Brugha was killed. Mellows and O Connor jailed.
By the end of July every town in Munster was taken.
12 August Griffith died
22 August Beál na mBláth
Cosgrave’s government
Cosgrave took over.
Dail gave his government special powers. Carrying firearms a capital offence.
The Civil war became a bitter war of atrocities.
TD Sean Hales was killed.
Mellows, O Connor and 2 others killed in revenge.
Childers executed along with 70 others. It worked.
April 1923 Liam Lynch killed and the new leader, Frank Aiken agreed to a ceasefire.
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CHAPTER 6
1922-37: BUILDING A STATE AND CONSOLIDATING DEMOCRACY
6.1 The Institutions of the Irish Free State.
Born in a civil war at a time when democracy was under threat in Europe.
Building on the British Model
Why?
Most politicians, lawyers and civil servants trained that way.
Britain a success.
The Free State Constitution
 A dominion of the Commonwealth
 All TDs had to swear an oath to the king, who was head of state
 Dail and Seanad (selected by Dail and President)
 PR
 President of the Executive Council (PM)
 Oireachtas could change Constitution without referendum.
Civil Service
British model
Civil Service Commission set exams that reduced favouritism and bribery.
98% decided to stay.
This provided experience and stability but made change difficult.
Courts
British model, new names.
District, Circuit, Court of Criminal Appeal, High and Supreme courts.
Local government
Little change. Selected and funded by ratepayers.
Looked after roads, sewerage, water and housing.
Cosgrave’s government tried to stamp out corruption.
Local authorities took over the Poor Law unions and the workhouses became County Homes for the elderly
and orphans but conditions did not improve.
6.2 The Development of Democratic Parties
Could Democracy work?
The opposing sides in the civil war determined our main political parties.
Anti-treaty IRA had gone to war against the legally elected government. Anti-democratic.
The Free State government had not obeyed the law either.
1923 Election.
Cumann na nGaedhael was set up and led by Cosgrave and O Higgins.
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Sinn Fein did better than expected but adopted the abstentionist policy.
No opposition not good for democracy.
Cumann na nGaedhael
Cosgrave was quiet and conservative. No charisma and too honest.
His aims were stability, to set up the institutions of state and to prove the Irish could run themselves.
Kevin O Higgins was Minister for Home Affairs (Justice). He was hated by the IRA as he had signed the death
warrants.
Richard Mulcahy Defence.
Eoin MacNeill Education.
Desmond Fitzgerald External Affairs.
Ernest Blythe (Ulster Presbyterian) Finance.
The party was never really united and never had an overall majority.
The Labour Party
Small and weak because:
 Few industrial workers
 Internal quarrels
 ‘godless communism’.
6.3 1922 to 1927 Moving Towards Democracy
Two major crises
1. The ‘Army Mutiny’
Some of the army were unhappy because:
 They were being reduced by 75%.
 Trained ex-British soldiers being kept on.
 They wanted more progress towards a republic
March 1924 Liam Tobin Emmet Dalton and their newly formed ‘Old IRA’ sent an ultimatum to Cosgrave
demanding the above and the dismissal of Mulcahy.
O Higgins put the Garda Commissioner Eoin O Duffy in charge of the army over the head of Mulcahy and the
‘mutineers’ were assured they would not be victimised.
A senior army officer working for Mulcahy arrested the leaders in a Dublin pub.
Mulcahy resigned before he was sacked. Joe McGrath (industry and commerce) and 8 TDs resigned in sympathy.
Results:
 Army put under control
 Cumann na nGaedhael weakened.
2. The Boundary Commission
To be set up under the Treaty but delayed until 1925.
MacNeill, Fisher and Justice Feetham.
Report leaked to papers. Some of Donegal was to go to the north and only a small part of Armagh to go South.
Outrage on both sides of the border.
MacNeill resigned.
The border was to remain the way it was.
Seen as a loss for the Free State but they got away with it because the opposition was abstaining.
Dev breaks with Sinn Fein
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Abstention losing them support and getting them nowhere.
Hardliners in Sinn Fein would never take the Oath so Dev resigned and set up Fianna Fail in 1926.
Within a year the new party has persuaded most SF to join them.
Dev went to the US and raised lots of money.
They promised jobs.
Cumann na nGaedhael become unpopular
 Cut old age pensions
 Intoxicating Liquor Act reduced the number of pubs by half and shorter opening hours.
 Insisted on paying land annuities.
June 1927 General Election
C na G 47. FF 44 (still abstentionist).
July Death of Kevin O Higgins
Opportunist IRA killing.
Cosgrave responded by passing the Electoral Amendment Act.
Any candidate had to take the Oath.
Dev and FF took the Oath as a formality.
For the first time all elected TDs took their seats and there was a proper opposition.
6.4 Consolidating Democracy 1927-36
FF made it clear that they were only entering the Dáil in order to dismantle the Treaty.
FF still had close links to the IRA which was robbing banks and guns.
In 1931 they murdered a Garda superintendent.
Cosgrave responded by inserting article 2A into the constitution. This banned 12 organisations including the IRA.
Political crimes could be dealt with by a military court.
1932 Election
Would C na G allow FF to take power if they won.
Reasons why FF won:
 Great depression
 1931 C na G had cut the wages of public servants.
 Dev a charismatic leader
 FF had money and were well organised.
 C na G tired.
 Dev promised to dismantle the Treaty
 He promised not to pay land annuities
 He promised housing and better social welfare
 Promised protectionism
 1931 Irish Press
Result: FF 72, C na G 57.
FF went into the Dáil with guns in their pockets.
However Cosgrave had instructed the army and the Garda to accept their new masters.
Dev did not sack public servants that had been loyal to C na G.
The IRA and the ACA
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Dev released IRA prisoners and lifted the article 2A ban.
He gave pensions to anti-treaty IRA.
Some were recruited into a special Garda force under Eamon Broy (‘Broy’s Harriers’)
IRA began to break up C na G meetings.
The Army Comrades Association was set up to protect these meetings.
When O Duffy was forced to resign as Garda Commissioner, he became its leader.
The Blueshirts
O Duffy changed the name to the National Guard.
Blue shirts, Fascist salute, emphasis on sport.
Membership was restricted to people of Irish birth or Irish parents.
Not overtly anti-Semitic.
Departments to be replaced by ‘vocational groups’
1933 O Duffy announced a parade outside Leinster house.
The IRA would try to attack it and riots would ensue.
Dev banned the march and O Duffy obeyed the law.
Fine Gael
The IRA was armed and Dev had ordered all TDs to hand in their guns. The other parties feared this was a
start of a dictatorship. They decided to combine.
C na G, the National Guard and the National Centre Party became Fine Gael in 1933.
O Duffy was the leader.
‘Broy’s harriers’began to arrest Blueshirts for even the most minor offences.
Farmers were refusing to pay rates because of falling prices. Broy’s harriers seized their animals. Blueshirts
got into fights with these Gardaí.
O Duffy encouraged farmers not to pay rates (illegal)
O Duffy began to talk about invading the North.
These embarrassed other Fine Gael leaders and they replaced O Duffy with Cosgrave.
Dev and the IRA
Pensions, releasing them from jail and dismantling the treaty won many IRA over.
Hardliners continued to cause trouble. There were several murders in 1935 and 1936.
1936 Dev banned them.
Democracy was safe.
6.5 Confirming Democracy: Bunreacht na hÉireann
Dev had removed the Oath and the Governor general and the Senate. It was time for a new constitution.
It is largely Dev’s own work.
Main points:
1. Eire or Ireland.
2. Articles 2 and 3 laid claim to Northern Ireland.
3. President: head of state (therefore a republic, though not in name); 7 years; mainly ceremonial;
refer bills to Supreme court.
4. Oireachtas: Dáil Éireann (5 years PR). Seanad (selected by local authorities, the taoiseach and the NUI.
It reflects the Dail and so is unlikely to challenge it.
5. Taoiseach, tánaiste and cabinet.
6. Civil rights
7. Freedom of religion but ‘special position of the Catholic Church’. Under pressure from McQuaid to
do more. The ban on divorce.
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8. Seemed to try to reduce the status of women by suggesting that their position in the home was of
paramount importance.
In spite of opposition of women’s groups the constitution was passed with a small majority.
Douglas Hyde became president.
Assessment of Dev’s Constitution
 For the time, largely liberal and democratic with exception of divorce, women and the Catholic Church.
 Did not use the word ‘republic’ to leave the way open for an end to partition. Yet, articles 2 and 3
satisfied republicans.
 Too much detail, unnecessary for a constitution, caused controversy.
Why did Ireland’ new democracy succeed while it was failing elsewhere?
1. Under Britain we had got used to elections and parliament
2. It was what the leaders had fought for
3. With the North gone there was no significant minority to cause conflict.
4. Good standard of education needed for civil service and legal system was in place
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CHAPTER 7
FOREIGN AND ANGLO-IRISH POLICY
7.1 Cumann na nGardheal’s Foreign Policy: Making the Treaty Work
Anglo-Irish relations important because:
 Nearest and powerful neighbour
 Controlled NI
 Trade and emigration
Trying to establish sovereignty within the Treaty.
Cosgrave insisted on an Irishman and as Governor General. This was not the case in other
dominions.
Neither Timothy Healy nor James MacNeill tried to interfere in government decisions.
Irish passports were introduced despite British objections.
Ireland joined the League of Nations despite British objections.
In 1926 Ireland, South Africa and Canada got Britain to accept the Balfour Declaration. This stated that all
members of the Commonwealth were of equal status and led to the Statute of Westminster.
1931 The Statute of Westminster
A dominion parliament could repeal any law previously passed for them by the British Parliament.
Collins had been right.
Assessment
These achievements were substantial.
Privately Dev admitted that the Free State government had done ‘a magnificent job’
However they were not easily understood by the electorate.
7.2 DeValera’s Foreign and Anglo-Irish Policy: Dismantling the Treaty.
This would cause tension with GB, so made himself Minister for External Affairs.
Dev was active in the League of Nations because:
 Emphasised sovereignty
 Kudos at home
 Friendly nations would be useful when he dismantled the Treaty.
Bit by Bit
First the Oath was abolished.
Downgraded the Governor General. Maynooth shopkeeper represented the king.
Refusal to pay the land annuities led to the economic war.
The Senate was dominated by C na G. Delayed a lot of Dev’s bills. They delayed the bill abolishing themselves
for 2 years until 1936.
When Edward VIII abdicated Dev took the opportunity to remove all references to the king from the Free State
constitution.
External Association had been achieved.
Bunreacht na hÉireann made us a republic in all but name
GB was preoccupied with Hitler
1938 Anglo-Irish Agreement
Both Dev and Chamberlain wanted reconciliation before war began.
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The Coal-Cattle pacts had ended the economic war in 1935.
Talks in London resulted in:
 £10 million in compensation
 Treaty ports returned.
 3 year free trade agreement.
Chamberlain hoped this would result in a defence treaty allowing GB to use Irish ports but Dev demanded an
end to partition. No deal.
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CHAPTER 8
ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL POLICIES
1922 TO 1939
8.1 The Economic and Social Policies of Cumann na nGaedheal, 1922-32
Ernest Blythe was the Minister for Finance.
Neither he nor his colleagues had any experiences so they relied on Civil Servants.
Joseph Brennan and JJ McElligott were the most influential
Both believed in Free trade and cautious spending.
Both believed in concentrating on agriculture to boost exports.
Challenges
 Only industrialised part of Ireland was gone.
 Only 6000 people were rich enough to pay income tax.
 Emigration and unemployment left a large group of dependents.
 No economic independence (banking and currency and over 90% of trade)
Agriculture
Problems:
 Irish farms too small
 Farmers too old.
 Irish food had got a bad reputation in WW1
Patrick Hogan was Minister and tried to improve things by:
 Setting standards for production and presentation
 Appointed advisers.
 Set up the ACC
 Land commission bought land and divided it among small farmers.
Up to the great depression, exports improved.
Industry
Big companies like Guinness, Jacobs and Ford lobbied for free trade (feared retaliation).
Blythe agreed, but did introduce some tariffs to protect shoes, clothes, soap and furniture.
The Shannon Scheme completed in 1929 by Siemens was a success.
However the Shannon Scheme was an exception as the civil servants were against using foreign investment
for big projects. They believed the state should not be involved.
The ESB was set up to distribute electricity and became the model for future SSBs.
Social Policy
The British had introduced OAPs and social welfare but they could afford it.
Blythe cut the OAP by 1 shilling and made the means test more difficult.
They did little to replace the city slums.
When the Depression hit, they cut the pay of public servants.
The Depression stopped emigration and unemployment increased.
Assessment
C na G prudent but politically naive.
Wide open to attack from FF.
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8.2 The Economic and Social Policies of Fianna Fail
FF’s economic policy was based on:
 A belief in protectionism (popular after the depression)
 A desire to be less dependent on GB for nationalistic reasons.
 Dismantling the Ttreaty, which meant not paying the land annuities.
Sean MacEntee was Minister for Finance 1932-39 and he introduced many tariffs.
Economic War (Agriculture?)
Tariffs, no land annuities and the removal of the oath maddened the British.
They put a tax, equal to the land annuities on Irish cattle.
FF introduced more tariffs.
This ‘economic war’ and the Depression reduced Irish exports by 70%.
The Irish government tried to get farmers to switch to wheat and sugar beet by using subsidies but this favoured
bigger farmers.
Higher taxes were introduced to pay for the subsidies.
Tariffs made imported goods more expensive.
In 1935 both governments agreed the Coal-Cattle Pact but free trade did not resume until 1938
Other Agricultural Policy
James Ryan was the Minister and he believed in self-sufficiency by getting farmers to grow wheat and sugar
beet. Wheat not a good idea.
Industry
Sean Lemass was the Minister for Industry and Commerce until 1948
Under protection new industries grew. They stayed small and never intended to export.
1933 Lemass set up the ICC to give loans to industry.
He set up semi-state bodies like the Irish Sugar Company, Aer Lingus, Bord Na Mona and Irish Life).
He allowed monopolies believing that the businesses would not be set up otherwise.
In spite of the Depression jobs in industry increased by one third but it was not enough. Emigration stopped
for a little while but this was because there were no jobs in GB because of the Depression.
Social Policy
Unemployment Assistance introduced.
OAPs increased.
Pensions for widows and orphans introduced.
They built 12,000 local authority houses a year compared with C na G’s 2000.
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CHAPTER 9
LANGUAGE, RELIGION AND CULTURE 1922-1949
9.1 Building a Gaelic State
Revival of Irish seen by both big parties as essential to real independence.
As soon as the British left some place names were changed.
Irish became compulsory in both primary and secondary schools in the 1920s.
Extra grants given to Gael scoileanna.
Extra marks given to exams done in Irish.
Admission to teacher-training colleges favoured students from the Gaeltacht.
An Irish test had to be passed by those entering civil service, Guards, Army and teaching.
Radio Eireann had to do several hours of Irish programmes.
1937 Constitution made Irish the ‘first official language’.
Success or Failure
Did not stop the decline because:
 Still needed for emigration
 English remained the language the language of business and employment
 English remained the language of entertainment (books, film, radio)
 Compulsion created resentment
9.2 Irish and Catholic?
After partition 93% were Catholic.
Abandoned by Craig.
Some killed during War of Independence and many great houses burned.
They did have wealth and had many big jobs in banks and business.
Treatment of Protestants by the New State
Cosgrave appointed 24 to the Senate
Proportional Representation.
Legally they were treated equally.
Why did Numbers Decline?
 Children of mixed marriages had to be Catholic.
 Poor economy
 Became increasingly difficult to be ‘British’ as time went on
 Growing power of the Catholic Church and interference in education, health and sexual morality.
Concern about Morality
Imported magazines, films, radio.
Women had more economic and political freedom.
Conservative groups were worried that traditional values would disappear.
The most conservative group were the clergy and they had enormous power and support.
Laws were introduced which:
 Censored film
 Banned ‘indecent’ literature. Really strict and not relaxed until the 1960s.
 Cut the number of pubs by half and reduced opening hours
 Banned contraception
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 Regulated dance halls.
By the 1930s Ireland prided itself as a Catholic state and this was reflected in the Eucharistic Congress of 1932
9.3 The Eucharistic Congress June 1932 (Case Study)_
Held every 3 years in a different city to celebrate the Eucharist.
Cosgrave’s government persuaded the Vatican but Dev was in power.
Garda Commissioner O Duffy was the organiser.
Flags and bunting everywhere.
Pilgrims and clergy from abroad.
Floating hotels in Dublin bay.
Monday 20th June Cardinal Lauri arrived in Dun Laoghaire. It lasted a week. Weather was good.
Garden party in Blackrock College and a different mass in the Park for men, women and children.
Sunday was the big mass in the Park. Latest in loudspeakers to be used and broadcast on radio.
Huge altar.
Saint Patrick’s bell used in the Mass.
John McCormack sang Panis Angelicus
Pope’s voice broadcast from Rome.
After the mass, a big procession to O Connell street for Benediction.
Importance
 Showed we could hold a big international event.
 Showed strength of Catholic church and increased the power of hierarchy.
 Made government more ready to legislate against contraception and divorce and may have influenced the
Constitution.
 Important for Fianna Fail as many had been excommunicated.
9.4 Artists and Writers in the New Ireland
At the start of the century painters and writers reflected the nationalist, romantic view of rural western Ireland as
espoused by the GL and Anglo-Irish Literary movement.
This continued after independence with Paul Henry and the early Jack B.Yeats.
Younger painters like Sean Keating continued this tradition (Shannon Scheme)
Mainie Jellet and Evie Hone brought cubism and abstraction to Ireland from France but these were not popular in
conservative Ireland.
Hone was deeply religious and switched to stained glass.
The Abbey was controlled by W.B Yeats and Lady Gregory and in the 1920s they discovered O Casey. After
showing The Shadow of a Gunman, Juno and the Plough they rejected ‘The Silver Tassie’ as it was too experiment
O Casey went to England.
Ernest Blythe who had, as Minister for Finance, subsidised the Abbey took it over and there was no room for
experimentation after that until the 1960s.
New writers like Frank O Connor, Liam O Flaherty and Sean O Faolain challenged the romantic view of Ireland an
the struggle for independence. However, strict censorship discouraged writers and drove very good ones (Joyce)
away.
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CHAPTER 10
NORTHERN IRELAND 1920-1939
10.1 The Foundation of Northern Ireland
1920 Government of Ireland Act.
Created 2 states, Northern and Southern Ireland.
Northern Catholics regarded this as unjust as they had majorities in parts of the six counties.
The Act contained the Constitution for NI. This provided for a Commons elected by PR and a Senate largely
elected by the Commons. 13 MPs in Westminster and the king would be represented by a Governor.
Craig became PM as Carson wanted to retire.
Violence
Caused by:
 Job shortages as shipbuilding boom ended. Unionists wanted ‘disloyal’ Catholics out of jobs
 Catholic successes in local elections under PR combined with W of I frightened Unionists.
Many chased out of jobs and houses and shops burned. 82 killed.
IRA retaliation made things worse for Catholics.
A(full-time) ,B (part-time) and C (reserve) Specials set up. A legal way of arming the UVF. They were effective
against the IRA but were hated by Catholics.
Collins began to send arms to NI.
Dawson Bates
Craig was not a bigot but his Minister for Home Affairs was.
1922 he passed a Special Powers Act that allowed him to flog, execute and intern without trial. These powers
could be delegated to any police officer.
He set up the RUC that had 25% Catholic membership at first because of RIC moving north. However, when
they retired Catholics did not replace them.
By 1922 there was one policeman for every two Catholic families.
10.2 Confirming the Religious and Political Divide
The sectarian Orange Order helped bind Protestants of all classes to the Unionist Party.
IRA activities and speeches of southern politicians reinforced the idea that nationalists were disloyal.
Dawson Bates got rid of PR in council elections and set up the Leech Commission to redraw the
constituencies to allow ‘gerrymandering’
The Boundary Commission
Postponed until after the Civil War.
1924 MacNeill, J R Fisher and Richard Feetham (SA)
Terms of reference were to redraw the border taking into account ‘the wishes of the people’ and ‘economic
and geographic conditions’.
Feetham went for geography and economics (minor changes). The report was leaked to the papers. It included
giving way a small part of Donegal. Unacceptable after Civil War.
1925 Cosgrave signed the Anglo-Irish Agreement that left the border unchanged.
Joseph Devlin (the Home Ruler) and other nationalist MPs now decided to take their seats in the Belfast
parliament as they had no other choice.
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Ending PR in the Belfast Parliament
Economic hardship was splitting the Unionist votes. Some were voting Labour.
1929 Craig abolished PR.
This made it very difficult for the minority to get seats. They would always be outvoted, so until the 1960s
They rarely attended parliament.
1931 Stormont was completed.
The nationalist minority withdrew into itself.
Assessing Craig
Stayed PM until his death in 1940.
Skilful politician. Used the ‘threat’ from the south to keep the unionists united.
He was not a bigot but was surrounded by them
He did little to stop sectarianism or discrimination.
10.3 Economic and Social Policies, 1921-39
The ‘principle of parity’ meant that social welfare and taxation would be at UK levels.
Agriculture.
The unionist government tried to raise standards of agriculture ( breeding, methods etc). The Economic War
helped NI farmers.
Industry.
WW1 had created lots of jobs in shipbuilding, engineering and linen. These continued in the 1920s.
The Depression ended this. Unemployment hit 30%.
Linen became unfashionable.
‘Outdoor relief’ (food vouchers) was means-tested.
Socialists got Catholic and Protestants to riot together.
Alarmed Unionist leaders called employers to give jobs to Protestants.
1935 sectarian violence the worst since 1922.
In 1937 Short and Harland aircraft factory set up with government aid.
Discrimination continued.
Education.
The fair-minded Lord Londonderry was the minister.
His 1923 Education Act gave state grants to schools that ‘transferred’ control from clergy to committees.
The ‘transferred schools’ would be non-denominational.
Catholic bishops refused.
When Protestants clergy saw the Catholics would not go, they accepted the transferred schools and the
finance.
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CHAPTER 11
THE IMPACT OF WORLD WAR 2 ON IRELAND, NORTH AND SOUTH
11.1 Neutrality
1939 State of ‘Emergency’ declared.
Why?
 Independence
 Anti-British feeling.
 Avoid further damage and death.
Spies.
Army intelligence unit G2 set up. Nazi sympathizers under surveillance.
All German agents captured quickly except Hermann Goertz, who reported that the IRA was ineffective.
The IRA
Sean Russell, Chief-of-staff, ordered a bombing campaign in the UK. (2 hanged, Behan)
Dev worried that GB would have an excuse to invade
1939 Offences against the State Act allowed internment.
1939 Magazine fort raid led to the Curragh.
Russel died on a German submarine bound for Ireland (to await arms?).
When Dev found out the IRA were talking to the Germans, he interned 500.
3 were hanged for killing Guards and 3 allowed die on hunger strike.
By 1943 the IRA had almost ceased to exist.
The Attitude of the Ambassadors
 The British (Sir John Mahaffey) understood neutrality and was happy with the covert support
 The Germans (Edouard Hempel) urged not cause a British invasion of Ireland.
 The Americans (David Grey) disliked Dev and wanted pressure on the Irish to join the war.
1940 Churchill in Power.
Sent Malcolm MacDonald to promise Dev a united Ireland if we joined up.
Dev refused because he did not believe them and they looked like losing the war at the time.
Churchill wanted to invade but did not because:
A friendly neutral better than a hostile ally.
Afraid of alienating the US, Canada and Australia.
He hoped that by limiting supplies to Ireland, and refusing to sell us arms, that we would join. This had the
opposite effect.
Defence
Army expanded and LDF set up.
Fishermen and yachtsmen patrolled the coast.
Supporting the Allies
To make sure they did not invade. Kept quiet.
Methods:
 Food
 Many went to work in UK
 40000 from the South enlisted
 Weather reports
 Prisoners allowed an easy time.
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11.3 Life During the Emergency In the South.
Supplies
1939 Lemass became Minister of Supplies.
German subs were sinking British ships.
Lemass did the following:
 Irish Shipping
 Farmers ordered to farmers to grow crops.
 Rationing
 Use of private cars banned.
 Turf replaced coal. Voluntary turf-cutting campaigns.
 ‘Wages Standstill Order’ but prices went up.
People struggled but the spirit was good and Lemass’ handling of the situation a success.
Censorship
Strict. No comments on the progress of the war allowed.
No favouritism allowed.
No films or radio on the war.
Bombs
1941 North Strand. 27 killed.
1944 Election
Dev refused David Grey’s request (‘the American Note’) to close Axis missions to Dublin while plans for D-Day
went ahead.
The allies then cut off all travel and communications with UK.
Dev published the American Note as an implied threat and did well in the election.
The End of the War
In April 1945 Roosevelt and then Hitler died. Dev paid his respects to Grey and to Hempel.
Big mistake.
Saved the day with his reply to Churchill’s rebuke after the war.
Ireland stayed neutral because:
 Germany did not get this far
 Most allied ships passed the north of Ireland and not south
 Public opinion in the US.
11.4 Northern Ireland during World War 11
Unionists happy to be able to show loyalty.
This turned to shock at Churchill’s offer of unity.
The government of NI were old and did little to prepare.
Catholic Bishops protests meant conscription not extended to NI.
Nationalists joined up as there were no jobs.
The only NI person to receive a VC was a Catholic.
700 IRA interned but the IRA had greater support than in the South.
IRA killed 5 RUC
1940 100,000 British troops stationed in NI in case of a German invasion of the island.
Rationing.
Blackout.
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Craigavon died in late 1940
1941-43 JM Andrews took over.
He was 70 and made very little change.
Industry
H and W produced 140 warships
Short’s built 1200 Stirling bombers.
Linen industry boomed.
Lots of engineering of parts supplied from NI.
Agriculture did well.
Sir Basil Brooke
After the bombing of Belfast Andrews asked to resign
Brooke took over and brought in younger ministers.
Strategic Importance
Germans controlled the sea, south of Ireland, so the northern route to the US important.
A big naval and air base in Derry patrolled the seas for German submarines.
After 1941 Americans were based in NI to prepare for the North African campaign
250,000 arrived for D-Day.
The German U-boat fleet were made surrender in Derry in recognition of it’s role in the war.
11.5 A Blitz on Belfast (case study)
Air raid shelters were eventually built. There was not enough and they were above ground.
Not enough anti-aircraft guns and only a few barrage balloons.
Hospitals and fire service unprepared.
False alarms caused complacency
7th and 8th of April 1941
Harbour area hit.
13 killed and not much damage.
Only 3000 responded to government calls for evacuation.
15th and 16th April
90 Junkers and Heinkels came in waves.
Flares dropped first. Then high explosives, incendiaries and parachute mines.
Smoke screens in the docklands led to the Germans missing their targets and hitting working class areas such
as New Lodge, Lower Shankill and Antrim road.
30 died when a parachute bomb hid an air raid shelter.
At least 900 died. Many not identified.
Attempt made to bury Catholics and Protestants separately.
Dev sent 70 fire-fighters north but the water mains had been cut and there was little they could do.
Half the cities population left, many sleeping in ditches.
5th May
Clear night. H and W destroyed and did not resume production for 6 months. Not as many casualties
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Conclusion
Most severe except London.
No more as the Germans turned their attention to USSR
1100 dead
People outside the city who offered refuge were shocked at the poverty of the people.
11.6 1945-49 Partition Consolidated
By being part of the war, NI strengthened its position in the UK.
Neutrality had distanced the South further from the UK.
1945 British General Election
Clement Atlee and Labour came to power.
The Beverage Report and the Welfare State brought a flow of money to NI.
Nationalists benefited, as they were poorer.
1947 free secondary education and generous third level grants.
Catholics made good use of this as they could not get jobs anyway.
The South
Fianna Fail had been in power a long time. Bad for democracy.
Still the biggest party but had lost support due to poor economic conditions
Sean McBride formed Clan Na Poblachta. It attracted socialist and republican elements.
1948 Election an Inter-Party government formed between Fine Gael, Labour and Clan na Poblachta.
Mulcahy had replaced Cosgrave, who had retired in 1944.
McBride refused to accept Mulcahy, so John A Costello became Taoiseach.
Leaving the Commonwealth.
McBride had campaigned for the removal of the 1936 External Relations Act which kept our link to the
Commonwealth.
The other parties were happy to see it go but were worried about trade and emigrants.
1948 a trade agreement guaranteed our free access to British markets.
1948 the British passed a Nationality Act that gave citizenship rights to Irish people.
In Canada, Costello was asked by a journalist if Ireland was leaving and he blurted that we were.
British annoyed but support for the Irish from Canada and Australia stopped them doing anything.
1949 we became a Republic.
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