Metro South Education District
GRADE 12
GEOGRAPHY
2013
WHAT GEOGRAPHY LEARNERS SHOULD KNOW WHEN THEY ENTER THE
FINAL EXAM
CLIMATOLOGY
0.
GLOBAL CIRCULATION
0.1
The Earth receives different amounts of insolation (sun energy) at
different latitudes. The equator receives perpendicular rays and is thus much
warmer than at the higher latitudes.
It is obvious that there is a need for some balancing to take place to prevent
overheating at places where too much heat is received, and vice-versa cold air
needs to move to warmer latitudes to be warmed before moving back.
The warmer air rises and moves to the cooler latitudes, while the cooler
air from polar regions moves to lower latitudes where it is warmer, and is
warmed before moving back to higher latitudes where it is cooler. This is called
the Energy Balance.
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See TRI-CELLULAR MODEL of Global Air Circulation.
*Observe the Air rising at the equator and moving to cooler latitudes where it
subsides in the HADLEY CELL, and also the cooler air in the POLAR CELL
moving to warmer latitudes where it reaches a point at the Polar Front (Polar
Jet Stream) and rises as it is warmed there – and the FERREL CELL showing
related air movement.
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You should now have a clear picture of how air moves across the Globe to
create an ENERGY BALANCE (i.e Warmer Air moving to cooler latitudes &
Cooler Air moving to warmer latitudes)
NB : Also observe the resultant Pressure Belts created by these movements, viz :
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Equatorial LOW Pressure Belt
Sub Tropical HIGH Pressure Belt
Sub- Polar LOW Pressure Belt
Polar HIGH Pressure Belt
(0º - 5º N and S Latitude)
(30º - 40º N and S Latitude)
(60º - 70º N and S Latitude)
(± 90º N and S Latitude)
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Also, remember the following :
In a Low pressure cell …………..air rises, clockwise
In a High Pressure cell………….air descends, anti-clockwise
****This is true for the SOUTHERN hemisphere.
(the opposite takes place in Northern Hemisphere)
1.
FAVOURABLE CONDITIONS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF A TROPICAL
CYCLONE (FACTORS + EXPLANATION)
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Warm ocean - above 27 °C (2)
Needed to provide heat energy and moisture (2)
High evaporation rate (2)
For condensation and latent heat to be released (2)
Located between 5° - 30° north / south of the equator (2)
As the Coriolis force is ineffective at the equator (0° - 5°) (2)
Unstable air (2)
Air caused to rise (2)
IMPACT OF TROPICAL CYCLONES: (Hurricanes)
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Heavy rains cause flooding (2)
contamination of domestic water supply (2)
human injuries and deaths (2)
high wind velocity damages structures vegetation, crops and livestock (2)
high energy storm waves (2)
coastal erosion (2)
saline intrusion of low – lying coastal lands (2)
How to Predict tropical cyclones:
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Satellite imagery (2)
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air radar and remote sensing sounds (2)
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land radar (2)
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weather reports (2)
Precautionary methods
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Listening to forecasts (2)
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extensive seawalls (2)
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vacate low ground (2)
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board up windows (2)
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sandbags to reduce coastal flooding (2)
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good communication (2)
evacuation centres (2)
clear evacuation routes (2)
housing on stilts (2)
strong materials (2)
storm warden patrols (2)
How do we know when a Tropical Cyclone has reached its Mature Stage?
• Air Pressure must have dropped to below 1000 hPa,
• and lots of Cumulonimbus clouds would have formed.
• Covers a large area.
• Has a name (eg. Beryl)
2.
CONDITIONS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF A MID-LATITUDE
CYCLONE:
Two different air masses meet/ (2)
cold polar easterlies meet warm westerlies/ (2) and
develop into mid-latitude cyclones (2) because:
between 30°-60° N/S of the equator/ (2)
warm air mass is uplifted (displaced)/ (2)
uplift results in condensation/ (2)
increased cloud cover/ (2)
which will result in precipitation/ (2)
3.
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WAYS IN WHICH PEOPLE'S LIVES HAVE BEEN CHANGED BY THE
EXISTENCE OF HEAT ISLANDS.
Trapped pollutants could result in respiratory problems (2)
Use of air-conditioners because of higher temperatures (2)
Deterioration of buildings (2)
More renovation of buildings such as frequent painting (2)
Unpredictable rainfall (2)
Increase in health problems/examples related to heat island (2)
Increase in stress/discomfort (2)
Movement to suburbs/counter-urbanisation (2)
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4.
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5.
THE EFFECT MODERN BUILDINGS HAVE ON HEAT ISLANDS.
Modern buildings are made of a lot of glass/steel which results in the
Multiple reflection of heat (2)
Buildings create a greater surface area which absorbs/reflects heat (2)
Buildings are made of concrete which absorbs/reflects more heat (2)
Tall buildings trap heat as wind cannot disperse the heat (2)
More air conditioners/heaters (2)
More buildings therefore less vegetation to play cooling role (2)
STATE THE DIFFERENCE IN THE WEATHER CONDITIONS
EXPERIENCED DURING WINTER AND SUMMER OVER THE
SOUTH AFRICAN INTERIOR BY REFERRING TO THE ROLE
PLAYED BY THE Kalahari High Pressure.
Summer
Moist air
Cloudy
Rainfall
No frost
Small temperature range
6.
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Winter
Dry air (2)
No clouds (2)
Little/no rain (2)
Frost at night (2)
Large temperature range
THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT A MID-LATITUDE CYCLONE
MIGHT HAVE. (Negative effects)
Flooding (2)
Soil erosion (2)
Destruction of natural ecosystems (2)
Loss of natural habitat for animals (2)
Veld fires destroy vegetation (2)
Destruction of coastline (2)
Damage to coastal dunes (2)
Loss of agricultural land (2)
Snow / low temperatures result in loss of live stock (2)
Destruction of infrastructure (2)
Destruction of homes (2)
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7.
EXPLAIN WHY SUNNY CONDITIONS MAY BE INDICATED FOR ALL THE
INLAND (Interior) WEATHER STATIONS. (Winter conditions)
 Inversion lower than the escarpment (2)
 Warm moist air cannot reach the interior (2)
 Little moisture over interior will reduce condensation (2)
 No cloud formation to block out the sun (2)
8.
WHY IS THE VERTICAL POSITIONAL CHANGE OF THE INVERSION
FROM WINTER (Inversion lower than the escarpment) TO SUMMER
(Inversion higher than the escarpment) OF GREAT IMPORTANCE TO
FARMERS ON THE SOUTH AFRICAN PLATEAU?
 During summer moist air reaches the interior (2)
 Precipitation over the interior (2)
 Rivers filled with water (2)
 Farming can take place (2)
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10.
WHY GLOBAL WARMING IS TAKING PLACE (CAUSES):
• Industrialisation (2)
• Higher pollution levels (2)
• More greenhouse gases emitted into the atmosphere (2)
• Greenhouse gases absorb more heat (2)
• Greenhouse gases decreases terrestrial radiation (2)
• Heat trapped in the atmosphere and temperatures rise (2)
EXTREME WEATHER CONDITIONS LIKELY TO BE
EXPERIENCED IN AFRICA: (DUE TO GLOBAL WARMING):
• Droughts (2)
• Heat waves (2)
• Floods (2)
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11.
WHY AFRICAN POPULATION IS MOST VULNERABLE TO CLIMATE
CHANGE:
Subsistence farmers are dependent on water sources (2)
No back up food resources (2)
Malnutrition / famine increases as productivity
drops (2) More diseases but lack of health
facilities (2)
Levels of poverty will increase (2)
Land deteriorates in drier
conditions (2) Landlessness (2)
Poor economy cannot sustain large number of unemployed
people (2) Do not have capital to absorb losses (2)
12.
WAS THE KYOTO PROTOKOL SUCCESSFUL IN REDUCING
GLOBAL WARMING? Motivate your answer:
No (2)
OR
Yes (2)
Large quantities of greenhouse gases still emitted (2)
Less developed countries cannot afford less
harmful methods to generate energy (2)
General rise in temperatures still
evident (2) USA not part of protocol(2)
USA has largest percentage of world’s industries (2)
Coal fired power stations reduced in developing countries (2)
Pollution controlled more effectively in developed countries (2)
Energy saving appliances used in developed countries (2)
Environmentally friendly power sources used in developed
countries (2)
Using biogas as alternative (2)
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13.
MID.-LATITUDE CYCLONES
(Temperate OR Extra-tropical Cyclones [Depressions])
1. COLD FRONT CONDITIONS:
1.1 CHANGES IN WEATHER CONDITIONS WHEN A COLD FRONT
PASSES OVER AN AREA:
1.1.1 TEMPERATURE decreases
1.1.2 AIR PRESSURE decreases as the cold front approaches and then increases as the cold
sector arrives.
1.1.3 HUMIDITY decreases as the cold sector arrives.
1.1.4 Warm, moist unstable air is intensely uplifted at the steep cold front. The air cools to
dew point temperature and condensation occurs to form a dense CUMULONIMBUS
CLOUD.
1.1.5 THUNDERSTORMS and RAIN occur.
1.1.6 WIND SHIFTS occur. WIND changes DIRECTION. IN the SW Cape (Southern
Hemisphere)the wind changes in an anti-clockwise direction known as BACKING.
(From NW to W then SW and finally S). In the Northern hemisphere the wind
VEERS (Changes direction in a clockwise direction).
2. WARM FRONT CONDITIONS:
2.1 CHANGES IN WEATHER CONDITIONS WHEN A WARM FRONT
PASSES OVER AN AREA:
2.1.1 TEMPERATURE increases
2.1.2 AIR PRESSURE decreases as the cold front approaches and then increases as the cold
sector arrives.
2.1.3 HUMIDITY increases as the warm sector arrives.
2.1.4 Warm, moist unstable air is uplifted at the gentle warm front. The gentler warm front
causes the area affected by the clouds and rain to be greater.
2.1.5 CIRRUS CLOUDS appear first at high level, then ALTOSTRATUS and then
NIMBOSTRATUS CLOUDS which causes SOFT, SOAKING RAIN.
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STATE THE DIFFERENCE IN THE WEATHER CONDITIONS
EXPERIENCED DURING WINTER AND SUMMER OVER THE
SOUTH AFRICAN INTERIOR BY REFERRING TO THE ROLE
PLAYED BY THE Kalahari High Pressure.
SUMMER
Moist air // Cloudy over interior // Rainfall // No frost // Small temperature
range // Dry over South Western Cape //
EVIDENCE ON S.A. SYNOPTIC WEATHER MAPS:
South Atlantic HP further south
Western Cape (winter rainfall area is dry)
Cold fronts (Mid. Lat. Cyclones) passing far south of country
Kalahari HP is weak allows rising convection currents to reach interior.
Summer rain over interior
Clouds over interior
Tropical cyclones present
Generally high temperatures at weather stations
WINTER
Dry air // No clouds over interior // Little or no rain overt interior // Frost
at night // Large temperature range // Rainfall over South Western
Cape //
EVIDENCE ON S.A. SYNOPTIC WEATHER MAPS:
South Atlantic HP further north
Western Cape experiences rainfall
Clouds over SW Cape
Cold fronts (Mid. Lat. Cyclones) passing over the country
Kalahari HP strengthens and dominates the interior
Dry over interior
No clouds over interior
Generally low temperatures at weather stations
Coastal low causes berg winds
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STATE THE DIFFERENCE IN THE WEATHER CONDITIONS
EXPERIENCED DURING WINTER AND SUMMER OVER THE
SOUTH AFRICAN INTERIOR BY REFERRING TO THE ROLE
PLAYED BY THE Kalahari High Pressure.
SUMMER
Moist air // Cloudy over interior // Rainfall // No frost // Small temperature
range // Dry over South Western Cape //
EVIDENCE ON S.A. SYNOPTIC WEATHER MAPS:
South Atlantic HP further south
Western Cape (winter rainfall area is dry)
Cold fronts (Mid. Lat. Cyclones) passing far south of country
Kalahari HP is weak allows rising convection currents to reach interior.
Summer rain over interior
Clouds over interior
Tropical cyclones present
Generally high temperatures at weather stations
WINTER
Dry air // No clouds over interior // Little or no rain overt interior // Frost
at night // Large temperature range // Rainfall over South Western
Cape //
EVIDENCE ON S.A. SYNOPTIC WEATHER MAPS:
South Atlantic HP further north
Western Cape experiences rainfall
Clouds over SW Cape
Cold fronts (Mid. Lat. Cyclones) passing over the country
Kalahari HP strengthens and dominates the interior
Dry over interior
No clouds over interior
Generally low temperatures at weather stations
Coastal low causes berg winds
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GEOMORPHOLOGY
1.
THE PROCESS OF RIVER CAPTURE
- Stream on lower level erodes headward (2)
- Stream eroding headward cuts through the watershed (2)
- Water of stream on a higher flow level is captured (2)
- Water of stream on higher level diverted to stream on lower level (2)
CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES:
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Captor river (Pirate stream)
Misfit stream
Wind gap
River gravels
Elbow of capture
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ARE ALL FOUR OF THE SLOPE FORMS/ELEMENTS (Crest; Free face;
Tallus; Pediment) ALWAYS VISIBLE IN ALL LANDSCAPES?
EXPLAIN YOUR ANSWER, GIVING REASONS.
2.
No (2)
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Amount of rainfall will determine slope forms (2)
Type of underlying rock (2)
Rate and type of weathering and erosion varies in different areas (2)
Talus can bury the scarp slope (2)
Vegetation density differs (2)
Mass movement covers certain slope forms (2)
Some slopes destroyed by human activities (2)
EXPLAIN WHAT HAS HAPPENED TO THE RIVER; WHY IT SEEMS
TO HAVE MOVED. (HINT: REFER TO MEANDERS, EROSION,
DEPOSITION AND OX-BOW LAKES.)
3.
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A meander is a bend along the course of a river (2)
After heavy rainfall the water is fast flowing and cuts/erodes into the
outer bank (undercut slope) of a river (2)
Meander neck is reduced (2)
Water is slow moving on the inner bank (slip-off) resulting in deposition (2)
After a period of time when the river cannot negotiate the bend, it will cut
through the meander neck (cut off the loop), forming an ox-bow lake (2)
 Stream will now follow a straight path (2)
 River will start to meander again (2)
 The meandering river migrates (2)
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METHODS THAT CAN BE INTRODUCED TO REDUCE FLOODING
ALONG THE RIVER COURSE
4.
 Small catchment dams in upper course to release water at intervals into
the main stream (2)
 Large flood control dams in lower reaches (2)
 Raise river banks (leveés) artificially (2)
 Line rivers with cement to reduce friction and increase velocity (2)
 Increase gradient by cutting through meander necks to increase velocity (2)
 Increase vegetation
 prevent deforestation (2)
METHODS THAT CAN BE USED TO REDUCE THE DANGERS
ASSOCIATED WITH MASS MOVEMENT (Specifically - ROCKFALLS)
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Cement barriers along the slope / retaining walls (2)
Slopes covered by nets (2)
Build protective roof over road / tunnel roof (2)
Plant pillars into the soil to stabilise soil (2)
Remove loose rocks regularly (2)
Create controlled rockfalls to remove loose rocks (2)
Regular inspections (2)
5. Continued:
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Road signs (2)
Restriction of human activities (2)
Plant natural vegetation (2)
Reduce deforestation (2)
Cut and fill of slopes (2)
Drainage and run-off channeling structures (2)
Reinforce rock structures with bolts (2)
Temporary closing of roads (2)
Cementation of slopes (2)
WHY A STREAM CAN REJUVENATE ITSELF.
 Increased precipitation (2)
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 Increase in volume of water (2)
 Stream capture (2)
 Reduction in vegetation increases run-off (2)
 Drop in sea-level (2)
 Isostatic uplift of land (2)
7.
EXPLAIN, WITH REFERENCE TO THE UNDERLYING ROCK
STRUCTURE, HOW A CUESTA IS FORMED.
 Sedimentary rock layers tilted/inclined (2)
 Rock layers vary in resistance (2)
 Rock layers exposed to the Earth’s surface (2)
 Soft rock erodes away to form valleys (2)
 Hard rock protrudes above surface to form ridges (2)
8.
EXPLAIN WHY THERE IS A SHORT LAG TIME AND A HIGH FLOOD
PEAK (HYDROGRAPHS)
 The land is covered by artificial surfaces (2)
 Water does not infiltrate the surface (2)
 More water reaches the stream therefore flood peak is higher (2)
 Water flows faster on artificial surfaces so lag time shortened (2)
9.
EXPLAIN WHY ALL FOUR SLOPE FORMS ARE NOT ALWAYS
FOUND ON A MOUNTAIN OR RIDGE.
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 In high rainfall areas sheet flow occurs (2)
 Sheet flow results in rounded slopes (2)
 Where temperature extremes occur, exfoliation occurs (2)
 Outer layers of exposed rock will flake off (2)
 This process results in rounded slopes (2)
10.
WHY IT IS IMPORTANT TO MANAGE DRAINAGE SYSTEMS
PROPERLY:
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Control flooding (2)
Decrease soil erosion (2)
Maintain groundwater levels (2)
Important source of fresh water (2)
Preserve aquatic / river ecosystems (2)
THE FLUVIAL CYCLE
Rivers usually originate in high-lying areas and flow downhill toward the sea.
As they flow, the carve channels into the landscape. These channels then
become the pathway for all future water to follow as it flows toward the sea.
The channels may change over time, as they are eroded.
We say that a river has three stages :
Upper Course
Middle-Course
Lower Course (Floodplain)
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LONGITUDINAL PROFILE OF A RIVER
A. UPPER COURSE (Youth stage)
- Slope is STEEP – river flows fast
- Erosion is the main process here
- Downward Erosion dominates over Lateral Ersion
- Valley is Steep V-Shaped (2 -3 tmes deeper than wide)
- Waterfalls are common here
B. MIDDLE COURSE (Mature stage)
- Slope is less steep – and the river flows slower
- Erosion still dominant, but deposition also occurs at a smaller rate
- Lateral erosion dominates
- Valley now has a wide U – shape
- As wide as it is deep
C. LOWER COURSE (Old stage)
- Slope is gentle and the river flows very slowly
- Slow flow of the river leads to DEPOSITION on a large scale
- River channel is very wide
- River meanders
- Many depositional landforms occur eg. Ox-bow lakes, meander scars,
deltas etc.
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SETTLEMENT
0. *RURAL SETTLEMENTS*
MUST KNOW THE FOLLOWING :
0.1
CLASSIFY Settlement as follows :
- Are they RURAL or URBAN in nature ?
We look at their functions (or activities):
RURAL SETTLEMENTS are unifunctional, focusing mainly on
Primary activities, like Farming, Mining, Fishing, Hunting or Forestry.
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URBAN SETTLEMENTS are multi-functional, focusing on Secondary
(Industries) and/or Tertiary activities, ( Services)
0.2
WHAT IS THE SHAPE (Outline)?
(is it Round, Linear, Star-shaped or T-shaped)
We also look at which factors caused this shape, eg :
Were there Cultural (man-made) factors, like roads or railways ?
OR were there Physical factors like Rivers, Mountains or the Sea ?
0.3
WHAT IS THE SETTLEMENT PATTERN ?
(Is it Nucleated or Dispersed)
DISPERSED
NUCLEATED
0.4
WHAT ARE THE ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF EACH
SETTLEMENT PATTERN ?
NUCLEATED
DISPERSED
ADV : - Help available in times of ill-health,
war, etc
- Social benefits, like networking and
sharing ideas.
- farmers need less capital as they can
share implements.
ADV : - Farmers can make their own
decisions. (Economic advantage)
- they can introduce their own soil
conservation measures or
mechanization.
- They are able to work harder to make
more profit.
DISADV : - All farmers have to agree on
DISADV : - There is a lack of social contact
farming methods (if communal)
- Farmers can’t rely on community
- farms are often fragmented, too
for help / help is far away.
small for mechanization.
- require a great deal of capital to
- If soil erosion sets in, all farmers
keep farm running.
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are affected
KNOW THE FOLLOWING:
0.5
(a) RURAL DEPOPULATION – What is it ? Why does it occur – PUSH & PULL factors?
What effect does it have on the Rural areas AND then on
Urban areas ?
(b) DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES – Basic Needs Philosophy, RDP, GEAR, etc
- What is SADC & what are its aims ?
- SDI’s & Development Corridors, etc
(c) ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS like Soil Erosion, Drought, Floods etc.
PULL Centripetal forces) FACTORS: (Towards the urban areas)
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Higher paying jobs (employment) (2)
Better housing and services (2)
Higher standard of living (2)
Better social life (entertainment) (2)
Better education (2)
Availability of jobs (2)
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PUSH (Centrifugal forces) FORCES: (Away from the rural areas)
Natural disasters such as floods and droughts in rural areas (2)
Lack of services in rural areas (2)
Poor infrastructure in rural areas (2)
Lack of jobs (employment) and low salary on farms (2)
Lack of entertainment in rural areas (2)
Crime in rural areas (2)
REASONS FOR COUNTER-URBANISATION (Movement of people back
to the rural areas)
 Not able to get a job (2)
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NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF DEFORESTATION ON THE ENVIRONMENT.
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Topsoil will be more easily eroded (2)
Loss of soil moisture (2)
Higher levels of carbon-dioxide (2)
Higher temperatures (2)
Loss of organic matter in the soil (2)
Decrease in soil fertility (2)
Desertification (2)
Contribute to ozone depletion (2)
Reduce oxygen production (2)
Disrupt food chains / food webs / ecosystems (2)
PHYSICAL FACTORS THAT RESULTED IN THE CHOICE OF A SITE
FOR THE / A POWER STATION.
4.
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Not able to get decent home (2)
Standard of living was lower (2)
Experience hunger (2)
Experience poverty / low wages (2)
Could not afford to send children to school (2)
High crime rate (2)
Close to coal mine (2)
Close to river (2)
Open space (2)
Direction of prevailing winds (2)
Away from CBD (2)
Away from residential areas (2)
WHAT ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEM HAS RESULTED FROM
MINING ACTIVITIES?
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Sinkholes/subsidence of earth (2)
Air pollution (2)
Destruction of natural vegetation (2)
Accelerated soil erosion (2)
Loss of valuable agricultural land (2)
Creation of mine dumps (2)
Land and water pollution (2)
REASONS WHY HEAVY INDUSTRIES SUCH AS THE POWER
STATION AND CEMENT FACTORY ARE LOCATE ON THE
OUTSKIRTS OF CITIES.
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Air pollution (2)
Noise pollution (2)
Bad odours/smells (2)
Dangerous activities (2)
Cheaper land / large space (2)
Bulk transport facilities (2)
URBAN SETTLEMENT GEOGRAPHY
CONCEPTS TO KNOW : (these are some of the concepts you could be tested on in exam)
1. URBANISATION – the process by which an ever-increasing % of the
population is living in urban rather than rural settlements.
2. SITE – the actual piece of ground on which a settlement is located
3. SITUATION – the location of a settlement with reference to its
surroundings.
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4. CENTRIPETAL FORCES – forces which tend to keep the functions
in the city centre, attracting people to the city centre.
5. CENTRIFUGAL FORCES – forces that encourage the migration of
functions from the city centre to the periphery (edge)
6. CENTRALISATION – when a central location is chosen mainly for
accessibility, eg JHB due to convergence of transport links.
7. DECENTRALISATION – the movement of functions to an area
outside the CBD due to high rents, urban decay, crime, etc.
8. URBAN SPRAWL – the physical growth of an urban settlement as
its boundaries are extended.
9. URBAN DECAY - usually in the oldest part of the city, where
buildings become dilapidated due to age, poor
maintenance and sub-economic conditions
10. URBAN RENEWAL – projects undertaking the remodeling or
renovation of (Gentrification) buildings/structures in
areas where urban decay has set in.
 NB : The rate of Urbanisation is much higher in Developing countries
than in Developed Countries
FACTORS INFLUENCING LOCATION OF URBAN SETTLEMENTS
*Settlements do not simply establish without reason. They are
located in certain places for certain reasons, eg :
Human factors, such as historical, social, political, economic factors
could determine location
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Also,
***Physical factors such as relief, drainage, water supply, type of soil
FUNCTIONS OF URBAN SETTLEMENTS
- Whereas Rural settlements are Uni-functional (usually one dominant
function, a primary activity),
Urban settlements are Multi-functional (usually offer Secondary ,
Tertiary & Quartenary functions)
*Eg in an exam you could be asked to classify a settlement as Urban or
Rural……you would then look at which functions it offers.
(Remember QUARTENARY FUNCTIONS : Specialised services relating
to Research, Law, IT and training,etc)
TYPES OF URBAN SETTLEMENTS
- Central Places : are accessible & provide (urban) goods & services to
The surrounding rural population
- Trade & transport cities : established for trade & transportation, eg
East London (harbour town)
- Break-of-Bulk points : established at a point where mode of transport
is changed, eg Durban, where goods are moved
from trains to ship & vice-versa
- Specialized Cities : towns that specialize in a particular activity, eg
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Sishen (mining town), or Stellenbosch (University Town)
- Junction Towns : developed at transport junctions like river road or
rail crossings , eg De Aar (road-rail junction)
- Gateway/Gap Towns : towns that arose at Gaps in physical
structures like mountain ranges,
eg : Worcester at the opening of the Hex River mountain pass.
(Important to remember that functions of settlements can change over
time eg, Jhb, started as mining town, but mines are closing and it is now
a major centre of business, finance & industry)
CENTRAL PLACE THEORY
To understand the distribution & size of settlements we can look at
theories like Christaller’s Central Place Theory
Christaller noticed that towns in Northern Germany displayed a regular
pattern of distribution.
He came up with the theory that there are certain reasons for this :
- people want convenience & cheapest price when buying something
- distance means travelling costs, so people want to minimize travelling
when going to buy something
- Businesses aim to maximize profits, and establish themselves in a
position where this is most likely.
Real-life situation reveals the following :
- some goods you need everyday and buy at local convenience
stores , are called LOW-ORDER GOODS
- some of the more expensive, specialized items you need less
frequently and are obtained at larger centres, they are called
24
HIGH ORDER GOODS.
Terms regarding the Central Place Theory
- Central Place : an urban settlement that provides goods &
services to the surrounding rural community
- Threshold Population : the minimum number of people required
to support a business
- Range ; the max distance a consumer is willing to travel to buy
something from a Central Place
- Sphere of Influence (Market Area) : the area from which a
business draws its customers.
URBAN HIERARCHIES
Low-Order Places : places with small threshold population, few services
and mainly low-order services.
High-Order places : places with big threshold population, offering many
services and many high-order, as well as low-order
services.
*NB : Note – LOW-ORDER SERVICES are things/services that we need
virtually every day, eg daily groceries, take-aways, hairdressers,
dry-cleaners, etc
HIGH ORDER SERVICES are those we need only periodically,
eg Legal services, banking, medical, etc
STRUCTURES, SHAPES & PATTERNS IN URBAN
SETTLEMENTS
1. SHAPES
25
Circular
2. STREET
Grid-Iron
Linear
Cross-roads
PATTERNS
Irregular
Radial
LAND-USE ZONES (Functional zones)
1. CBD – Tallest buildings
- Very expensive land (land values highest here that’s why people build
up and not sideways)
- demand for land is very high here, as it is most accessible part of city
and has highest concentration of clientelle
- transport routes converge here
2. ZONE of DECAY / TRANSITION ZONE
26
-
Surrounds CBD
Buildings run-down
Plots are still very valuable, though
Area of mixed functions – retail, residential, commercial, even
light industry
3. RESIDENTIAL (uses up largest part of city)
High-income residential : Large plots, far away from CBD & Industrial
areas, close to parks, recreational facilities
Middle-Income residential : found in the suburbs just beyond CBD.
Medium-size, Single-standing properties, schools & shopping
centres close by.
Low-Income Residential : Generally flats / very small houses around
inner city- areas (in zone of decay) or near Industrial Areas, or outlying
areas like the RDP houses / Gap Housing in SA
Informal Settlements : Open spaces in the city that have been illegally
Occupied. Generally near rivers or highways and also near a suburb
so residents have access to shops. Poorest people live here and are
plagued by crime, substance abuse, lack of sanitation, flooding, etc.
4. INDUSTRIAL AREAS
Light Industrial Areas:
- usually found in the transition zone
- easy access to CBD
- do not produce much noise or smoke
Eg : jewellery, printed paper, woodworkers
Planned Industrial Estates : - located on low-cost land along railway /
highway routes. Products like sweets,
cosmetics, etc
Heavy Industrial Areas :
located on large tracts of level, cheap land, near
transport routes. This is because they generate
27
lots of noise and pollution. Eg, Iron & Steel
industries.
5. RURAL-URBAN FRINGE :
- found on the outskirts of the city
- mixture of functions
- may contain high & low-income residentials
- land is mostly very cheap here, so functions
requiring lots of space are located here, eg
Airports, Cemetries, golf courses, sewerage
works, etc
URBAN PROFILE –
this refers to the side-view (sky-line) of the city.
Tallest at CBD and heights drop as you move away
from CBD
URBAN PROBLEMS
1.
Traffic Congestion
- improve public transport systems
- subsidise public transport and make it safer & more reliable
- restrict private vehicle access to city centre
- build more parking lots on periphery of CBD & shuttle commuters in
- encourage commuters to travel in lift clubs
Discuss:
2.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Nature of the problem
Causes
Solutions
Pollution
28
- stricter enforcement of vehicle emission-control
- recycle waste
- increase ‘pollution-policing”
3.
(a)
(b)
Discuss solutions to Air pollution
Name some causes of Air pollution
(c)
Name and describe some other forms of pollution as found in urban areas
Housing Shortage
- regulate rural-urban migration
- increase drive to build more low-cost / Gap housing
- rehabilitate street children and house homeless people in shelters
4.
Urban Decay
- introduce more laws to control landlord’s obligations to tenants
- City to enforce property maintenance laws
- Stricter control over dumping & littering
- Stricter control over abandoned building & vehicles
- More Security patrols and camera’s to limit vandalism, drug trafficking,
Prostitution, etc.
SUSTAINABILITY STRATEGIES
*What is Sustainable Development ?
- Development that meets the needs of the present generation without compromising
the ability of future generations to meet their needs.
*Principles of Sustainable Development according to Agenda 21
- Link local issues to global impacts
- Use Multi-sectoral approach
- Show concern for the future
- work within the ecological limits
29
*Effective implementation of Sustainable Development :
- Always consult local community when planning
- Use local labour
- Ensure sufficient funds to complete projects
- Empower locals to SUSTAIN and manage project on their own afterwards.
POSTMODERN CITIES
In the post-modern city there is a mix of land-uses – zones are not distinct any more.
Commercial, residential and recreational functions are combined.
Characteristics of Post-modern cities
- Office & Business parks have moved out of CBD (decentralization)
- Shopping centres exist in the suburbs
- Gated communities are built on outskirts of city
- Professionals practice from suburbs ( doctors, lawyers, etc)
- People prepared to travel far to work
- Traffic congestion gets worse as more people travel, and in private vehicles.
7.
DISTINGUISH BETWEEN A LOW-ORDER FUNCTION AND A
HIGH-ORDER FUNCTION. (Adapted from Christallers theory)
Low order: Needed on a daily basis and has a small sphere of influence, small
range and small threshold population (2)
High order: Needed with greater intervals and has a large sphere of influence,
large range and large threshold population (2)
8.
WHY IT IS IMPORTANT FOR AN URBAN SETTLEMENT TO SLOW
DOWN THE MOVEMENT OF PEOPLE FROM RURAL AREAS?
 Avoid overcrowding (2)
30
 Minimise traffic congestion (2)
 Pressure on resources (2)
 Avoid pollution (2)
 Unemployment in the city (2)
 Lowering living standards (2)
 Informal settlements could develop (2)
 Prevent increase in crime (2)
 Prevent development of social problems (2)
 To prevent urban decay (2)
9.
EFFECTS (ON THE TOWN) OF RURAL-URBAN MIGRATION
 Services close down (2)
 Infrastructure deteriorate (2)
 Fewer job opportunities (2)
 Towns become economically stagnant
 Develop into ghost towns (2)
REASONS WHY YOUNG, ACTIVE PEOPLE LEAVE RURAL AREAS
(PUSH FACTORS ONLY)
10.










Poor service delivery (2)
Poor infrastructure (2)
Poor employment opportunities (2)
Employment opportunities pay poorly in rural areas (2)
Mechanisation of farming (2)
Uneconomical farming units (2)
Farming costs are increasing (2)
Low standard of living (2)
Droughts (2)
Declining soil fertility (2)
31
 Few entertainment facilities (2)
11.
WHY ARE WOMEN IN THE RURAL AREAS SO VULNERABLE AND HOW
WILL HIV/AIDS IMPACT ON THEIR LIVES?
 Lack of social services e.g. medical and education (2)
 Cultural bias to using condoms (2)
 Women in rural areas have inferior status to men (2)
 Increased domestic responsibilities (2)
 Must farm the land (2)
 Becomes only breadwinner (2)
 Must take care of sick and orphans (2)
 Women lack decision-making power (2)
 They cannot secure land rights (2)
12.
HOW WILL HIV/AIDS IMPACT ON YOUNG CHILDREN IN RURAL
COMMUNITIES?
 More orphans (2)
 Loss of primary care-givers and family breadwinners (2)
 Exposed to illness and death on a regular basis (2)
 Increased adult responsibilities (2)
 Child-headed homes (2)
 Deprived of childhood (2)
 Deprived of education (2)
32
13.
URBANISATION:
An increase in the percentage of people living in urban areas (2)
14.
URBAN GROWTH;
The number of people living in urban areas increases by natural
increases (birth minus deaths) as well as rural-urban migration. (2)
15.
URBAN EXPANSION:
An increase in the physical area over time (eg. new buildings and
infrastructure) (2)
16.
URBAN PROFILE:
The view of an urban area from the side to indicate the different
heights of buildings and different land uses. (2)
17.
CHALLENGES THAT CITIES FACE DUE TO RAPID URBANISATION:
Traffic congestion (2)
Growing informal settlements (2)
Pollution (2)
Crime levels increasing (2)
Pressure on service delivery (2)
Poverty (2)
Unemployment (2)
PEOPLE & THEIR NEEDS
SOCIO-ECONOMIC FACTORS THAT HAVE GIVEN RISE TO FOOD
INSECURITY ON THIS CONTINENT.
1.








High cost of production – cannot afford new technologies (2)
Rural-urban migration – younger generation doesn’t want to work on farms (2)
HIV/Aids – shortage of labour in rural areas (2)
Many subsistence farmers – low agricultural output (2)
Poor farming methods e.g. monoculture leads to low agricultural output (2)
Low per capita income – no money to buy food (2)
Limited capital to invest in large-scale commercial farming (2)
High level of illiteracy impacts negatively on farming practices (2)
33
 Political instability / war – impacts negatively on farming practices (2)
AT PRESENT THE WORLD PRODUCES MORE FOOD THAN IT NEEDS.
HOW IS IT POSSIBLE THAT SO MANY PEOPLE ARE STILL
UNDERNOURISHED?
2.
 Developed countries produce large amounts of food, which the
less economically developed countries cannot afford to import (2)
 Not eating a balanced diet (2)
 Food aid does not always reach the people it is intended for (2)
 Increased demand of agricultural products for bio-fuel (2)
 Resources do not reach people because of war and conflicts (2)
FACTORS THAT PROMOTED INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT IN
SOUTH AFRICA
3.









Wide variety of minerals provided raw materials (2)
Wide variety of agricultural products provided raw materials (2)
Availability of flat land (2)
Large labour pool to supply workers (2)
Large market to sell products (2)
Well-developed infrastructure to transport goods (2)
Availability of water needed in industrial processes (2)
Availability of energy resources to provide much-needed electricity (2)
Government support ensures industrial growth (2)
FACTORS THAT ARE CURRENTLY RESTRICTING INDUSTRIAL
DEVELOPMENT IN SOUTH AFRICA.
4.








Distance to markets increases the cost of the product (2)
Labour costs and strikes slow down industrial development (2)
Water shortages mean water must be imported at high cost (2)
Pollution puts more strain on the environment (2)
Larger industrial output places greater strain on infrastructure (2)
Less land available for expansion of industries (2)
HIV/Aids aggravates skill shortages (lose labourers) (2)
Value of the rand increases costs to import and transport goods (2)
34
 Power outages (load shedding) – Eskom’s inability to provide reliable power
(2)
 High price of crude oil (2)
 Vital raw material absent in some areas (2)
 Environmental assessment studies (2)
 Restrictions on carbon emissions (2)
 Infrastructure can no longer cope with the demand (2)
5. THE IMPORTANCE OF INDUSTRIAL
GROWTH FOR THE
DEVELOPMENT OF SOUTH AFRICA'S ECONOMY.










6.
Finished goods are exported and earn foreign income (2)
Results in positive balance of trade (2)
Provides employment (jobs) to many people (2)
Development of settlements (2)
Development of infrastructure (2)
Encourages foreign investment (2)
Increases GDP (2)
Development of infrastructure (2)
Expansion of harbours (2)
Creates a stimulus for agriculture and mining (2)
VARIOUS STRATEGIES (MEASURES) HAVE BEEN INTRODUCED TO
DECENTRALISE INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT IN SOUTH
AFRICA.
NAME INCENTIVES THAT COULD CONVINCE AN INDUSTRIALIST
TO MOVE HIS/HER INDUSTRY OUT OF A CENTRALISED LOCATION.





Government can carry cost of the move (2)
Tax rebates (2)
Provide land and buildings cheaply (2)
Provide transport of goods at reduced cost (2)
Provide electricity and water cheaply (2)
35
 Provide housing for labourers at a reduced rate (2)
 Free skills training / development (2)
 Encourage partnership between private and public enterprises (2)
WHAT STEPS MUST BE PUT INTO PLACE TO ENSURE THAT NO SOCIOECONOMIC INJUSTICES ARE DONE TO THE LOCAL INHABITANTS OF
AN AREA SET ASIDE FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT?
7.






8.
Be inclusive of indigenous knowledge systems (2)
Consult with local inhabitants (2)
Employ local inhabitants in construction phase (2)
Employ local inhabitants in newly-developed projects (2)
Provide opportunity for entrepreneurship e.g. selling curios (2)
Investment opportunities for local inhabitants in businesses (2)
LOCAL AGENDA 21 RECOGNISES THE FOUR PRINCIPLES OF
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT.
 Quality of life must be improved (2)
 Equity must be promoted within and between generations (2)
 A healthy environment must be maintained (2)
 Environment and development must not be separated (2)
9.
HOW THE AIMS OF LOCAL AGENDA 21 CAN BE IMPLEMENTED TO
ACHIEVE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT.
 Consultation with local communities to identify their needs (2)
 Strategies to ensure sustainable use of resources (2)
 Indigenous knowledge to be incorporated into all development strategies (2)
 Local development must be placed alongside conservation strategies (2)
 Local governments (municipalities) are accountable (2)
10.
“Water is considered to be one of South Africa's critical resources. Even though
36
it is a renewable resource South Africa could run out of fresh water soon.”
EXPLAIN HOW PROPER WATER MANAGEMENT CAN RESULT IN A
MORE SUSTAINABLE USE OF SOUTH AFRICA'S SCARCE (LIMITED)
WATER SUPPLIES.
 Protect wetlands as important water sources (2)
 Wetlands purify water (2)
 Build dams with small water surfaces to reduce evaporation (2)
 Build dams in eastern half of country where evaporation is lower (2)
 Less wasteful irrigation methods (2)
 Do not irrigate in dry areas (2)
 Prevent deforestation to reduce run-off (2)
 Above reduces soil erosion and prevents silting up of dams (2)
 Use less artificial fertilisers to maintain quality of water (2)
 Purification of industrial waste water before being released into streams (2)
 Treatment of sewerage effluents before being released into streams (2)
 Education / awareness programmes (2)
 Legislation to protect water sources (2)
 Recycling of water (2)
11.
EXAMPLES OF INFORMAL SECTOR ACTIVITIES:
Selling fruit and vegetables (2)
Selling sweets, cigarettes on street
corners (2) Spaza shops (2)
Hair dressing (2)
Backyard mechanics (2)
Selling curious (2)
12.
SHOULD INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS BE LEGALISED?
Motivate your answer.
Yes (2)
People are provided with shelter (2)
37
Basic amenities (running water, sanitation) provided (2)
Minimise illegal occupation of land (2)
OR
No (2)
13.
Unsightly (2)
Crime in areas (2)
Health risks (2)
Urban infrastructure cannot cope (2)
NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF HIV/Aids ON RURAL AREAS:
Labour shortages (2)
Increased production costs (2)
Removal of children from
school (2) Child headed
families (2)
Poverty increases (2)
14.
MEASURES TO CONTROL THE HIV/Aids PANDEMIC:
Educate community (2)
Generate job opportunities in the area (2)
Compulsory testing of migrants for HIV/Aids
virus (2) Empowering women (2)
Using anti-retroviral medication to decrease mother to child transfer (2)
Awareness campaigns (2)
15.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS – RSA : REVISION QUESTIONS
a) WHAT SOCIO-ECONOMIC PROBLEMS DO FARMERS FACE AS A
RESULT OF DROUGHT ?
-
Stock losses
Loss of arable land and grazing due to erosion and desertification
Decrease in production
Food shortages
Food prices increase
Unemployment increases
Rural depop
Rural services close down
38
b) WHAT MEASURES CAN AUTHORITIES TAKE TO DECREASE AIR
POLLUTION ?
-
Allow burning only between 9.00 and 15.00 so thermal currents
can cleanse air
Enforce use of filters to catch dirt / Emission control
Use Lead-free petrol
Use alternative transport like trains, public transport.
c) WHY ARE SA’S WATER RESOURCES TAKING STRAIN ?
- Population Explosion in last three decades
d) HOW CAN WATER BE USED MORE ECONOMICALLY IN PRIMARY
SECTOR (Agriculture)?
- Minimise evaporation by covering small storage dams
- Irrigate in earlier hours and later in day
- Inter-basin transfer of water
e) WHAT CAN BE DONE TO SUPPLEMENT WATER SUPPLY IN TIMES
OF WATER SCARCITY ?
-
Use boreholes to source underground water
Cloud seeding
Desalination of sea water
Enforce water restrictions
f) WHICH PRECAUTIONS CAN BE TAKEN TO COMBAT SOIL EROSION
EFFECTIVELY ?
-
Veld reclamation schemes
Crop rotation
Rotational grazing
Contour ploughing
Plant trees as windbreaks
Work humus in to bind soil and increase fertility to encourage lush
growth of covering vegetation
- Plant trees and shrubs on sand dunes to arrest soil movement
- Fill rills and gullies with stones for controlled silting
39
16. SOUTH AFRICA – ECONOMICS
16.1
ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES
Primary – harvesting from nature / use of raw materials eg.
Mining, Forestry, Fishing, Agriculture, Hunting.
Secondary – manufacturing of goods / finished products eg.
Manufacturing, (Factories), Processing, Construction.
Tertiary – rendering of services eg. Electricity supply, Water supply,
Transport, Educational services ( Educators), Financial services (Banks),
Legal services (Lawyers), Health services (Doctors) etc.
Quarternary – industries involved in working with Information & training eg.
Computer technology etc.
South Africa’s Economy is dependent largely on Primary Economic Activities,
especially Mining and Farming.
16.2
GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT (GDP) : the value of all goods produced &
services rendered within the borders of a country in one year.
GROSS NATIONAL PRODUCT (GNP) : the value of all goods produced
& services rendered within the borders (by the permanent inhabitants)of a
country for one year.
BALANCE OF TRADE : The difference in value between a country’s visible
imports & exports
BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ; The difference between the value of a country’s
visible AND invisible imports & exports, including transport payments &
services, etc.
16.3 HOW DOES BALANCE OF TRADE WORK?
A country imports (buys) & exports (sells) goods & services. All countries
aim to have a Positive balance of trade to ensure healthy economics.
Positive Balance of trade is when a country exports more than it imports.
40
Negative balance of trade is when a country imports more than it exports
(so it is spending more money than it is making).
17. FOOD SECURITY
FOOD SECURITY: (Def.) : The Availability of food and Access to it.
(FOOD INSECURITY is the lack of food for basic needs)
Most African countries suffer from Food Insecurity. South Africa is in a slightly better
situation than most African countries, in that it has a fairly successful Agricultural
sector supported by a climate which can sustain farming to a large degree.
There are, however, parts of South Africa that suffer from Food Insecurity, especially
in the under-developed Rural Areas.
17.1
Many people in these regions are Subsistence Farmers.
- They use traditional farming methods
- They use antiquated methods & equipment
- They farm only for OWN use, and don’t really produce surpluses
17.2 WHAT LEADS TO FOOD INSECURITY IN A REGION / COUNTRY ?
-
Poor farming methods, which could lead to erosion of soil
Disease in animals
Wars or Political Instability
HIV & AIDS lowers production
Rural Depopulation
Floods or Droughts
Lack of infrastructure
Lack of mechanization
41
17.3 HOW TO PREVENT FOOD INSECURITY
- Work towards eradicating inequality and poverty
- Government to subsidise local Agriculture to ensure it can produce
what is needed
- Government to introduce more rural development schemes that include
skills-training in farming/ food production, also specialized training for
emerging farmers
- Promoting sustainable agriculture practices
- Government to implement Drought management programmes
18.
WHAT ARE GENETICALLY MODIFIED (GM) FOODS ?
Foods grown from seeds which are scientifically changed to better
withstand harsh conditions and grow faster than natural varieties.
19.
WATER AS A CRITICAL RESOURCE
19.1 WATER SCARCITY IN SOUTH AFRICA
South Africa is considered a relatively dry country. Most of our rivers are Nonperennial and fickle.
The entire Western half of our country receives less than 500mm per annum. Any
figure lower than this does not support successful agriculture. (an exception is the
SW Cape, though)
42
Because of our fairly low average rainfall across the country, farmers have to
practise Irrigation Farming. It results in Agriculture being by far the highest
consumer of water in our country.
With our rapidly growing population, water demand will soon overtake water
supply. It has become imperative that we look to water conservation measures or
alternative water sources if we are to survive.
19.2
The following are some suggestions (TO CONSERVE WATER):
-
Education about water conservation, and water-wise usage
Government policies and fines to ensure responsible usage
Better policing of Water Pollution by Industries
Inter-basin transfer schemes
Improved irrigation methods, eg Drip Irrigation
Get rid of thirsty Alien Vegetation
Govt. to build more dams, and dams to be built deeper and with smaller
surface area to reduce evaporation
With increasing population pressures, more production and agriculture place more
strain on our already scarce water supply. We need to use our water resources more
sustainably.
How ?
19.3 USING WATER MORE SUSTAINABLY
- Increase research into Cloud Seeding
- reduce evaporation losses. Most SA dams are wide & shallow. Dams should
be built deeper and narrower, eg in steep river valleys, so there is less surface
area exposed to evaporation.
- Remove alien vegetation to save water
- Extract Groundwater supplies – SA has many underground lakes which can be
tapped into.
43
- Irrigation is the largest water user. Improve water use by farming water-wise,
eg Drip irrigation, Using the Centre-Pivot Sprinkler System, Irrigate early
morning & late afternoon when evaporation is less.
- Using Greywater where pure water is not needed
20.
INTER-BASIN WATER TRANSFER SCHEMES
TUGELA-VAAL SCHEME : Water gets pumped from the Upper Tugela dams, up
the escarpment to the Spioenkop dam. From here water is released into Vaal
Dam.
LESOTHO-HIGHLANDS WATER PROJECT
Lesotho highlands receive very high average rainfall. South Africa buys water
from the Lesotho Govt. This water is transferred from Lesotho via a tunnel drilled
through the Maluti Mountains, to the Vaal catchment area.
44
GARIEP-FISH RIVER SCHEME (Largest Water Transfer scheme)
Water is transferred from the Gariep Dam, via tunnels & canals, to the Sundays
and then the Fish river in the Eastern Cape.
ACTIVITY
Indicate / mark the
various water transfer
schemes on this map
in different colours
21.
MINING
21.1
HOW IMPORTANT IS MINING TO SA?
-
Mining contributed 8.1% to our GDP in 2002
34% of our EXPORTS are raw minerals
Further 26% of our exports are in form of PROCESSED minerals
Mines are a major source of employment
45
- Wealth from mining has built many of our roads & other
infrastructure
21.2
WHAT ARE SA’S MOST IMPORTANT MINERALS?
- Gold, Platinum, Chrome Ore, Manganese, Vanadium
- we also have very rich Coal deposits that are of very high quality
21.3
FACTORS WHICH HAVE PROMOTED MINING IN SA
- SA has long & complex Geological history which has given it a
wide range of minerals
- Most minerals are quite near surface
- The availability of coal close to where minerals were discovered,
meant that power & electricity could be generated cheaply
- Availability of large unskilled labour force who were prepared to
work for very low wages
- SA was part of the British Empire, so capital could be easily
obtained to open and operate mines.
- Reliable Water sources were readily available, eg Vaal River
21.4
FACTORS RESTRICTING MINING SECTOR
- mining is very harmful to environment
- process of cleaning up and pumping out mine-water is costly and
harmful to environment
- most of our minerals are exported, so the industry is directly
affected by fluctuations in foreign markets
46
- HIV / AIDS is negatively affecting our work-force.
- Some mines are exhausted and are no longer profitable to operate
22.
INDUSTRIAL REGIONS IN SOUTH AFRICA
(Centralisation):
22.1 *(Gauteng) / PWV COMPLEX
#
Strongest Industrial Zone, known as SA’s economic powerhouse – WHY ?
22.1.1
+
+
POSITIVE FACTORS (FAVOURING) INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT:
Changing structure of economy – many industries have relocated to PWV
Maputo Corridor has played a large part in strengthening of PWV economy
47
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Many Motor Manufacturers have moved operations from PE-Uitenhage to
Gauteng
Gold mining industry - Mineral rich area, large mining conglomerates
Most large Corporations have their head-offices there
Large urbanized population and many skilled & unskilled labourers
PWV now also exporting finished goods as opposed to only raw materials
Huge population
Local market for produce
Climate without extremes
Central location with transport links
Water supply can be supplemented with water transfer schemes
Room for expansion of urban areas.
22.1.2
-
NEGATIVE FACTORS (RESTRICTING) INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT:
Current power shortage
Cost of water transfer
Air and water pollution
Extreme centralization accompanied by – traffic congestion, overcrowding etc.
Rural-urban migration and large unemployed population
Lack of skills
Increasing cost of land and services (expensive)
22.1.3
TYPES OF INDUSTRIES :
*
Mining (gold, coal),
*
Iron & Steel, ISCOR,
*
Motor Manufacturing, (cars)
*
Generating Electricity,
*
SASOL (fuel from coal), Chemical refinery,
*
Engineering,
*
Aircraft.
*PE-UITENHAGE
22.2
(Nelson Mandela Bay Metropole)
22.2.1
POSITIVE FACTORS (FAVOURING) INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT:
+
+
+
Well-developed, large harbour
Availability of skilled and semi-skilled labour
Fish stocks like Hake & Squid are fished off-shore in these waters
48
COEGA – an IDZ established to create jobs and boost economy of this region.
Motor-vehicle industry well established
Centrally located motor industry
+
+
+
22.2.2
-
NEGATIVE FACTORS (RESTRICTING) INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT:
Lack of natural resources / raw materials (no mineral deposits)
Dwindling economy due to relocation of Motor Manufacturers
Extreme poverty & lack of services in rural areas
No local power sources
Water shortages expensive to solve
Shortage of skilled labour
Lack of investment – foreign and local
Decline in rail transport and reduced importance of the region
22.2.3






TYPES OF INDUSTRIES :
Motor Manufacturers,
Tyre Manufacturers,
Fruit,
Wool, Mohair,
Clothing and footwear
Aluminium Melting.
22.3
*DURBAN-PINETOWN
22.3.1
POSITIVE FACTORS (FAVOURING) INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT:
+
+
+
Has SA’s largest harbour – Durban harbour, which handles most of the
country’s exports. (Closest to far East)
Harbour close to rich Gauteng
Abundance of water due to good average rainfall
49
+
+
Large supply of unskilled labour living close to this industrial region
Availability of coal & hydro-electric power means cheap electricity
22.3.2
NEGATIVE FACTORS (RESTRICTING) INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT:
- running out of suitable space for expansion of industry
- high pollution levels curb further industrial growth
- Skills shortages
- Very overcrowded (lack of room for expansion)
- Increasing pollution problems
- Increasing traffic congestion
- High humidity affects production
- Unable to expand harbour – led to development of Richards Bay harbor
22.3.3









Types of Industries :
Sugar refineries,
Soft drinks,
Chemicals,
Paper and wood pulp
Shipbuilding
Textiles
Oil refineries
Cars
Pharmaceuticals
22.4
*SOUTH - WESTERN CAPE
22.4.1
POSITIVE FACTORS (FAVOURING) INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT:
+
+
+
+
Oldest part of country – historical advantage
Pleasant Mediterranean climate – without extremes
Good winter rainfall supports strong Agricultural sector and water for
Industries.
Fertile farmland for raw materials (products eg. fruit, vegetables etc)
50
+
+
+
+
+
Well developed harbour (closest to European markets) and V&A Waterfront
Large population close to Cape Town
Large labour force
Large market
Scenic beauty & Historic Significance - good for tourism industry
22.4.2
-
Power shortages
Overcrowding due to influx of immigrants
Population pressure puts strain on water supplies & electricity
Far from mineral deposits
Fish stocks are dwindling off these coasts
Lack of skills (large unemployed population)
Far from large interior markets
Water supply problems compounded by summer droughts
Transport problems due to congestion
22.4.3
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
NEGATIVE FACTORS (RESTRICTING) INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT
TYPES OF INDUSTRIES :
Wheat Products & Maize,
Clothing & textiles,
Fishing and fish processing,
Metal works & Engineering,
Ship repairs
Tourism,
Food Processing & Canning,
Wine and Spirits Production
Oil refineries
Iron & Steel
51
23.
FACTORS THAT PROMOTE THE FARMING SECTOR (Agriculture)
IN SOUTH AFRICA.
 High, reliable rainfall in eastern half of country – 500mm (2)
 Fertile soil (flood plains) in eastern half of the country (2)
 Level gradient of plateau (2)
 Availability of water in eastern half of country (2)
 High demand for agricultural products - Large markets (2)
 Well developed transport network (2)
 Well developed structures (2)
 Labour resources (2)
 High summer temperatures increases crop production (2)
24.
EXPLAIN WHY FARMING CAN BE DESCRIBED AS A VULNERABLE
ECONOMIC ACTIVITY IN SA. (Restricting factors / Negative factors on
Agriculture in South Africa):
 Droughts will decrease yields/harvests and income (2)
 Rainfall is low and unreliable (2)
 Floods will decrease yields/harvests and income (2)
 Soil erosion and drop in fertility will decrease yields/harvests and income (2)
 Poor/incorrect farming methods will have a negative effect (2)
 Insects/pests can destroy crops (2)
 Diseases among livestock can destroy animals (2)
 Fire can destroy crops and livestock (2)
 Reduced demands / competition for a product can have negative effect (2)
 HIV and Aids influences health and productivity of workers (2)
 Price fluctuations difficult for farmers to make profits (2)
52
W. R. Prinsloo
53