FUNDAMENTALS OF ETHICS
The Origin of Ethics
 Ethics comes from the Greek word ethos, meaning character.
Ethics, in ancient Greece, was concerned with the development of
a virtuous and moral character. The Greeks believed that
developing character would lead one not only to knowing the right
thing to do, but to actually doing the right thing or living the right
way of life.
 Socrates, the great Greek moralist was the first to recognize the
value of questions that affect how a person should live. He made
his investigations through a process which philosophers today call
the Socratic method.
 Socratic method consists of asking people questions about ideas
they presumably know about. Usually, it begins by asking for an
essential or analytic definition of a concept(e.g. justice, good, etc.)
 To Socrates, an unexamined life is not worth living. (his philosophy)
The Need to Study Ethics
1. To clear why one act is better than another.
2. To have an orderly social life.
3. To intelligently appraised and criticized moral conduct and ethical
systems.
4. To point out the true values of life.
Assumptions of Ethics
Assumptions are fundamental beliefs or statements that are
accepted to be true without the burden of proving or of proof.
1. Man is a rational being.
2. Man is free.
The Objects of Ethics
1. The Physical Object of Ethics – the doer of an act is the physical
object of ethics (i.e., moral agent). The physical object of ethics
does not only refer to a person, but to an institution (e.g., the
business firm, the government, etc.) and to other forms of social
organization (e.g., nongovernmental organizations, clubs, fraternity
associations, etc.,) that perform moral actions and other rational
activities such as decision making, moral calculations, etc.
2. The Nonphysical Object of Ethics – the action done by the moral
agent, such as the act of telling the truth, helping others in distress,
fulfilling a promise, forgiving others’ trespasses, humility, including
malicious deeds, such as murder, stealing, lying, etc. are called the
nonphysical object of ethics. Though considering the nature of the
moral agent is important in ethical analysis, it is the act, and not the
doer of the act which is considered to be the formal objects of
ethics.
General Forms of Acts
a. Acts of Man
1. Involuntary Natural Acts – these include the involuntary,
intuitive or reflex acts exhibited by man, such as the blinking
of the eye, the beating of the heart, sneezing, yawning,
breathing, scratching, etc. When eating, are you always
aware of the way you chew or swallow your food? Probably
not, unless you just had dental surgery, or are suffering from
tonsillitis (inflammation of the gums). Try doing the following
and confirm for yourself if they are indeed involuntary:
a. Stop blinking for five to ten minutes.
b. Stop breathing for five minutes.
c. Stop your heart from beating.
d. Stop your stomach from digesting the food you have
taken during breakfast.
2. Voluntary Natural Acts – these include voluntary and natural,
but not necessarily reflexive acts, such as sleeping, eating,
drinking, etc. These types are actions we usually perform as
part of our daily, socially learned activities, such as brushing
our teeth, combing our hair, cutting our nails, taking a bath,
etc.
b. Human Acts – the second general form of act. Human acts include
actions that are conscious, deliberate, intentional, voluntary and
are within the preview of human value judgment. Human acts are
either moral or immoral. These actions are product of man’s
rationality and freedom of choice – like telling the truth, helping
others in distress, caring for the sick, etc. Since moral acts contain
the elements that allow for moral judgment and setting of moral
responsibility. These acts are then said to be formal object of ethics.
Classification of Human Acts
Acts are judged as to their moral worth based on conformity to
standards or norms of morality. Human acts are classified into the
following:
1. Moral or ethical acts – these are human acts that observe or
conform to a standard or norm of morality.
2. Immoral or unethical acts – these are human acts that violate
or deviate from a standard of morality. Immoral/ unethical
actions may include, refusing to help others in distress,
cheating in an examination, speaking ill of others, etc.
3. Amoral or Neutral Acts – do not apply to human acts
because human acts can either be moral or immoral but not
morally neutral. Instead, the classification applies to nonmoral
acts (acts of man).
Components of Moral Act:
1. The intention or motive of the act.
2. The means of the act. The act or object employed to carry
out the intent of the act.
3. The end of the act. The intent of the act is assumed to be
always directed toward a desired end or a perceived good.
It becomes the basis or foundation for the intent of the act.