INTERNAL RELEASE
CitySolar Community Capacity Building Program
Townsville Residential Energy
Demand Program (TRED Program)
Identification and Assessment of Homeowner Behaviours
Related to Reducing Residential Energy Demand
Behaviours Assessment Database
Completion Date:
September 2008
Townsville CitySolar Community Capacity Building Program
Identification and Assessment of Homeowner Behaviours Related to Reducing Residential Energy Demand
Acknowledgements
This document has been developed through funding from the Australian Government Solar
Cities Program and the Townsville City Council (Townsville Queensland Solar City). The
document has been developed by members of the The Natural Edge Project (TNEP), a
non-profit sustainable development research and education think-tank, supported by the
Griffith University Urban Research Program under the supervision of Professor Brendan
Gleeson and Dr Stephen Horton. The principle researchers were Karlson ‘Charlie’
Hargroves (TNEP Director), and Cheryl Desha (TNEP Deputy) and the research team
included Angie Reeve (TNEP Research Officer), and Stacey Hargroves (TNEP
Professional Editor). The research was carried out under the direction of, and in
collaboration with, Greg Bruce and the team from Townsville City Council Integrated
Sustainability Services, including Rebecca Lee, Andrew Morris, Sri Suryati, and Damien
Sweeny. This document is based on the methodology of ‘Community Based Social
Marketing’ (CBSM) with its developer Dr Doug McKenzie-Mohr engaged by Townsville
City Council to provided direct advice and review of deliverables with respect to applying
the methodology in Townsville.
The development of this document was greatly enhanced through the significant
contribution by a volunteer expert review panel, including (in alphabetical order): Geoff
Brown (Tangent Consulting), Jane Bullock (LGIS ClimateSmart Initiative), Dr Mike Dennis
(Australian National University), Lars Henrickson (Seattle City Light, USA), Ms Robin Knox
(COOLmob), Dr Peter Miller (ACT Home Energy Advisory Team), Adjunct Professor Alan
Pears (Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology), Dr Hugh Saddler (Energy Strategies), Dr
Philip Schneider (James Cook University), Jessica Steinborner (Moreland Energy
Foundation), Associate Professor Ahmad Zahedi (James Cook University), with special
acknowledgement for the comprehensive review by Alan Pears.
Disclaimer
While reasonable efforts have been made to ensure that the contents of this publication
are factually correct, the parties involved in the development of this document do not
accept responsibility for the accuracy or completeness of the contents. Information,
recommendations and opinions expressed herein are not intended to address the specific
circumstances of any particular individual or entity and should not be relied upon for
personal, legal, financial or other decisions. The user must make its own assessment of
the suitability of the information or material contained herein for its use. To the extent
permitted by law, the parties involved in the development of this document exclude all
liability to any other party for expenses, losses, damages and costs (whether losses were
foreseen, foreseeable, known or otherwise) arising directly or indirectly from using this
document. This document is produced for general information only and does not represent
a statement of the policy of the Commonwealth of Australia or the Townsville City Council.
The Commonwealth of Australia, Townsville City Council and all persons acting to prepare
this report accept no liability for the accuracy of or inferences from the material contained
in this publication, or for any action as a result of any person’s or group’s interpretations,
deductions, conclusions or actions in relying on this material.
Academic Citation
Hargroves, K., Desha, C., and Reeve, A. (2010) ‘Identification and Assessment of
Homeowner Behaviours Related to Reducing Residential Energy Demand: Report to the
Townsville CitySolar Community Capacity Building Program’, The Natural Edge Project,
Griffith University, Australia.
Any enquiries about this document should be directed to:
Mr Greg Bruce
Executive Manager
Integrated Sustainability Services
Townsville City Council
greg.bruce@townsville.qld.gov.au
www.townsville.qld.gov.au
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Table of Contents
1.
Fostering the Reduction of Residential Energy Demand ................................................ 4
1.1
Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 4
1.2
Database Development Process ........................................................................................ 5
1.3
The Townsville Context...................................................................................................... 5
1.4
Research Considerations and Assumptions ....................................................................... 6
2.
Residential Energy Demand Reduction Behaviours ....................................................... 8
2.1
Reducing Electricity Consumption – Hot Water Systems (~28%) ..................................... 15
2.2
Reducing Electricity Consumption – Kitchen Appliances (Fridge 14%, Cooking 5%,
Dishwasher 1%)............................................................................................................... 44
2.3
Reducing Electricity Consumption – Entertainment Equipment (TV/VCR 3%) ............... 101
2.4
Reducing Electricity Consumption – Laundry Appliances and Bathroom (Clothes 2%) .. 126
2.5
Reducing Electricity Consumption – Pools, Hot Tubs and Saunas ................................. 159
2.6
Reducing Electricity Consumption – Heating & Cooling (Cool 14%, Heat 4%) ............... 167
2.7
Complimenting Energy Efficiency Behaviours with Onsite Generation ........................... 243
2.8
Options for House Construction and Retrofit .................................................................. 255
2.9
Additional Behaviours related to housing construction ................................................... 291
2.10 References .................................................................................................................... 298
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1. Fostering the Reduction of Residential Energy Demand
1.1
Introduction
In 2006, Townsville was announced as Queensland's only ‘Solar City’. The Australian
Government’s Solar Cities program is a partnership between all levels of government, industry,
business and local communities to trial sustainable energy solutions. In seven key locations,
Solar Cities partnerships are helping to save energy, increase up-take of Australia’s leadingedge solar technologies, reward energy efficiency and solar power generation, and showcase
the economic and environmental benefits of wiser energy choices. Solar Cities initiatives are
changing the way we view and use energy. Information collected will show how different
approaches influence energy use and will inform future energy policies. Solar Cities is creating a
new energy future for Australia.
Commencing in mid-2007 Townsville’s Solar City initiative consists of several synergistic
projects including: Magnetic Island (Solar Suburb), two Greenfield sites, and a sustainable CBD
building, in addition to city-wide education and community capacity building. As part of the
‘Townsville Queensland Solar City’ project, the Townsville City Council, working closely with the
solar city consortium partners including Ergon Energy, initiated a program focused on
community capacity building, named the ‘CitySolar Community Capacity Building Program’. This
program includes a project to investigate methods of fostering sustainable behaviour related to
residential energy demand. This project, the ‘Townsville Residential Energy Demand Program’,
seeks to identify and investigate a number of options to encourage residents (specifically home
owners) to reduce household energy demand that are suitable for application in Townsville. The
program is intended to provide valuable information and guidance to the Council regarding
effective methods to encourage and assist residents to reduce energy demand in the home.
Reducing energy demand in the home has two main benefits to the home owner, firstly the
reduction of direct energy costs, and secondly a reduction in the consumption of fossil based
electricity and hence a reduced contribution to the generation of greenhouse gas emissions.
Furthermore, such reductions can also provide a range of in-direct economic benefits such as
reducing costs to energy utilities to provide energy during peak times, reducing costs related to
maintenance of the electricity grid, creating new industries for low energy consuming products,
and reducing future liability against costs related to carbon pollution abatement. Hence with
strong benefits to both residents and businesses in Townsville the reduction of residential
energy demand is an important consideration for the future of Townsville.
This document forms part of the ‘Townsville Residential Energy Demand Program’ and contains
the complete findings of an extensive investigation based on the ‘Community Based Social
Marketing’ (CBSM) methodology into specific behaviours that can lead to a reduction in energy
consumption in the home. This investigation considered a list of 241 behaviours that were
considered to be able to reduce electricity consumption of residential households in Townsville,
identified through a thorough literature review and expert peer review process. Each behaviour
has been assessed based on its likely impact if undertaken (such as the specific energy demand
reduction from changing an incandescent light bulb to a compact florescent lamp), and on the
likelihood that such a behaviour will be implemented in the community (considering cost,
technical complexity, aesthetics etc). As per the recommendations of the CBSM methodology
the investigation considered any viable option to minimise consumption, even in cases where a
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behaviour seems highly insignificant in terms of impact, or virtually inconceivable in terms of
likelihood.
1.2
Database Development Process
The development of this document has been undertaken inline with the CBSM methodology and
has been directly advised by Dr Doug McKenzie-Mohr. The following summary provides an
overview of the process undertaken:
a. A detailed review of the CBSM methodology was undertaken by the research team to
produce an internal work plan for the process, including attending training by and
undertaking personal interviews with Dr McKenzie-Mohr, in order to gain a strong
understanding of the process, language and requirements. By joining the ‘CBSM list-serv’,
the team was also able to make contact with other groups seeking to implement the CBSM
methodology around the world, and to be alerted of new and ongoing efforts in the area. The
list-serv was continually monitored throughout the development of this database.
b. An extensive review of existing residential energy demand literature, including publications,
documents, websites, projects and databases provided the basis of this database, and was
supplemented through the use of intuition and experiences of the research team, along with
expert peer review listed in the preliminaries above.
c. Following the development of the initial list of potential behaviours, many of the same
resources were revisited to inform an investigation into the relative ‘impact’ and ‘likelihood’ of
each behaviour, and to investigate whether any government policies or incentives already
existed which might affect the behaviour. For many of the behaviours a wider search was
needed to identify such information. As per the CBSM methodology each behaviour was
assigned a preliminary rating, from 1 to 5, to suggest both it’s potential ‘impact’ and
‘likelihood’.
d. The full list of the behaviours, without the findings on the relative impact and likelihood or the
preliminary ratings from the previous step, was sent to the expert review panel. Of the 15
members on the panel from Australia and abroad 9 nine members responded and provided
suggested ratings and additional comments for the various behaviours. The research team
would like to particularly acknowledge the extensive review undertaken by Professor Alan
Pears, providing the benchmark for consideration of the impact of behaviours to allow a
normalisation of the variant review contributions. The results of the peer review lead to
specific amendments to the preliminary ratings for ‘impact’ and ‘likelihood’.
1.3
The Townsville Context
The target audience is home owners in Townsville, representing 57% of the occupied separate
homes in Townsville. According to the ABS, in 2006 Townsville had 53,225 occupied homes
with 78% of these comes homes being separate houses, and 57% of them being fully owned or
under purchase.1 Assumptions about the level and type of consumption within residential homes
in Townsville were informed by Ergon Energy and included:
1
Australian Bureau of Statistics website http://www.censusdata.abs.gov.au/ABSNavigation/prenav/LocationSearch?collection=Census&period=2006&areacode=3057&produ
cttype=QuickStats&breadcrumb=PL&action=401
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1. The average consumption of electricity for homes in the Townsville area was assumed to be
6,200kWh/yr (an average of 17kWh/day),
2. The average consumption of electricity for homes in Townsville for the purpose of hot water
heating was assumed to be 2,100kWh/yr. It is noted that this is an estimation of the average
consumption of electricity for hot water heating and that the figure will vary between
households depending on the size of the storage tank, the volume of hot water use, the
temperature of the thermostat, the amount of insulation, patterns of use, the location of hot
water consuming appliances and outlets, as well as a number of other factors.
a) The average consumption of electricity for homes in Townsville for the purpose of general
lighting and appliances was assumed to be 4,100kWh/yr.
1.4
Research Considerations and Assumptions
Throughout the process of creating this behaviour database, it was necessary to make several
assumptions regarding the CBSM process, as outlined below.
- The impact calculations within this investigation have been performed without consideration to
the overall portion of the population to which they might relate, but are rather focused on a
particularly house hold level. For instance, the portion of homes in Townsville using an electric
water heater (to which numerous behaviours relate) is likely to be higher than those with
electric towel heaters or heated spas. Hence the impact of behaviours which relate to hot
water heating will have a greater overall impact on community energy demand, which is not
reflected in the investigation as it is focused at the individual home to reduce such complexity,
however selection of behaviours for further investigation will consider this aspect.
- Similarly, the likelihood estimations are intended to reflect the likelihood of those individuals to
whom the behaviour relates undertaking the behaviour. For instance, if only ten percent of
households use a hair dryer, then the likelihood is an assessment of how likely that ten
percent are to change this behaviour. It does not reflect the fact that this behaviour only
relates to ten percent of the population, however selection of behaviours for further
investigation will consider this aspect.
- The impact of undertaking several behaviours is assumed in most cases to be antagonistic,
meaning that as more behaviours are undertaken, their cumulative impact will be less than the
sum of their individual impacts might suggest. For instance, if the pipes and tank of the hot
water system are insulated to prevent heat losses, then the impact of those behaviours which
seek to save energy through minimising the number of times which the hot water is used will
be less than has been assumed here.
- The likelihood of every behaviour, as for its impact, has been considered and calculated for
that behaviour in isolation. It is conceivable, however, that behaviours may come in ‘sets’,
such that if one behaviour is performed, others will become more likely. This is in keeping with
the findings of the research investigation into behavioural change which suggests that
residents may modify their attitudes and self perceptions to match their behaviours. Hence, if
households undertake one behaviour, which has been rated with a low impact, it may have the
additional impact of encouraging other similar behaviours such that the household’s behaviour
is inline with their self perception of themselves as an ‘energy efficient’ household. Thus
behaviours with a low impact but a high likelihood should perhaps be considered for their
broader impact, and the possibility that they may make other behaviours more likely.
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- The likelihood of behaviours has been estimated based on whether it is undertaken for any
reason, and not solely to reduce energy demand.
- When calculating the impact of behaviours, it is assumed that those behaviours which prevent
the increase of a household’s electricity consumption by a certain amount are equivalent to
those behaviours which would reduce their existing consumption by the same amount. It is
recognised that this assumption may not be entirely valid, however for the purposes of this
investigation and for greater simplicity, it is considered an acceptable approximation.
- It is assumed that, as all behaviours seek to reduce the mains electricity consumption of a
household, they will also reduce electricity costs. For those behaviours which do not involve a
financial outlay, it is assumed that this will provide incentive to the household. This has not
been listed for every behaviour, as it is assumed to relate to all behaviours, in relative
proportion to the amount by which they reduce the annual electricity consumption. This is
reflected in the impact rating of the behaviour.
- The impacts have been calculated based on the current efficiency of appliances on the
market. This may poorly represent the impact of some behaviours. For instance, for those
behaviours which relate to lighting, it is likely that within several years the amount of electricity
consumed by lighting will decrease significantly as the efficiency of bulbs increases due to
Federal regulations. Hence those behaviours which limit the use of lights will have a lower
impact. Similarly the impact of those behaviours which relate to the use of appliances have
been calculated based on the efficiency and energy consumption of appliances currently
available for sale. Efficiency gains in recent years may mean that these appliances use less
energy than those which are in use throughout households in Townsville, hence the impact for
those behaviours has been underestimated.
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2. Residential Energy Demand Reduction Behaviours
1.
Implementation of the CBSM Methodology in Townsville .............................................. 4
1.1
Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 4
1.2
Database Development Process ........................................................................................ 5
1.3
The Townsville Context...................................................................................................... 5
1.4
Research Considerations and Assumptions ....................................................................... 6
2.
2.1
2.2
Residential Energy Demand Reduction Behaviours ....................................................... 8
Reducing Electricity Consumption – Hot Water Systems (~28%) ..................................... 15
1.
Avoiding the installation and use of continuously circulating hot water systems [0.34:2] ......... 15
2.
Switching from an electric storage system to a gas storage or instant system [1.7:4] ............. 16
3.
Switching from an electric storage system to a heat pump water heater [1.25:4] .................... 18
4.
Switching from an electric storage system to a solar hot water heater [1.7:4] .......................... 19
5.
Switching off the booster on a solar hot water system during summer months [0.34:4] ........... 21
6.
Installing correctly sized hot water system for need as a retrofit or replacement [0.5:1.5] ....... 23
7.
Fixing the hot water system if it is dumping hot water from the overflow pipe [0.10:1] ............. 25
8.
Turning the hot water system off when going away for a few days [0.03:1] ............................. 26
9.
Reducing the length of time taken for showering (to a recommended 4 minutes) [0.33:2] ...... 27
10.
The installation of water efficient shower heads [0.38:2.5] ....................................................... 28
11.
The installation of low flow aerators on taps to reduce hot water consumption [0.34:2]........... 29
12.
The repair of dripping hot water taps [0.08:2] ........................................................................... 30
13.
Placing mixer taps to full cold when using cold water to avoid inadvertent use of hot water
[0.08:1] ....................................................................................................................................... 31
14.
Washing clothes in cold water rather than warm or hot [0.26:4] ............................................... 32
15.
Turning the thermostat to 60oC to 65oC on storage hot water systems, and 50oC on
instantaneous hot water systems [0.11:2] ................................................................................. 34
16.
Ensuring that the hot water system is properly maintained [0.10:0.5] ...................................... 35
17.
Draining sediment from a storage hot water system annually [0.1:2] ....................................... 36
18.
Contracting a plumber to repair leaks on a hot water system [0.10:3] ...................................... 37
19.
Conducting home –repairs on leaks on a hot water system [0.10:1] ........................................ 38
20.
The installation of the hot water heater to minimise total pipe length during house construction
[0.1:0.5] ...................................................................................................................................... 39
21.
The relocation/retrofitting of the hot water system to minimise total pipe length [0.10:0.5] ..... 40
22.
Insulating the hot water tank using a thermal blanket [0.25:1] .................................................. 41
23.
Insulating hot water pipes as a retrofit [0.1:1.50] ...................................................................... 42
24.
Installing a thermostat timer on electric hot water systems ...................................................... 43
Reducing Electricity Consumption – Kitchen Appliances (Fridge 14%, Cooking 5%,
Dishwasher 1%)............................................................................................................... 44
25.
The purchase of an energy efficient dishwasher (rather than a less efficient model) [0.23:4] .. 44
26.
The purchase a water efficient dishwasher (rather than a less efficient model) [0.17:3] ......... 45
27.
Composting rather than using an ‘insinkerator’ (Food Waste Disposers) [0:1] ......................... 46
28.
Cleaning the seals around the fridge [0.5:3] ............................................................................. 47
29.
Ensuring that nothing is blocking the fridge door from shutting [0:4] ........................................ 48
30.
Keeping bottles of water in the fridge if not otherwise well stocked [0:1] .................................. 49
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31.
Avoiding unnecessarily opening the fridge (considering what is wanted before the door’s
opened) [0:1] ............................................................................................................................. 50
32.
Vacuuming the refrigerator coils regularly [0.08:1].................................................................... 51
33.
When designing the kitchen, locating the refrigerator away from the oven [0.1:1] ................... 52
34.
Buying less food more frequently to reduce the fridge capacity required [0.4:2] ...................... 53
35.
Stacking the contents of the fridge to allow for good air circulation [0:1] .................................. 54
36.
The purchase of a fridge without an ice and water dispenser [0.05:3]...................................... 55
37.
Defrosting the freezer regularly [0.1:4] ...................................................................................... 57
38.
Washing dishes by hand rather than using a dishwashing machine [0:1] ................................ 58
39.
Only using the dishwasher when full [0.23:2] ............................................................................ 60
40.
Using economy settings on dishwashers [0.16:3] ..................................................................... 61
41.
The purchase of a frost free fridge over a cyclic defrost fridge [0.1:4.5] ................................... 62
42.
Buying the most energy efficient fridge possible [0.11:3] .......................................................... 63
43.
Replacing an existing fridge with a more efficient model [0.55:1] ............................................. 65
44.
The purchase an appropriately sized fridge [0.1:3] ................................................................... 66
45.
Placing the fridge to allow for air circulation around the coils [0.12:2] ...................................... 67
46.
Putting the fridge and freezer in a cool spot [0.08:2] ................................................................ 68
47.
Ensuring the temperature of the fridge and freezer is set to recommended levels [0.1:4.5] .... 69
48.
Refitting old and damaged seals on refrigerators and freezers [0:1.5] ..................................... 70
49.
Putting cold items back in the fridge as soon as possible [0:2] ................................................. 71
50.
Turning the fridge and freezer off when going away for longer periods [0:2] ............................ 72
51.
Having the fridge inspected if the motor runs continuously [0.35:2] ......................................... 73
52.
Turning off a second fridge where possible [0.6:1.5] ................................................................ 74
53.
Purchasing an energy efficient freezer [0.33:4] ......................................................................... 75
54.
Avoiding the use of large, second freezers [0.4:2] .................................................................... 76
55.
Not refrigerating / freezing items unnecessarily [0:2] ................................................................ 77
56.
Cooking extra food when preparing meals which can be frozen and reheated [0.1:2] ............. 78
57.
Planning ahead to cook several things at once when using the oven [0.1:1] ........................... 79
58.
Cleaning oven and stovetops to promote maximum heat reflection [0.01:4] ............................ 80
59.
Checking oven seals, and replacing if necessary [0.02:1.6] ..................................................... 81
60.
If using aluminium foil when cooking, putting the dull side down [0:1] ...................................... 82
61.
Using a gas hotplate to boil water rather than a microwave [0.03:1] ........................................ 83
62.
Using an electric kettle to boil water rather than a microwave [0.05:4.5] .................................. 84
63.
Not boiling more water than you need at that time. [0.03:1] ..................................................... 85
64.
Simmering rather than boiling food when cooking [0.11:3] ....................................................... 86
65.
Putting lids on pots when cooking to keep the heat in and reduce heat losses [0:3]................ 87
66.
Thawing food in the fridge or in the sink rather than in the microwave or oven [0.1:3]............. 88
67.
Using frypans or microwaves over ovens [0.05:3] .................................................................... 89
68.
Using a toaster rather than the grill [0.01:4.5] ........................................................................... 90
69.
Turning the oven off ten minutes before cooking is finished to use the residual heat [0.05:2] . 91
70.
When using the oven, avoiding opening the door unnecessarily [0.1:1] ................................... 92
71.
Matching the size of the saucepan to the size of the element to reduce heat losses [0.1:1] .... 93
72.
Avoiding pre-rinsing dishes in hot water [0.4:3] ........................................................................ 94
73.
Purchasing an oven with triple glazing [0.1:2] ........................................................................... 95
74.
Purchasing an appropriately sized oven [0.03:1] ...................................................................... 96
75.
Purchasing a fan-forced oven [0.21:5] ...................................................................................... 97
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2.3
2.4
76.
Purchasing a pressure cooker for use rather than other cooking appliances [0.08:2] .............. 98
77.
Buying / Installing electric induction hotplates [0.01:1] ............................................................. 99
78.
Buying and installing gas cooktops and oven rather than electric [0.5:3] ............................... 100
Reducing Electricity Consumption – Entertainment Equipment (TV/VCR 3%) ............... 101
79.
Reducing the number of televisions in the house [0.5:1] ........................................................ 101
80.
Switching televisions off when not being watched [0.2:2] ....................................................... 103
81.
Using a radio for background noise rather than a television [0.2:2] ........................................ 104
82.
Using timers on the television when watching in bed to go to sleep [0.4:1.5] ......................... 105
83.
Avoiding screensavers on computers and using the sleep option instead [0.10:3] ................ 106
84.
Switching computers off overnight [0.34:2] ............................................................................. 107
85.
Unplugging mobile phone chargers when not being used [0.05:4] ......................................... 108
86.
Purchasing an energy efficient television [0.60:1] ................................................................... 109
87.
Switching microwaves off at the wall when they’re not being used [0.03:2] ........................... 111
88.
Switching the VCR or DVD player off at the wall when they’re not being used [0.05:2] ......... 112
89.
Switching televisions off at the wall when they’re not being used [0.06:2] ............................. 113
90.
Turning off the computer monitor when leaving the room for a few minutes or more [0.05:1] 114
91.
Buying a television with low standby power usage [0.08:1.5] ................................................. 116
92.
Buying a computer with low stand by power usage [0.05:1] ................................................... 118
93.
Buying a DVD or VCR with low stand by power usage [0.10:1.5] ........................................... 120
94.
Purchasing a cathode ray tube television rather than plasma screen [1.9:1] ......................... 122
95.
Purchasing an LCD television rather than a plasma screen television [0.11:3] ...................... 123
96.
Purchasing and using a laptop rather than desktop [0.20:2] ................................................... 124
97.
Purchasing an LCD monitor rather than a conventional monitor [0.10:4.5] ............................ 125
Reducing Electricity Consumption – Laundry Appliances and Bathroom (Clothes 2%) .. 126
98.
Waiting for full loads of washing (to reduce both electricity and water usage) [0.12:3] .......... 126
99.
Washing linen and clothes less frequently (if overwashing) [0.12:1] ...................................... 127
100. Purchasing a water efficient washing machine [0.25:4] .......................................................... 128
101. Choosing a clothes dryer with a dryness sensor [0.02:3] ....................................................... 130
102. Spin drying clothes before putting them in a clothes dryer [0.10:4] ........................................ 131
103. Drying clothes partially on the clothes line before putting them in the dryer [0.08:2] .............. 132
104. If using the clothes dryer, drying several loads consecutively to use the residual heat in the
machine [0:1] ........................................................................................................................... 133
105. Cleaning the filters on clothes dryers regularly [0.01:4] .......................................................... 134
106. Using standard toothbrushes rather than electric ones [0.01:2] ............................................. 135
107. Using regular razors rather than electric shavers [0:1] ........................................................... 136
108. Drying hair naturally rather than with a hairdryer [0.04:1] ....................................................... 137
109. Avoiding using a heated towel rail to dry towels [0.20:4] ........................................................ 138
110. Using iron on dry setting when possible [0.01:2] ..................................................................... 139
111. Ironing in larger batches to reduce heating up periods [0.01:1] .............................................. 140
112. Ironing delicate garments first while iron is heating up [0.01:3] .............................................. 141
113. Not ironing clothes, or other items [0.10:1] ............................................................................. 142
114. Emptying and replacing vacuum cleaner filter bags regularly for greater efficiency [0.01:4] .. 143
115. Insulating the bathtub during construction [0.04:1] ................................................................. 144
116. Insulating the bathtub as a retrofit [0.04:0.05] ......................................................................... 145
117. Taking a shower rather than a bath [0.050:2] ......................................................................... 146
118. “Bucket bathing” rather than showering [0.65:1] ..................................................................... 147
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Identification and Assessment of Homeowner Behaviours Related to Reducing Residential Energy Demand
119. Washing clothes by hand [0.08:1] ........................................................................................... 148
120. Buying the most energy efficient clothes dryer possible [0.09:1] ............................................ 151
121. Buying the most energy efficient washing machine possible [0.76:3] ..................................... 152
122. Buying a washing machine which is sized to the household needs [0.09:4] .......................... 154
123. Purchasing a gas clothes dryer rather than electric [0.20:1] ................................................... 155
124. Avoiding using a clothes dryer when it is possible to dry clothes naturally instead [0.17:3] ... 156
125. Using the heat from the hot water system for clothes drying [0.12:1] ..................................... 157
126. Using a broom rather than a vacuum cleaner [0.03:2] ............................................................ 158
2.5
Reducing Electricity Consumption – Pools, Hot Tubs and Saunas ................................. 159
127. Avoiding the use of the heating function on a water bed [0.50:3] ........................................... 159
128. Replacing existing swimming pool pumps, chlorinators and heaters [0.50:3] ........................ 160
129. Installing the smallest pump possible for the swimming pool [0.21:1] .................................... 161
130. Using solar heaters and/or solar blankets in heated pools [0.50:1] ........................................ 162
131. Maintaining the pool to keep it free of debris to enhance pump efficiency [0.13:3] ................ 163
132. Reducing the use of pool pumps / filters during cooler months [0.45:4] ................................. 164
133. Avoiding the installation of hot spas [0.50:3] ........................................................................... 165
134. Minimising the use of baths and spas [0.03:1] ........................................................................ 166
2.6
Reducing Electricity Consumption – Heating & Cooling (Cool 14%, Heat 4%) ............... 167
135. Buying the most energy efficient air conditioner possible [0.60:4] .......................................... 167
136. Buying an air conditioner which is appropriately sized the area needing cooling [0.1:2] ........ 168
137. Placing rugs on the floor to reduce winter heating demands [0:3] .......................................... 169
138. Installing and using curtains to provide a thermal layer between the window and the room
[0.66:4] ..................................................................................................................................... 170
139. In summer, opening windows and louvers during the night (when cooler) and shut during the
day (hot air purging) [1.31:3] ................................................................................................... 172
140. Keeping air conditioning thermostats away from lamps, televisions and computers [0.22:3] . 173
141. Pointing the louvers of the air conditioner towards the floor [0.10:2] ...................................... 174
142. Using a programmable thermostat on air conditioners [0.22:2] .............................................. 175
143. Setting the thermostat to (no lower than) 25oC in summer [0.44:3] ........................................ 176
144. Replacing old model air conditioners with a more efficient model [0.66:2] ............................. 177
145. Installing pelmets (or a structure to prevent air flow) above curtains [0.22:4] ......................... 178
146. Using a hot water bottle rather than electric blanket in winter [0.01:2] ................................... 179
147. Cleaning the filters of air conditioners to ensure they are working efficiently [0.22:4] ............ 180
148. Regularly servicing air conditioners to maintain optimal efficiency [0.60:2] ............................ 181
149. Switch off the air conditioner in rooms not being used and when you leave the house [0.42:2]
................................................................................................................................................. 183
150. Dressing appropriately to minimise the need for mechanical cooling [0.22:4.5] ..................... 184
151. Shutting internal doors to rooms not being used when the air conditioner is being used [1.09:3]
................................................................................................................................................. 185
152. The installation of centralised systems (if required) with zone controls and thermostats [0.01:3]
................................................................................................................................................. 186
153. Using ceiling fans rather than, or in addition to, an air conditioner [0.06:3] ............................ 188
154. Setting the air conditioner to recirculate cool air from inside rather than cooling warmer air from
outside [0.25:2] ........................................................................................................................ 190
155. Don’t use heating appliances (oven, dryer etc) while air conditioner is in use [0.22:2] .......... 192
156. Avoiding excessive lighting, especially with incandescent bulbs and halogen downlights, which
add to the heat load of air conditioners [0.01:2] ...................................................................... 194
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Townsville CitySolar Community Capacity Building Program
Identification and Assessment of Homeowner Behaviours Related to Reducing Residential Energy Demand
157. Restricting air conditioner usage [0.43:2] ................................................................................ 195
158. Avoiding the installation of an air conditioner [2.18:2] ............................................................. 197
159. Dressing in warm clothes in winter rather than turning on a heater [0.19:4] ........................... 198
160. Avoiding the use of portable electric heaters to heat large spaces [0:3] ................................ 199
161. Pruning trees in winter or using deciduous plants to allow extra sun on the north and south
walls and windows [0.012:3].................................................................................................... 201
162. Rolling back awnings in winter to allow more sun through windows [0.04:2] ......................... 203
163. Removing fly roof in winter to allow greater solar access to the house [0.04:2] ..................... 205
164. Planting trees to provide a wind break from prevailing winter winds [0.15:2] ......................... 207
165. In winter, opening curtains during the day in winter to heat the house and closing during the
night to trap the heat in [0.05:4]............................................................................................... 208
166. Putting an under-blanket on the bed in winter, and an extra blanket on top [0.05:3] .............. 209
167. If heating is required in the bedroom, using a timer to turn it off during the night [0.29:1] ...... 210
168. Setting thermostat on heaters as low as is comfortable [0.04:3] ............................................ 211
169. Using a reversible ceiling fan in winter to push warm air downwards [0.02:1] ........................ 213
170. Only setting the heater thermostat to the ultimately desired temperature and not higher
(avoiding using the thermostat as an ‘accelerator’) [0.05:3] ................................................... 215
171. Avoiding heating the kitchen, or the room where the refrigerator is located [0:3] ................... 217
172. Utilising residual heat by turning off mechanical heating earlier [0.01:1] ................................ 219
173. Reducing the heating temperature when being more active in the house [0.01:2] ................. 220
174. Heating fewer rooms [0. 55:3] ................................................................................................. 221
175. Using electric blankets rather than heating the entire bedroom [0. 40:1] ............................... 223
Reducing Electricity Consumption – Lighting (8%) ........................................................................... 224
176. Using natural light rather than electric lights during the day [0.08:1] ...................................... 224
177. Using candles rather than electric lights [0.35:1] .................................................................... 226
178. Switching lights off when not in use [0.23:4.5] ........................................................................ 227
179. Replacing incandescent bulbs with fluorescents [0.19:4.5] .................................................... 228
180. Avoiding halogen downlights for room lighting [0.41:1.15] ...................................................... 229
181. Change incandescent bulbs to halogen bulbs (same fitting) [0.02:2] ..................................... 230
182. Only installing the required wattage for the use: use lower wattage light bulbs where possible
[0.10:4] ..................................................................................................................................... 231
183. Using reflectors to direct the light where it is needed to minimize additional wattage [0.24:2]232
184. Avoiding coloured glass bulbs [0.01:4.5] ................................................................................. 233
185. Switching incandescent bulbs to LED light bulbs [0.13:2] ....................................................... 234
186. Install solar powered garden lights rather than mains powered electric lights [0.10:4]........... 235
187. Using a desk lamp for task lighting rather than overhead lighting [0:2] .................................. 236
188. Connecting fewer lights to each switch to reduce unnecessary lighting [0.02:1.6] ................. 237
189. Installing light switches at either end of halls and rooms with multiple exits [0.02:3] .............. 238
190. Using sensors or timers on outdoor lights [0.31:3] .................................................................. 239
191. Installing and using dimmer controls on lights [0.02:3] ........................................................... 240
192. Using lighter coloured paints to reduce lighting requirements [0.10:3] ................................... 241
193. Cleaning lights and light fittings to remove dust and make them more effective [0.04:2] ....... 242
2.7
Complimenting Energy Efficiency Behaviours with Onsite Generation ........................... 243
194. Installing solar photovoltaic panels [1.63:1.5] ......................................................................... 243
195. Cleaning solar panels regularly [0.08:2] .................................................................................. 245
196. Purchasing a portion of electricity from GreenPower [na:1.7] ................................................. 246
197. Purchasing all the household’s electricity from GreenPower [na:2] ........................................ 248
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Townsville CitySolar Community Capacity Building Program
Identification and Assessment of Homeowner Behaviours Related to Reducing Residential Energy Demand
198. Clearing vegetation to reduce shading on solar PV panels [0.17:4] ....................................... 249
199. Performing tasks requiring hot water early in the day when using solar hot water [0.54:2] .... 250
200. Setting the booster on a solar hot water system to 60oC [0.01:4.5] ........................................ 252
201. Installing a wind generator [5:1] .............................................................................................. 253
2.8
Options for House Construction and Retrofit .................................................................. 255
202. Install automated systems to control appliances [1:1.7] ......................................................... 255
203. Considering the location of hot water using fixtures when designing and building a home
[0.10:1.7].................................................................................................................................. 257
204. Using smaller diameter pipes for hot water in building construction [0.05:2] .......................... 258
205. Installing caulking to fix draughts in the home [0.28:2] ........................................................... 259
206. Shading the outdoor components of the air conditioner from the sun [0.22:2] ....................... 261
207. Insulating verandah roofs as a retrofit [0.637:1] ...................................................................... 262
208. Installing eave vents [0.66:3] ................................................................................................... 264
209. Planting conical trees to the south west and south east to provide shading during summer
[1.5:3] ....................................................................................................................................... 265
210. Planting trees and / or constructing physical structures to direct summer breezes towards the
house [0.22:1] .......................................................................................................................... 266
211. Installing a fly roof to shade the entire building [1.70:1] .......................................................... 267
212. Installing a green roof [0.55:1.5] .............................................................................................. 268
213. Installing green walls [0.90:2] .................................................................................................. 270
214. Construct outdoor living areas (protected from the elements) [0.30:3] ................................... 272
215. Avoiding paving or concrete in front of windows [0.22:2] ........................................................ 273
216. Positioning furniture to make use of natural breezes and heating / cooling effects [0.66:3] ... 274
217. Plugging fireplaces which are not in use [0.01:4] .................................................................... 276
218. Installing insulation in the ceiling as a retrofit [0.77:4] ............................................................. 277
219. Installing insulation in the walls as a retrofit [0.43:1] ............................................................... 279
220. Installing weather stripping to fix draughts in the home [0.22:3] ............................................. 280
221. Paint the roof white, or a light colour [1.28:4] .......................................................................... 282
222. Installing roof ventilation as a retrofit [0.37:4] .......................................................................... 283
223. Planting deciduous vines to shade the northern aspects [0.65:2] ........................................... 285
224. Double glazing windows as a retrofit [0.22:1] .......................................................................... 286
225. Tinting windows as a retrofit [0.87:2] ....................................................................................... 288
226. Installing eaves [0.46:4] ........................................................................................................... 289
2.9
Additional Behaviours related to housing construction ................................................... 291
227. Tinting windows during construction [0.87:2] .......................................................................... 291
228. Installing double glazed windows during construction [0.22:3] ............................................... 292
229. Installing insulation in the walls during construction [0.43:3] .................................................. 293
230. Installing insulation in the ceiling during construction [0.77:4] ................................................ 294
231. Designing the kitchen to allow for optimal placement of fridges when designing and building a
home (in a cool, well ventilated area away from heating appliances) [0.20:3] ........................ 295
232. Putting doors at the bottom of stairwells ................................................................................. 296
233. Orientate house (during construction) so that main walls and windows face north, locate living
areas to the north and east ..................................................................................................... 297
234. Group rooms into ‘zones’ when designing houses.................................................................. 297
235. Preference open plan houses with verandas during construction .......................................... 297
236. Build with light weight construction material ............................................................................ 297
237. Select windows which maximize air flow ................................................................................. 297
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Identification and Assessment of Homeowner Behaviours Related to Reducing Residential Energy Demand
238. Design elevated houses for underneath air flow ..................................................................... 297
239. Build house with high, raked ceilings ...................................................................................... 297
240. Maximising the amount of external walls in housing design ................................................... 297
References
........................................................................................................................ 298
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Identification and Assessment of Homeowner Behaviours Related to Reducing Residential Energy Demand
2.1
Reducing Electricity Consumption – Hot Water Systems (~28%)
1. Avoiding the installation and use of continuously circulating hot water systems
[0.34:2]
Impact
[0.34]
This behaviour will save electricity in the home by reducing the amount of electricity which is
used by electric storage hot water systems. Continuously circulating hot water systems lose
heat through the pipes as the hot water is continuously circulated to ensure hot water is always
available on demand, and also require electricity to power a pump.2 On demand pumps are
more energy efficient.3 Heat losses in pipes and tanks accounts for approximately 30 percent of
the energy used to heat water.4 Whilst this behaviour will not save all of this, it will save some
portion. Assuming that the tank has some amount of insulation, it will be assumed (due to lack of
literature to provide an estimate) that this behaviour would save a twenty percent increase in the
average electricity consumption of circulating storage hot water systems, or around 420kWh
each year, or approximately 6.8 percent of the average household consumption. As the result of
this behaviour is a reduction in total consumption of 6.8 percent, the ‘Impact’ is calculated as
0.34.
It is presumed that few homes would have continuously circulating hot water systems, as ‘on
demand’ pumps are available, and use less electricity while still avoiding the wastage of the
water which has cooled in the pipes 5 This presumption has been confirmed by the expert panel,
which notes these are not commonly used systems.
Likelihood
[2]
This behaviour will be affected by the Queensland Governments commitment to, ‘begin phasing
out electric storage hot water systems in existing homes, initially in gas reticulated areas. From
2010, when an existing electric hot water system breaks down it will only be replaced with a
greenhouse-friendly system, such as gas, heat pump or solar.’6 Hence while the electric storage
heater is operational it will not be required to be replaced. Thus, this behaviour will be of benefit
to those households with existing electric storage systems that can be retrofitted to avoid the
continuous circulation. This is a one off purchasing decision, and information needs to be
available at the time of purchase (distributors, plumbers). This decision may depend upon the
needs of the consumer, for instance, hot water to be available as soon as the tap is turned on.
Instantaneous heaters may be an alternative to this.
The likelihood of this behaviour is estimated as being between 1 – 3 as: once the system fails it
is required to be replaced with a ‘greenhouse friendly’ option; it requires a capital investment; it
will result in reduced performance as the water needs to heat up before reaching the tap; and it
may not be feasible until the usual maintenance of the existing system.
DEWHA (b) (2008) Global Warming – Cool it, Water Heating, Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts,
Australian Government. Available at: http://www.environment.gov.au/settlements/gwci/water.html, Accessed 20 October 2008.
3
DEWHA (b) (2008) Global Warming – Cool it, Water Heating, Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts,
Australian Government. Available at: http://www.environment.gov.au/settlements/gwci/water.html, Accessed 20 October 2008.
4
Riedy, C., Milne, G. and Reardon, C. (2008) 6.5 Hot water service - Technical Manual, Design for Lifestyle and the Future,
Commonwealth of Australia. Available at: http://www.yourhome.gov.au/technical/fs65.html, accessed 03 November 2008
5
DEWHA (b) (2008) Global Warming – Cool it, Water Heating, Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts,
Australian Government. Available at: http://www.environment.gov.au/settlements/gwci/water.html, Accessed 20 October 2008.
6
See http://www.climatechange.qld.gov.au/downloads/downloads/ClimateSmart_2050.pdf
2
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Identification and Assessment of Homeowner Behaviours Related to Reducing Residential Energy Demand
2. Switching from an electric storage system to a gas storage or instant system [1.7:4]
Impact
[1.7]
This behaviour will reduce the electricity consumption of households by switching their hot water
system from electricity to gas. Some gas hot water systems use an electric pilot light, however
with due consideration of the assumptions and necessary estimations used in arriving at the
average electricity consumption of an electric hot water system, it will be assumed that this
behaviour will offset the need for electricity to heat water and effectively save 2,100kWh per
year
It is worth noting that whilst this behaviour will save that amount of electricity, these systems will
still be responsible for emitting greenhouse gases (the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions is
not the primary objective of this investigation, however is listed as a desired goal). Gas hot water
heaters emit a third of the GHG emissions produced by electricity consumption in an electric
water heater, assuming coal fired power generation.7
Hence shifting from an electric system to a gas system will reduce the consumption of electricity
in the average home in Townsville by approximately 2,100kWh or approximately 34 percent of
the average overall consumption. As the result of this behaviour is a reduction in total
consumption of 34 percent, the ‘Impact’ is calculated as 1.7.
Gas heaters also have faster heat recovery times (i.e., they will heat the water in the tank faster
than an electric system could), allowing for smaller tanks with lower heat losses.8 This said,
Energy efficiency expert Alan Pears notes that transitioning to a gas hot water heater (from an
electric system) is generally accompanied by a 15 percent increase in hot water usage, however
he also found that there is significant potential for gas hot water systems to become even more
efficient (20 percent) over time, especially if pilot lights are phased out.9 An instant gas hot water
system will use even less gas than a gas storage system. About 30 percent of the electricity
used to heat water in storage systems is wasted through losses in the pipes and the tanks,10
hence in this aspect alone, an instantaneous gas hot water system would be expected to be up
to thirty percent more efficient than a storage system (note that if this is in comparison to a gas
storage system, this figure may be slightly lower as gas system can be smaller than an
equivalent electric storage system due to faster heating times, and this reduces the heat losses
from tank11). As water is not heated and stored in a storage tank, losses are minimised and
depending on where the instantaneous heater is located, losses in the pipes may also be
reduced. Instantaneous gas hot water systems, which heat hot water on demand, take up less
space, are more efficient (particularly ones without a pilot light), and most have temperature
control so that they only heat the water as hot as is required (conventional systems heat the
water up to 60 degrees and then cool it through dilution).
Milne, G. (2008) 6.1 Energy Use – Technical Manual, Design for Lifestyle and the Future, Commonwealth of Australia. Available at:
http://www.yourhome.gov.au/technical/fs61.html, accessed 29 September 2008.
8
Milne, G. (2008) 6.1 Energy Use – Technical Manual, Design for Lifestyle and the Future, Commonwealth of Australia. Available at:
http://www.yourhome.gov.au/technical/fs61.html, accessed 29 September 2008.
9
Pears, A. (2004) ‘Energy Efficiency: Long Term Potential and an Approach to Incorporating Consideration of Energy Efficiency into
Economic Modelling’, Greenhouse Challenge for Energy: Appendices – Report to the Victorian Department of Infrastructure and
Department of Sustainability and Environment, The Allen Consulting Group. p139-140.
10
Riedy, C., Milne, G. and Reardon, C. (2008) 6.5 Hot water service - Technical Manual, Design for Lifestyle and the Future,
Commonwealth of Australia. Available at: http://www.yourhome.gov.au/technical/fs65.html, accessed 03 November 2008
11
Milne, G. (2008) 6.1 Energy Use – Technical Manual, Design for Lifestyle and the Future, Commonwealth of Australia. Available
at: http://www.yourhome.gov.au/technical/fs61.html, accessed 29 September 2008.
7
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Identification and Assessment of Homeowner Behaviours Related to Reducing Residential Energy Demand
Likelihood
[4]
This behaviour has been incorporated into the Queensland Government ‘Climate Smart 2050’
plan and according to the plan, ‘The Queensland Government will begin phasing out electric
storage hot water systems in existing homes, initially in gas reticulated areas. From 2010, when
an existing electric hot water system breaks down it will only be replaced with a greenhousefriendly system, such as gas, heat pump or solar.’12 A rebate of $300 is available to convert to a
gas system.13 From the 1st of March 2006, all new homes in Queensland must install a
greenhouse efficient system14.
Points to consider in relation to Townsville are:

This behaviour may be governed by several factors, such as the relative costs of installation,
the availability of these systems, information presented to consumers at the point of
purchase and recommendations from key stakeholders such as plumbers. Rebates and
subsidies may also impact on decisions.

The average income in Townsville is higher than the Australian average, while home
repayments are less, suggesting that there may be more available capital to fund the
additional expense of a gas hot water system.15

Gas reticulation does not appear to be available in Townsville, however bottled gas is
available for gas hot water heating. New developments have large tanks with locally
reticulated gas (From conversations with Envestra Ltd and Origin Energy).

Gas hot water systems require installation by a licensed gas fitter. The Australian Hot Water
website claims that gas hot water systems ‘can be slightly more expensive’ to install than
electric, however ‘can often be cheaper to run’.16

Instantaneous systems tend to be more suited to homes using little hot water.17
The likelihood of this behaviour is estimated as being 4, based on these considerations.
Members of the expert review panel also noted that the installation costs of gas systems can
undermine the economics (this may be partially offset by the available rebates), and that having
mains gas available is often a greater incentive to wide spread uptake of gas hot water systems.
12
See http://www.climatechange.qld.gov.au/downloads/downloads/ClimateSmart_2050.pdf
Queensland Government (2007) Climate Smart 2050, The State of Queensland. Available at:
http://www.thepremier.qld.gov.au/library/pdf/initiatives/climate_change/ClimateSmart_2050.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008
14
DME (2008) Gas Hot Water, Department of Mines and Energy, Queensland Government. Available at:
http://www.energy.qld.gov.au/gas_hot_water.cfm, accessed 25 October 2008
15
ABS (2007) Census QuickStats: Townsville (Qld), Australian Bureau of Statistics, Commonwealth of Australia. Available at:
http://www.censusdata.abs.gov.au/ABSNavigation/prenav/LocationSearch?collection=Census&period=2006&areacode=3057&produ
cttype=QuickStats&breadcrumb=PL&action=401, accessed 24 October, 2008.
16
Australian Hot Water (2008) Gas Hot Water Systems, Australia. Available at: http://www.australianhotwater.com.au/gas-hot-watersystems-gas-water-heaters.htm, accessed 28 November 2008.
17
Pears, A. (2004) ‘Energy Efficiency: Long Term Potential and an Approach to Incorporating Consideration of Energy Efficiency into
Economic Modelling’, Greenhouse Challenge for Energy: Appendices – Report to the Victorian Department of Infrastructure and
Department of Sustainability and Environment, The Allen Consulting Group. p139-140.
13
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Identification and Assessment of Homeowner Behaviours Related to Reducing Residential Energy Demand
3. Switching from an electric storage system to a heat pump water heater [1.25:4]
Impact
[1.25]
This behaviour will reduce the electricity consumption of a household by reducing the amount of
electricity which is used to heat their water. This behaviour will save electricity only where the
heat pump is replacing an electric system, and more than 90 percent of Townsville homes have
an electric storage hot water system.18 Electric heat pumps use a quarter to a third of the
electricity of a standard storage electrical system, and even less if they are solar boosted.19 This
behaviour will save between 1,386kWh and 1,575kWh per year (22 – 25 percent of total), and
potentially more if the system is solar boosted. As the result of this behaviour is a reduction in
total consumption of 25 percent, the ‘Impact’ is calculated as 1.25.
Likelihood
[4]
This behaviour has been incorporated into the Queensland Government ‘Climate Smart 2050’
plan and according to the plan, ‘The Queensland Government will begin phasing out electric
storage hot water systems in existing homes, initially in gas reticulated areas. From 2010, when
an existing electric hot water system breaks down it will only be replaced with a greenhousefriendly system, such as gas, heat pump or solar.’20 This is a one off purchasing decision, which
will have a higher cost than an electric storage system, but may repay itself through lower
electricity bills over time, depending on how it is used and the amount of money which is
currently spent on hot water. The estimated solar heat pump costs around $2,300 ($1,300 more
than a traditional electric hot water system) after rebates, and that this would return savings of
around $170 per year compared with an off-peak electric system. 21 It was also noted by the
expert panel that the running costs of a heat pump depend upon the unit ‘Coefficient of
Performance’, and that these may be similar to a standard electrical storage system being run
on off-peak tariffs. There may be furthermore concern over the noise emitted by heat pumps,
which are anecdotally equivalent to that of an air conditioner unit. A Federal Government rebate
of $1,600 is available to homes who switch from an electric storage hot water system to either a
solar hot water system or a heat pump which qualifies for 20 Renewable Energy Certificates
(REC).22 There are also RECs available, generally to the value of $800 - $1,200 for a typically
sized system.23 Based on this, a solar boosted heat pump would have an average payback
period of 7.5 years. 24 This behaviour may be affected by the availability of heat pump water
heating systems, information being available at the time of purchase, which may be when the
old system fails, having available finance to afford a higher upfront purchase cost (green loans
may be available, please see the previous behaviours). The likelihood of this behaviour is
estimated to be 4 due to these considerations.
18
TCC (2008) Hot Water Heating, Sustainable Housing for the Tropics, Townsville City Council. Available at:
http://www.townsville.qld.gov.au/resources/1987.pdf, accessed 18 June 2009.
19
Milne, G. (2008) 6.1 Energy Use – Technical Manual, Design for Lifestyle and the Future, Commonwealth of Australia. Available
at: http://www.yourhome.gov.au/technical/fs61.html, accessed 29 September 2008.
20
See http://www.climatechange.qld.gov.au/downloads/downloads/ClimateSmart_2050.pdf
21
TCC (2008) Hot Water Heating, Sustainable Housing for the Tropics, Townsville City Council. Available at:
http://www.townsville.qld.gov.au/resources/1987.pdf, accessed 18 June 2009.
22
Currently available until June 2012. DIP (2008) Electric Hot Water System Replacement, Department of Infrastructure and
Planning, Queensland Government. Available at: http://www.dip.qld.gov.au/sustainable-living/electric-hot-water-systemreplacement.html, accessed 18 June 2009.
23
The price is subject to market fluctuations. DIP (2008) Electric Hot Water System Replacement, Department of Infrastructure and
Planning, Queensland Government. Available at: http://www.dip.qld.gov.au/sustainable-living/electric-hot-water-systemreplacement.html, accessed 18 June 2009.
24
TCC (2008) Hot Water Heating, Sustainable Housing for the Tropics, Townsville City Council.
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Townsville CitySolar Community Capacity Building Program
Identification and Assessment of Homeowner Behaviours Related to Reducing Residential Energy Demand
4. Switching from an electric storage system to a solar hot water heater [1.7:4]
Impact
[1.7]
This behaviour will reduce the electricity consumption of homes by reducing the amount of hot
water which is used to heat water in the home. Currently, over 90 percent of homes in
Townsville have an electric storage hot water heater. 25 It will be assumed that an electric
storage system in the average Townsville home will use 2,100kWh per year.
Solar HWS can provide up to 90 percent of the hot water needs, with the remained supplied by
either a gas or an electric booster. Inline gas boosters make these more efficient, and would
further reduce the household electricity consumption (in tank boosters can pre-empt the sun
unnecessarily and increase electricity or gas usage). Hence, this behaviour would save between
1,890kWh (with an electric booster) to 2,100kWh (with a gas booster) of electricity (30 – 34
percent of the total electricity consumption of the average household in Townsville). Hence, the
impact his behaviour is calculated as 1.7.
It is worth noting that other sources may quote a variation of these amounts. For instance, the
Living Smart programme in WA (who found this to be one of the key energy saving measures),
estimated that this behaviour would save up to 2,625 kWh per year. This was the largest energy
saving measure on their list. This figure is based on the solar system meeting 75 percent of the
hot water needs (although it can potentially meet 90 percent of a typical Perth household’s
needs), with the remainder met by an electric booster. It also assumes it is replacing an electric
storage unit with an average annual electricity consumption of 3,000kWh.26
Although it is not the principle goal of this programme, it is worth considering the impact of this
behaviour on greenhouse gas emissions relative to the previous behaviours. Solar hot water
heaters have around half the greenhouse gas emissions of a 5 star storage gas system, or an
instantaneous gas hot water system.27
Likelihood
[4]
This behaviour has been incorporated into the Queensland Government ‘Climate Smart 2050’
plan and according to the plan, ‘The Queensland Government will begin phasing out electric
storage hot water systems in existing homes, initially in gas reticulated areas. From 2010, when
an existing electric hot water system breaks down it will only be replaced with a greenhousefriendly system, such as gas, heat pump or solar.’28
This is a one off purchasing decision, which will often occur when the previous hot water system
fails. The time taken for research and installation may be a deterrent, particularly if investigating
the rebates and other incentives which are available. Please see the behaviour titled ‘Switch
from an electric storage system to a gas storage or instant system’ for a additional related
rationale. The roof of the house must be load bearing (although this depends on where the
storage tank is located, as it can be located off the roof to reduce load bearing requirements),
and receive enough sun (northerly facing, although deviations of up to 45 degrees will have
25
TCC (2008) Hot Water Heating, Sustainable Housing for the Tropics, Townsville City Council. Available at:
http://www.townsville.qld.gov.au/resources/1987.pdf, accessed 18 June 2009.
26
SMEC (2008) DPI Living Smart Report, For the Department of Infrastructure and Planning, Government of Western Australia.
27
Qld EPA (2008) Achieving early and affordable greenhouse gas reductions in Queensland - Strategies for voluntary household
and lifestyle changes, Environmental Protection Agency, Queensland Government. Available at:
http://www.climatechange.qld.gov.au/downloads/downloads/working_paper_1.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008
28
See http://www.climatechange.qld.gov.au/downloads/downloads/ClimateSmart_2050.pdf
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minimal effect, minimal vegetation shading it).29 Townsville receives on average over 300 days
of sunshine a year, making solar hot water systems very viable – this means a booster is not
required for a lot of the time. 30 Energy efficiency expert Alan Pears31 found that gas-boosted
systems have an incremental cost of $2000 and electric-boosted systems, $1500 (following
MRET credits), compared to a standard electric system cost of $1000.32
In the Townsville ‘Have Your Say’ questionnaire,33 95.8 percent of respondents stated that they
were aware of this behaviour (as a sustainability application), and 17.9 percent said that they
already have solar hot water (please note comments in the above sections regarding the
demographics of questionnaire respondents, as this may not be representative of the population
as a whole). 34.9 percent of Townsville residents are renters, and may not have control of the
hot water system on the premises,34 however switching hot water systems is a tax deductible
improvement on a rental house for landlords.35
In 2008, 7 percent of Australian homes were using solar hot water heaters, which is an increase
of 61 percent from the 4 percent who were using solar hot water heaters in 2005. In the
Northern Territory, 54 percent of homes have solar hot water heating (much of the Northern
Territory is at a similar latitude to Townsville).36
The likelihood of this behaviour, given these considerations, is estimated to be moderate to high.
The expert panel noted that word of mouth can strongly influence the likelihood of this
behaviour, as can delays in installing a solar system after the pre-existing system fails. Whilst
there were aesthetic concerns over the more traditional systems with attached, roof mounted
tanks have been overcome by split systems.
29
TCC (2008) Hot Water Heating, Sustainable Housing for the Tropics, Townsville City Council. Available at:
http://www.townsville.qld.gov.au/resources/1987.pdf, accessed 18 June 2009.
30
TCC (2008) Hot Water Heating, Sustainable Housing for the Tropics, Townsville City Council. Available at:
http://www.townsville.qld.gov.au/resources/1987.pdf, accessed 18 June 2009.
31
Pears, A. (2004) ‘Energy Efficiency: Long Term Potential and an Approach to Incorporating Consideration of Energy Efficiency into
Economic Modelling’, Greenhouse Challenge for Energy: Appendices – Report to the Victorian Department of Infrastructure and
Department of Sustainability and Environment, The Allen Consulting Group. p136.
32
Pears, A. (2004) ‘Energy Efficiency: Long Term Potential and an Approach to Incorporating Consideration of Energy Efficiency into
Economic Modelling’, Greenhouse Challenge for Energy: Appendices – Report to the Victorian Department of Infrastructure and
Department of Sustainability and Environment, The Allen Consulting Group. p139-140.
33
TCC (2006) Townsville, Have Your Say – Sustainability and Sustainable Cities Questionnaire: Report on Results, Townsville City
Council, Australia.
34
ABS (2007) Census QuickStats: Townsville (Qld), Australian Bureau of Statistics, Commonwealth of Australia. Available at:
http://www.censusdata.abs.gov.au/ABSNavigation/prenav/LocationSearch?collection=Census&period=2006&areacode=3057&produ
cttype=QuickStats&breadcrumb=PL&action=401, accessed 24 October, 2008.
35
DEH (2008) 5 – Energy Efficient Rental Properties: Tax Deductions for Energy Efficiency Improvements in Rental Properties,
Department of Environment and Heritage, Australian Government. Available at:
http://www.mefl.com.au/documents/AGO__5_Brochure.pdf, accessed 24 October 2008.
36
ABS (2008) Environmental Issues – Energy Use and Conservation, Australian Bureau of Statistics, Australian Government.
Available at:
http://abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/39433889d406eeb9ca2570610019e9a5/E95A38518401BD24CA25750E00108119?opendocum
ent, accessed 02 December 2008.
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5. Switching off the booster on a solar hot water system during summer months [0.34:4]
Impact
[0.34]
This behaviour will save electricity only when the booster on the solar hot water system is
electrically powered. The booster on a solar hot water system in Townsville would normally
provide as a maximum between 10 and 20 percent of the heating requirements (based on
figures provided that in Australia, a solar hot water system will use around 83 percent less
electricity, and that in Townsville such a system would save up to 90 percent37. It’s assumed
some portion of this electricity would also power a pump). Townsville gets, on average, 300
days of sunshine38 and anecdotal reports from residents in Townsville with solar hot water
suggests that they are able to get all of their heating from the solar components alone when the
switch the booster off.39 To assess the impact of this behaviour, it will be assumed that an
electric storage hot water system uses, on average, 2,100kWh per year. If the booster was to
use between ten and twenty percent of this, it would account for 210kWh to 420kWh per year or
3.4 – 6.8 percent of total consumption. However this figure will be reduced by the seasonal
variation in water heating requirements, particularly relevant to Townsville. As the result of this
behaviour is a reduction in total consumption of 6.8 percent, ignoring seasonal variations
outlined below, the impact is calculated as 0.34.
The expert panel confirmed that the impact of this behaviour would depend to a degree on the
amount of tank insulation, as well as the thermostat setting. The panel also indicated that the
contribution of the booster system would be minimal during warmer months.
The Bureau of Meteorology released data which shows the mean number of sunshine hours as
an average for each month.40 From February to June, Townsville receives the fewest sunshine
hours (from 7.3 to 7.8 on average), and from July to January this ranges from 8.0 hours to 9.8
hours (in October). The data also shows that during summer, there is a higher likelihood of
cloudy days than during winter. This information would suggest that a solar hot water heater
would be able to perform well throughout the year, with a greater number of sunshine hours
from July to January being partially offset by the lower number of clear days between December
and February. The ability to turn off the booster is also impacted on by hot water consumption.
The high temperatures during summer may create an incentive for cooler showers, and as
showers are the biggest users of hot water,41 with the bathroom accounting for more than half of
all hot water use on average,42 it may be safe to assume that hot water consumption overall
would be less during summer. Anecdotally, one respondent with a solar hot water system noted
that the contribution of the booster was negligible throughout Summer, and that since installing
37
TCC (2008) Hot Water Heating, Sustainable Housing for the Tropics, Townsville City Council. Available at:
http://www.townsville.qld.gov.au/resources/1987.pdf, accessed 24 October 2008.
38
TCC (2008) Hot Water Heating, Sustainable Housing for the Tropics, Townsville City Council. Available at:
http://www.townsville.qld.gov.au/resources/1987.pdf, accessed 24 October 2008.
39
From personal communications with technicians from Townsville Solar Solutions (2008). Contact details available at:
http://townsvillesolarsolutions.com.au/page11.php.
40
BOM (2007) Climate Statistics for Australian Locations, Bureau of Meteorology, Australia. Available at:
http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_032040.shtml, accessed 08 December 2008.
41
DEWHA (b) (2008) Global Warming – Cool it, Water Heating, Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts,
Australian Government. Available at: http://www.environment.gov.au/settlements/gwci/water.html, Accessed 20 October 2008.
42
Riedy, C., Milne, G. and Reardon, C. (2008) 6.5 Hot water service - Technical Manual, Design for Lifestyle and the Future,
Commonwealth of Australia. Available at: http://www.yourhome.gov.au/technical/fs65.html, accessed 03 November 2008
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the solar system in April, the first electric bill was $80 less for that quarter. During the next
quarter, his hot water heating costs were eliminated entirely (the booster wasn’t needed at all). 43
Likelihood
[4]
There is an issue with switching the booster off in that the water must remain above 60 degrees
Celsius to mitigate the risk of Legionella disease (some sources also quote 55 degrees
Celsius44). Accordingly, this behaviour may not be appropriate to recommended from a legal
standpoint, although individuals may adopt it as a behaviour on their own initiative. 45 This would
be a yearly task (once to turn it off, remembering to turn it back on again is less of an issue – the
cooler water will be a reminder and incentive). It is simple to switch on and off a booster, as the
switch is (typically) located in the meter.46 A Townsville resident who has installed a solar hot
water system (2008) noted that he is able to leave the booster off, and only switches it on after
several consecutive days of overcast weather. On average, a 300 litre tank will take 1½ hours to
heat once the booster has been switched back on, and a 150 litre tank would take approximately
¾ of an hour.47 Some websites, such as the Australian Government’s Global Warming Cool It
site, recommend this action.48
Those residents who install a solar hot water system may be more conscious of energy savings
and will hence be more likely to do this behaviour; hence the likelihood has been estimated at 35. This behaviour would be further enhanced if a control devise was able to be used to manage
the use of the booster.
43
From personal communications with technicians from Townsville Solar Solutions (2008). Contact details available at:
http://townsvillesolarsolutions.com.au/page11.php.
44
TCC (2008) Hot Water Heating, Sustainable Housing for the Tropics, Townsville City Council. Available at:
http://www.townsville.qld.gov.au/resources/1987.pdf, accessed 24 October 2008.
45
Choice, (2005) Solar Water Systems, Choice Magazine, NSW. Available at:
http://www.choice.com.au/viewArticle.aspx?id=100954&catId=100519&tid=100008&p=2, accessed 24 October 2008
46
From personal communications with technicians from Townsville Solar Solutions (2008). Contact details available at:
http://townsvillesolarsolutions.com.au/page11.php.
47
From personal communications with technicians from Townsville Solar Solutions (2008). Contact details available at:
http://townsvillesolarsolutions.com.au/page11.php.
48
DEWHA (b) (2008) Global Warming – Cool it, Water Heating, Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts,
Australian Government. Available at: http://www.environment.gov.au/settlements/gwci/water.html, Accessed 20 October 2008.
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6. Installing correctly sized hot water system for need as a retrofit or replacement
[0.5:1.5]
Impact
[0.5]
This behaviour will save electricity in the home by reducing the amount of water which is needed
to be heated, and by potentially reducing heat losses from the tank. Typically, the larger the tank
the greater the heat losses will be (presumably through having a greater surface area. This may
not always be the case, as insulating the tank can reduce heat losses considerably). Alan Pears
suggests that declining household size and water use efficiency may reduce the efficiency of hot
water system.49 The standby losses increase with oversized tanks. This could be solved with
smaller tanks, or instantaneous (continuous) gas water heaters. Hence for the installation of new
storage hot water systems, gas or solar, it is important to ensure that the amount of heated
water closely matches the consumption requirements. It is assumed that adequate sizing will still
allow a majority of this loss to continue and a reasonable estimate of the potential saving may
be 20-30%. If this behaviour is adopted it is estimated to result in a reduction in the total
electricity consumption of the hot water system of 30 percent, and assuming a household is
using an electric hot water system with an average yearly electricity consumption of 2,100 kWh,
this would equate to 630kWh or 10 per cent of the total electricity consumption of the average
Townsville household. Hence, the impact is calculated as 0.5. This low score was confirmed by
the expert panel, who suggested that stand-by losses should not be great in Townsville (this is
presumed to be due to the relatively warm ambient temperature).
Likelihood
[1.5]
In Townsville, 20.1 percent of households are single-person households, and the average
household size is 2.6 persons. The Townsville average household size has been decreasing
from 1996 - 2006, and is still lower than the Queensland average,50 which may cause hot water
systems to be oversized as the number of people in the average home decreases. 44.4 percent
of households are couples with children, and 36.7 are couples without children.51 These
households may be expecting increases in the number of people in their home (more children)
which may lead them to oversize a hot water system to allow for expected increases in demand.
Websites which advertise hot water systems have some indication of what size may be
necessary, however these are in general terms, for instance the number of bathrooms, or the
number of people in the house. They are also given as a range (for instance, suitable for 3 to 6
persons, or 1 to 2 bathrooms). The size of the system is given in litres, and some websites
contain a list of questions a consumer could ask themselves regarding their hot water usage,
however no indication of how this will affect the size of the system they will need is given. The
recent water saving campaigns (in Queensland and Australia) may have made residents more
Pears, A. (2004) ‘Energy Efficiency: Long Term Potential and an Approach to Incorporating Consideration of Energy Efficiency into
Economic Modelling’, Greenhouse Challenge for Energy: Appendices – Report to the Victorian Department of Infrastructure and
Department of Sustainability and Environment, The Allen Consulting Group. p135.
50
DIP (2006) Townsville City – Population and Housing Fact Sheet, Department of Infrastructure and Planning, Queensland
Government. Available at:
http://www.lgp.qld.gov.au/docs/corporate/publications/planning/demographics/profiles/demographic_and_housing/townsville.pdf,
accessed 06 November 2008.
51
ABS (2007) Census QuickStats: Townsville (Qld), Australian Bureau of Statistics, Commonwealth of Australia. Available at:
http://www.censusdata.abs.gov.au/ABSNavigation/prenav/LocationSearch?collection=Census&period=2006&areacode=3057&produ
cttype=QuickStats&breadcrumb=PL&action=401, accessed 24 October, 2008.
49
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aware of the amount of water they use (hot and cold combined), and this may assist them in
gauging their hot water usage.
When replacing a system, a customer may be aware if their previous system was too small for
their needs as the hot water would have run out frequently. They may be less able to gauge if
the system was too big, which may especially be the case where hot water use has declined
with overall water use due to measures such as low flow aerators on taps and water saving
showerheads. A sales consultant from Salmon Plumbing was unable to offer advice as to how to
gauge the hot water usage in the house other than by the number of persons living there, and
recommended the larger system.
An oversized system will cost more both in upfront purchase costs, and ongoing running costs.
In consultation with a sales consultant for Salmon Plumbing, who service Brisbane Queensland,
the researchers were informed that whilst larger systems do cost more, this cost difference is
not large. For comparable hot water systems (Rheem), a 160 litre system (including installation)
would cost AU$1315, a 250 litre system would cost $1334 and a 315 litre system would cost
$1356. It was also advised that if this system runs on off peak tariffs, the cost difference
between the systems would not be large.52
The likelihood of this item is difficult to estimate as it will depend on the process for procuring a
new hot water system, i.e. through a contractor or by the home owner. As people are often
reluctant to undersize the hot water system the likelihood of this behaviour has be estimated as
being between 1-2.
52
Salmon Plumbing (2008) Personal communications with sales consultants, November 28.
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7. Fixing the hot water system if it is dumping hot water from the overflow pipe [0.10:1]
Impact
[0.10]
This behaviour will reduce the electricity consumption of a household relative to the amount by
which this behaviour reduces the loss of hot water from the hot water system. This behaviour
will only reduce electricity usage where the hot water system uses electricity to heat the water
such as with an electric storage system (over ninety percent of households in Townsville use
such a system53) an electric heat pump, or an electrically boosted solar hot water system.
The overflow pipe from a hot water system can dump considerable amounts of hot water when
the system is not functioning properly. The impact of this is highly variable, and will depend on
the type and efficiency of the water heater, and the amount of water being dumped and for how
long it is being dumped before being fixed. The Australian Greenhouse Office suggests that if a
hot water system is dumping over a bucket (it is not specified how large a bucket is) then this
behaviour could save ‘hundreds of kilograms of greenhouse gases each year’,54 which
according to figures provided by SEDO in Western Australia55 would translate to hundreds of
kilowatt hours of electricity. Due to the large number of variables it is difficult to estimate the
impact of this behaviour in quantified terms. It is worth noting that not all hot water systems will
in fact dump excess water from the overflow pipe. The impact has been estimated at 0.10.
Expert Reviewers noted that this behaviour could also apply to solar hot water heaters, and that
the impact really does depend on the extent of the dumping. One reviewer speculated that this
isn’t likely to be a common problem.
Likelihood
[1]
This behaviour is a repetitive action, to be repeated only as often as the hot water system is
dumping water from the overflow pipe. It requires checking the hot water system to see if this is
occurring, and measuring the amount of water being dumped with a bucket. If necessary, a
plumber will need to check the system and fix it,56 entailing (often) significant costs. Hence the
likelihood is considered low.
53
TCC (2008) Hot Water Heating, Sustainable Housing for the Tropics, Townsville City Council. Available at:
http://www.townsville.qld.gov.au/resources/1987.pdf, accessed 24 October 2008.
54
Australian Greenhouse Office (c) (2008) Global Warming Cool It - Water, Department of Environment and Natural Resources,
Australian Government. Available at: http://www.environment.gov.au/settlements/gwci/water.html , accessed 29 September 2008.
55
SEDO (b) (2008), Running Costs and Greenhouse Gas Emissions, Sustainable Energy development Office, Government of
Western Australia. Available at: http://www.sedo.energy.wa.gov.au/pages/emissions.asp, accessed 27 October 2008
56
Australian Greenhouse Office (c) (2008) Global Warming Cool It - Water, Department of Environment and Natural Resources,
Australian Government. Available at: http://www.environment.gov.au/settlements/gwci/water.html , accessed 29 September 2008.
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8. Turning the hot water system off when going away for a few days [0.03:1]
Impact
[0.03]
This behaviour will reduce the electricity consumed in a household by reducing the amount of
time for which the hot water heater is running but not needed. This behaviour will only save
electricity where the hot water system runs off electricity. Over ninety percent of the households
in Townsville use an electric storage hot water heater57 and of the remaining households, some
may use an electric heat pump or an electric booster on a solar hot water heater. Some sources
estimate that this behaviour can save up to 1.4 kilograms of greenhouse gas emissions per
day,58 which based on figures provided by SEDO in Western Australia59 would equate to 1.4kWh
per day or 8 percent of total consumption, during times not at home. Please note that previously
quoted figures for the average electricity consumption of an electric storage hot water system
assume that the hot water is being used.
The impact which this behaviour would have would depend on the amount for time for which a
household is going away. Given that most places of full time employment would provide on
average four weeks of paid leave per year (own experience), it might be assumed that for some
portion of this time, the household would vacate their house. It is also a possibility that
households may be away from home for work, or for weekends during the year. As literature to
suggest an average amount of time for which households are away from their home has not
been found, it will be estimated that this may be for on average 25 days of the year (please note
that this takes into account only the times for which a household may be absent for a period of
48 hours or longer). Based on this assumption, this behaviour could save around 35kWh per
year, or 0.6 percent of total consumption. As the result of this behaviour is a reduction in total
consumption of 0.6 percent, the impact is calculated as 0.03.
It was noted by the expert review panel that the impact of this behaviour would be reduced by
having good insulation on the tank. This may be particularly important for holiday homes, which
are frequently left vacant.
Likelihood
[1]
This behaviour is a one off task, which would need to be undertaken each time the house is left
for several days (holidays). This behaviour may be more likely where it forms part of holiday
preparation tasks. It may be hindered, however, by the potential issue of no hot water when
returning home. This may be overcome by households who are able to ask a neighbour or friend
to switch the system back on before arriving home if hot water will be required immediately. Due
to the warm, tropical climate in Townsville, 60 hot water requirements may be less urgent
(particularly for showers). However for these reasons the likelihood is considered low.
Comments from the expert review panel suggested that education may assist with this
behaviour, as there may be a degree of ‘fear’ surrounding this behaviour, as mentioned above,
from the disincentive of not having hot water immediately upon returning home.
57
TCC (2008) Hot Water Heating, Sustainable Housing for the Tropics, Townsville City Council. Available at:
http://www.townsville.qld.gov.au/resources/1987.pdf, accessed 24 October 2008.
58
DEWHA (b) (2008) Global Warming – Cool it, Water Heating, Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts,
Australian Government. Available at: http://www.environment.gov.au/settlements/gwci/water.html, Accessed 20 October 2008.
59
SEDO (b) (2008), Running Costs and Greenhouse Gas Emissions, Sustainable Energy development Office, Government of
Western Australia. Available at: http://www.sedo.energy.wa.gov.au/pages/emissions.asp, accessed 27 October 2008
60
BOM (2007) Climate Statistics for Australian Locations, Bureau of Meteorology, Australia. Available at:
http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_032040.shtml, accessed 08 December 2008.
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9. Reducing the length of time taken for showering (to a recommended 4 minutes)
[0.33:2]
Impact
[0.33]
This behaviour will reduce electricity consumption in the home relative to the amount by which it
reduces the hot water usage of the household, assuming that the hot water system is electric. It
is assumed that the bathroom consumption of hot water, predominantly for showering and
bathing, is responsible for around 45 percent of the consumption of hot water,61 and hence in
Townsville it is assumed that bathroom hot water use is on average 945kWh/yr or 2.6kWh/day.
Given that the average household size in Townsville is 2.6 persons, and assuming that each of
those persons will have one hot shower on average per day, lasting for seven minutes each,62
then this would equate to 0.14kWh per minute of shower. Hence a reduction in shower length to
the recommended length of 4 minutes would save on average 405kWh/yr or 6.5 percent of the
total electricity consumption of the average household in Townsville.
As the result of this behaviour is a reduction in total consumption of 6.5 percent, the impact is
calculated as 0.33.
It should be noted that this behaviour will be affected by the recent government requirements to
change hot water systems to ‘Greenhouse Friendly’ systems, in which case the impact of this
behaviour will be reduced. However, this behaviour will reduce the size of the hot water needed,
which will marginally decrease its cost and may make such a switch more likely.
Energy efficiency expert Alan Pears63 notes that efficiencies in water heating are more likely to
arise out of a desire to conserve water than electricity. In this respect, such energy efficiencies
can be considered to have a zero net cost. The expert panel noted that the impact of this
behaviour would vary depending on the flow rate of the shower head, as well as the temperature
of the water being used. It was considered to be a relatively important behaviour.
Likelihood
[2]
This is a repetitive action that is undertaken in private and hence its likelihood is estimated to be
low to medium. Hot weather during summer may result in longer showers, however these may
also use cooler water. This behaviour may be driven by water restrictions and related
campaigns.
Comments by the expert panel suggested that shower timers are a proven and effective means
of facilitating this behaviour.
61
Australian Greenhouse Office (c) (2008) Global Warming Cool It - Water, Department of Environment and Natural Resources,
Australian Government. Available at: http://www.environment.gov.au/settlements/gwci/water.html , accessed 29 September 2008.
62
Energy Australia (2006) Shower timers help families become energy efficient. 22 October 2006. Available at:
http://www.energy.com.au/energy/ea.nsf/AttachmentsByTitle/061022+Shower+Timers+WEB2/$FILE/061022+shower+timers+WEB2
.pdf, accessed 31 January 2009.
63
Pears, A. (2004) ‘Energy Efficiency: Long Term Potential and an Approach to Incorporating Consideration of Energy Efficiency into
Economic Modelling’, Greenhouse Challenge for Energy: Appendices – Report to the Victorian Department of Infrastructure and
Department of Sustainability and Environment, The Allen Consulting Group. p139-140.
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10. The installation of water efficient shower heads [0.38:2.5]
Impact
[0.38]
This behaviour will reduce the electricity consumption of a household by reducing the amount of
hot water used, where that water is heated using an electric system. This behaviour will not save
electricity where the household uses a gas hot water heater, or a gas boosted solar hot water
heater (however this may assist in reducing the greenhouse gas emissions of that household,
which while not the primary goal of this programme is still considered to be an aim).
Efficient shower heads reduce the amount of hot water used. A ‘AAA’ rated shower head can
reduce the amount of water being used each minute from around 25 litres, to 9 litres. It is further
assumed that 50 percent of the water will have been heated in the hot water system, hence this
represents a 32 percent reduction in the amount of hot water being used for showering. As the
average electricity consumption for showering is 945kWh/yr, this behaviour can save up to
472.5kWh/yr or 7.6 percent of total consumption. As the result of this behaviour is a reduction in
total consumption of 7.6 percent, the impact is calculated as 0.38.
As noted by the expert panel, the impact of this behaviour is contingent upon the number of
people within a household and the length of showers taken.
Likelihood
[2]
The Queensland Development Code requires the installation of ‘AAA’ (or higher) rated water
saving shower roses in all new and renovated Class 1 buildings and sole-occupancy units in
Class 2 buildings (see MP4.1 – Sustainable Buildings, 2007).64
Current water saving campaigns have encouraged the installation of efficient shower heads and,
in some locations, distributed them. A trial programme (Pilot Water Savings Programme) was
run at the beginning of 2008, where one suburb (Thuringowa Central) was offered the option of
a plumber coming to install flow restricting discs into their existing shower heads. A
representative from Townsville City Council65 took several calls in response to this offer and
noted that many people declined due to concerns over water pressure (which was noted to have
been a problem in Townsville, particularly as with water restrictions a lot of people will use
sprinklers at around 6pm, reducing pressure at that time), due to a reluctance to having an
unknown person in their house (this was particularly a problem with the elderly) and where the
property was being rented or the homeowners were going to be away. Hence the likely hood is
considered low to medium.
The expert panel noted that with respect to such programmes, direct mailing was seen to be
effective.
This behaviour may be driven by water restrictions and related campaigns.
Energy efficiency expert Alan Pears notes that efficiencies in water heating are more likely to
arise out of a desire to conserve water than electricity. In this respect, such energy efficiencies
can be considered to have a zero net cost. 66
64
DIP (2007) Queensland Development Code, Department of Infrastructure and Planning, Queensland Government. Available at:
http://www.dip.qld.gov.au/building/current-and-draft-parts.html, accessed 06 November 2008.
65
TCC, Kathy (2008) Personal Communications, 17 December.
66
Pears, A. (2004) ‘Energy Efficiency: Long Term Potential and an Approach to Incorporating Consideration of Energy Efficiency into
Economic Modelling’, Greenhouse Challenge for Energy: Appendices – Report to the Victorian Department of Infrastructure and
Department of Sustainability and Environment, The Allen Consulting Group. p139-140.
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Identification and Assessment of Homeowner Behaviours Related to Reducing Residential Energy Demand
11. The installation of low flow aerators on taps to reduce hot water consumption [0.34:2]
Impact
[0.34]
This behaviour will reduce electricity consumption in the house relative to the amount by which it
reduces a household’s hot water consumption, and is based on the assumption that the
household is using electricity to heat their hot water. As mentioned in other behaviours, over
ninety percent of the households in Townsville use an electric storage hot water system,67 and of
the remainder some would be expected to use either an electric heat pump or an electrically
boosted solar hot water system.
Low flow aerators reduce water consumption from taps by up to 50 percent. As low flow aerators
won’t affect water consumption in the shower, a washing machine, or dishwasher and will have
a minimal effect on reducing electricity consumption due to heat losses from a hot water storage
tank and piping, it is estimated that this behaviour will reduce hot water consumption by 6
percent.68 Assuming a household is using an electric hot water system with an average yearly
electricity consumption of 2,100 kWh, this behaviour would save approximately 225kWh per
year. As the result of this behaviour is a reduction in total consumption of 6.8 percent, the impact
is calculated as 0.34. The WA Sustainable Energy Development Office found that the major
factor which influences the cost of running a hot water system is the amount of hot water being
used.69 Energy efficiency expert Alan Pears notes that efficiencies in water heating are more
likely to arise out of a desire to conserve water than electricity. In this respect, such energy
efficiencies can be considered to have a zero net cost.70 The expert panel of reviewers
suggested that this behaviour is a good adjunct to the previous, installing water efficient shower
heads. This may in turn affect the likelihood of this behaviour.
Likelihood
[2]
Low flow aerators cost between AUD$5 and AUD$12 each.71 They are readily available from
most hardware stores. There are a variety of types available, however, and not all models will
suit every tap. Although they can be installed by the homeowner, it is necessary to turn the
mains water into the house off first, and some tools are necessary. This behaviour may be more
likely where households have the tools required to remove the tap and attach the low flow
aerator, and where they feel they have sufficient skills to do so.
Water saving campaigns throughout Queensland have encouraged this behaviour, and this
behaviour is listed on the Townsville City Council website.72 This behaviour is thus likely to be
undertaken as a water saving measure, and is its likelihood is considered low to moderate.
67
TCC (2008) Hot Water Heating, Sustainable Housing for the Tropics, Townsville City Council. Available at:
http://www.townsville.qld.gov.au/resources/1987.pdf, accessed 18 June 2009.
68
See the Australian Greenhouse Office (2008) for more information on the average breakdown of water consumption within a
house: Australian Greenhouse Office (2008) Global Warming Cool It - Water, Department of Environment and Natural Resources,
Australian Government. Available at: http://www.environment.gov.au/settlements/gwci/water.html , accessed 29 September 2008.
69
SEDO (2008), Running Costs and Greenhouse Gas Emissions, Sustainable Energy development Office, Government of Western
Australia. Available at: http://www.sedo.energy.wa.gov.au/pages/emissions.asp, accessed 27 October 2008
70
Pears, A. (2004) ‘Energy Efficiency: Long Term Potential and an Approach to Incorporating Consideration of Energy Efficiency into
Economic Modelling’, Greenhouse Challenge for Energy: Appendices – Report to the Victorian Department of Infrastructure and
Department of Sustainability and Environment, The Allen Consulting Group. p139-140.
71
ACF (2008) 4. Take a short, efficient shower, Australian Conservation Foundation, Australia. Available at:
http://www.acfonline.org.au/articles/news.asp?news_id=151&c=141244, accessed 14 November 2008.; Personal communications
with staff from Bunnings, Cannon Hill (Brisbane, Australia), November 2008.
72
TCC (nd) Water Saving Tips, Citiwater, Townsville City Council, Australia. Available at:
http://www.townsville.qld.gov.au/resources/2025.pdf, accessed 18 December 2008.
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Identification and Assessment of Homeowner Behaviours Related to Reducing Residential Energy Demand
12. The repair of dripping hot water taps [0.08:2]
Impact
[0.08]
This behaviour will reduce electricity consumption in the home relative to the amount by which it
reduces hot water usage, assuming that this hot water has been heating using an electric hot
water system. Over ninety percent of households in Townsville use an electric storage hot water
system73 and it is assumed that of the remainder, some will use either an electric heat pump or
an electrically boosted solar hot water heater. This behaviour assumes that the tap which is
dripping is the hot water tap, as a dripping cold water tap will not save electricity at the level of
the individual household.
On average, a dripping hot water tap can consume up to 101kWh of energy each year. 74 This
does assume, however, that an electric hot water system is being used and that the tap is
dripping for an entire year at an average rate. This represents approximately 1.6 percent of the
total electricity consumption, hence the impact is measured at 0.08.
The expert panel pointed out that preferable to this behaviour might be one in which taps are
better designed to minimise drips.
Likelihood
[2]
This behaviour is a one off action for each time a dripping tap is found. A household would need
to have access to the necessary tools and technical skills, and to be aware of from where they
might to purchase replacement washers, and which type and size is necessary. Where a
plumber is needed, the related costs may make this behaviour less likely.
This behaviour may be more likely where dripping taps are audible and irritating, and with the
recent water campaign, homeowners may be more inclined to fix these taps to save water. This
behaviour is considered moderately likely.
73
TCC (2008) Hot Water Heating, Sustainable Housing for the Tropics, Townsville City Council. Available at:
http://www.townsville.qld.gov.au/resources/1987.pdf, accessed 18 June 2009.
74
Based on estimates of greenhouse gas emissions provided by DEWHA (2008), see:
http://www.environment.gov.au/settlements/gwci/water.html, and the amount of energy this would equate to, see SEDO (2008):
http://www.sedo.energy.wa.gov.au/pages/emissions.asp.
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Identification and Assessment of Homeowner Behaviours Related to Reducing Residential Energy Demand
13. Placing mixer taps to full cold when using cold water to avoid inadvertent use of hot
water [0.08:1]
Impact
[0.08]
This behaviour will reduce electricity consumption in the home by reducing the amount of hot
water which is mixed into the water flow when cold water is wanted. This behaviour is only
relevant to households which have mixer taps, and to those households which use electricity to
heat their water.
Mixer taps add hot water as soon as they are slightly to the left. This usage may not be noticed
by the resident as the cooled water in the hot water pipes will be used first, allowing hot water to
refill the pipes where it will then cool. It is difficult to estimate how much hot water will be pulled
through the pipes when the tap is turned on as it depends upon the length of time for which the
water is run, and the proportion of hot water being mixed into the flow. One source estimates
that by performing this behaviour ten times a day, it would save approximately 200kg of
greenhouse gas emissions a year, if an electric hot water system is being used.75 Based on
figures provided by SEDO in Western Australia, this would equate to around 101kWh per year,76
or 1.6 percent of total annual consumption. The impact has been calculated at 0.08.
Likelihood
[1]
This behaviour is a repetitive action which will occur every time a mixer tap is used. It is
assumed that the position of the mixer tap would be adjusted frequently to provide a variety of
required temperatures. Hence, it is unlikely that a ‘default’ position could be achieved and
maintained and instead the household will need to actively shift the mixer tap to the hard left
when they would like to use cold water only. This uptake behaviour may be inhibited by the fact
that water sitting in hot water pipes may have cooled, such that the household is not able to
perceive that the position of the mixer tap, if not to the hard left, is actually using hot water also.
This behaviour is therefore thought to have a low likelihood.
Upon consideration of the suggestions made by the expert review panel, the likelihood of this
behaviour has been downscaled to 0.5.
DEWHA (b) (2008) Global Warming – Cool it, Water Heating, Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts,
Australian Government. Available at: http://www.environment.gov.au/settlements/gwci/water.html, Accessed 20 October 2008.\
76
SEDO (2008), Running Costs and Greenhouse Gas Emissions, Sustainable Energy development Office, Government of Western
Australia. Available at: http://www.sedo.energy.wa.gov.au/pages/emissions.asp, accessed 27 October 2008
75
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Townsville CitySolar Community Capacity Building Program
Identification and Assessment of Homeowner Behaviours Related to Reducing Residential Energy Demand
14. Washing clothes in cold water rather than warm or hot [0.26:4]
Impact
[0.26]
This behaviour will reduce the electricity consumption of a household relative to the amount by
which it reduces the amount of hot water which is used for clothes washing. It assumes that
either an electric hot water system is being used (over ninety percent of households in
Townsville use an electric storage hot water system77 and others may use an electric boosted
solar hot water heater, or electric heat pump), or that the washing machine heats the water
internally. Please note that the calculations performed here assume that clothes are washed in a
washing machine, although it is recognised that this behaviour could equally apply to hand
washing. Given that nearly all Australian households (97 percent) have a washing machine, it is
assumed that the vast majority of clothes washing will be done in this manner.78
The impact of this behaviour depends on the number of loads, type of washing machine and
type of water heater. The average difference (based on 133 different models) between hot and
cold washes, for one load of washing is 1.24kWh.79 75 percent of Australian households do five
loads or less of washing per week.80 Based on the average difference between hot and cold
washes, five loads of washing a week run on a cold setting rather than warm would save
325kWh per year, or 5.2 percent of the total average yearly electricity consumption. The impact
of this behaviour has been hence rated at 0.26.
Please note that these figures are for currently available washing machines. Whilst Minimum
Energy Performance Standards (MEPS) do not apply to washing machines, they are required to
show both their energy consumption (since 1990) and the water consumption (since 2006)81
and this have resulted in energy efficiencies in newer models (from which these figures have
been calculated). Those in use in households may use more energy than these, and hence this
behaviour may produce greater energy savings than has been estimated.
Likelihood
[4]
This behaviour is a repetitive task that may be performed every time the washing machine is
used. It may be hindered where households hold a belief that their clothes will not be as clean
following a cold water cycle, however the availability of several cold water washing detergents
may assist in changing such perceptions. Nonetheless, where the household undertakes
activities which result in heavily soiled clothing, this behaviour may be less likely. Many washing
machines retain the settings used for the previous wash, and hence it could be assumed that if
this behaviour is undertaken once, it will be more likely that it will continue. Many clothes carry
77
TCC (2008) Hot Water Heating, Sustainable Housing for the Tropics, Townsville City Council. Available at:
http://www.townsville.qld.gov.au/resources/1987.pdf, accessed 18 June 2009.
78
ABS (2008) Environmental Issues – Energy Use and Conservation, Australian Bureau of Statistics, Australian Government.
Available at:
http://abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/39433889d406eeb9ca2570610019e9a5/E95A38518401BD24CA25750E00108119?opendocum
ent, accessed 02 December 2008.
79
Qld EPA (2008) Achieving early and affordable greenhouse gas reductions in Queensland - Strategies for voluntary household
and lifestyle changes, Environmental Protection Agency, Queensland Government. Available at:
http://www.climatechange.qld.gov.au/downloads/downloads/working_paper_1.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008
80
ABS (2008) Environmental Issues – Energy Use and Conservation, Australian Bureau of Statistics, Australian Government.
Available at:
http://abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/39433889d406eeb9ca2570610019e9a5/E95A38518401BD24CA25750E00108119?opendocum
ent, accessed 02 December 2008.
81
Wilkenfeld, G. and associates (2007) Minimum Water and Energy Standards for Clothes Washers in Australia, prepared for the
Department of Environment and Water Resources, Australia. Available at: http://www.energyrating.com.au/pubs/2007-whitegoodsmeps-cw.pdf, accessed 18 December 2008.
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Identification and Assessment of Homeowner Behaviours Related to Reducing Residential Energy Demand
labels which stipulate that they should be washed only in cold water, and in general terms cold
water washing is gentler on clothes. This may make this behaviour more likely.
An ABS survey found that 74 percent of Australian households washed their clothes in cold
water in washing machines. The remaining 26 percent takes into account both households
which use hot water all of the time, and those which vary the temperature. This figure represents
a 61 percent increase in the number of households washing in cold water from 1994.82 Based on
this information, this behaviour is considered highly likely.
ABS (2008) Environmental Issues – Energy Use and Conservation, Australian Bureau of Statistics, Australian Government.
Available at:
http://abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/39433889d406eeb9ca2570610019e9a5/E95A38518401BD24CA25750E00108119?opendocum
ent, accessed 02 December 2008.
82
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Townsville CitySolar Community Capacity Building Program
Identification and Assessment of Homeowner Behaviours Related to Reducing Residential Energy Demand
15. Turning the thermostat to 60oC to 65oC on storage hot water systems, and 50oC on
instantaneous hot water systems [0.11:2]
Impact
[0.11]
This behaviour will reduce the electricity consumption of a household where an electric hot
water system has the thermostat set above these temperatures. This behaviour will only reduce
electricity consumption where the hot water system uses electricity in some way to heat the
water, such as an electric storage hot water system (which over ninety percent of the
households in Townsville use83), an electric heat pump or an electric booster on a solar hot
water system.
The impact of this behaviour will vary depending on the current temperature of the hot water
system, the final temperature, the type of hot water system being used, the amount of insulation
and water consumption.84 On average, it’s estimated that by reducing the temperature on the
thermostat by 5 degrees will save between 3 and 5 percent of the electricity costs of running the
hot water heater.85 It will be assumed that an electric storage system in the average Townsville
home will use 2,100kWh per year, hence this behaviour could save between 63kWh and
105kWh each year, for each five degrees the thermostat is lowered. The impact of this
behaviour is hence calculated at between 0.01 and 0.02, rounded up to 0.02.
Following expert consultation, this figure has been revised given advice that this may have a
greater impact. Hence, the impact of this behaviour has been increased to 0.11.
Likelihood
[2]
This is a one off behaviour, which requires knowledge of how to read and alter a thermostat.
The temperature of hot water systems is also governed by the need to prevent Legionella
disease, and the Townsville City Council recommends it is above 55 degrees Celsius in storage
hot water systems.86 This is a behaviour which can also be undertaken by the 34.9 percent of
residents in Townsville who are renters.87 The Public Health Association of Australia notes that
most hot water systems in Australia are set to 65 oC or above when installed, despite the risk of
scalding.88 Consequently, it’s assumed that this behaviour would relate to a significant portion of
Townsville residents. It is estimated that this behaviour is low to moderately likely.
83
TCC (2008) Hot Water Heating, Sustainable Housing for the Tropics, Townsville City Council. Available at:
http://www.townsville.qld.gov.au/resources/1987.pdf, accessed 18 June 2009.
84
Milne, G. (2008) 6.1 Energy Use – Technical Manual, Design for Lifestyle and the Future, Commonwealth of Australia. Available
at: http://www.yourhome.gov.au/technical/fs61.html, accessed 29 September 2008.
85
Based on US Department of Energy Figures, see:
http://www.energysavers.gov/your_home/water_heating/index.cfm/mytopic=13090
86
TCC (2008) Hot Water Heating, Sustainable Housing for the Tropics, Townsville City Council. Available at:
http://www.townsville.qld.gov.au/resources/1987.pdf, accessed 18 June 2009.
87
ABS (2007) Census QuickStats: Townsville (Qld), Australian Bureau of Statistics, Commonwealth of Australia. Available at:
http://www.censusdata.abs.gov.au/ABSNavigation/prenav/LocationSearch?collection=Census&period=2006&areacode=3057&produ
cttype=QuickStats&breadcrumb=PL&action=401, accessed 24 October, 2008.
88
Public Health Association of Australia (undated) Hot water temperature and scald burns, Australia. Available at:
http://www.phaa.net.au/documents/policy/policy_injury_hot_water.pdf, accessed 29 May 2009.
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Identification and Assessment of Homeowner Behaviours Related to Reducing Residential Energy Demand
16. Ensuring that the hot water system is properly maintained [0.10:0.5]
Impact
[0.10]
This behaviour will reduce the electricity consumption of households who use an electric storage
hot water heater, an electric heat pump or an electric booster on a solar hot water heater. It will
assist in ensuring that the hot water system functions as efficiently as possible and in this way,
to reduce the amount of electricity required to provide the hot water requirements of the
household.
A properly maintained hot water system will function more efficiently. Some storage hot water
systems need to be bled, usually monthly to three monthly, to replace the air with water. No
metrics were found for the efficiency losses within a poorly maintained system, however it is
assumed that these would vary from house to house, and have a relatively low impact overall
relative to other behaviours.
The expert panel noted that this behaviour might in fact relate more strongly to gas hot water
systems, and that most hot water systems in general require very little maintenance.
Likelihood
[0.5]
This behaviour is a repetitive task, which will need to be undertaken at intervals which may be
dependent upon the various maintenance requirements of a hot water system. Proper
maintenance may require a technician, which involves costs and time to call and receive the
technician. The higher income in Townsville may make this more likely. It may be less likely in
rental properties, which constitute 34.9 percent of Townsville residents.89
This behaviour is presumed to have a low likelihood due to the time and cost involved, and the
lack of awareness which households might have that their system might need to be serviced.
89
ABS (2007) Census QuickStats: Townsville (Qld), Australian Bureau of Statistics, Commonwealth of Australia. Available at:
http://www.censusdata.abs.gov.au/ABSNavigation/prenav/LocationSearch?collection=Census&period=2006&areacode=3057&produ
cttype=QuickStats&breadcrumb=PL&action=401, accessed 24 October, 2008.
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Identification and Assessment of Homeowner Behaviours Related to Reducing Residential Energy Demand
17. Draining sediment from a storage hot water system annually [0.1:2]
Impact
[0.1]
This behaviour can reduce the energy needed to heat the hot water by removing accumulated
sediment from storage hot water systems. Although several sites mention this behaviour, 90 it is
not suggested how much energy this behaviour could save. It is assumed that this behaviour
has a relatively low impact.
Likelihood
[2]
Storage water heaters should be drained annually to remove sediment, and this requires just
opening the valve at the bottom of the tank and allowing the water to run out until it runs clear. 91
It requires residents to be aware of the need to do this, to remember to do this, to know how to
do this and having the time to do it. Assuming homeowners are made aware of this when
purchasing a hot water system, it is assumed that this behaviour is moderately likely.
DEWHA (i), 2008, Hot Water – Ways to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, Department of the Environment, Heritage and the Arts,
Australian Government. Available at: http://www.environment.gov.au/settlements/challenge/publications/factsheets/fs-hot-water.html,
accessed 14 November 2008; and My Great Home (2008) Water Heater Maintenance, Foremost Insurance Group. Available at:
http://www.mygreathome.com/fix-it_guide/water_heater.htm, accessed 14 November 2008.
91
DEWHA (i), 2008, Hot Water – Ways to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, Department of the Environment, Heritage and the Arts,
Australian Government. Available at: http://www.environment.gov.au/settlements/challenge/publications/factsheets/fs-hot-water.html,
accessed 14 November 2008.
90
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Townsville CitySolar Community Capacity Building Program
Identification and Assessment of Homeowner Behaviours Related to Reducing Residential Energy Demand
18. Contracting a plumber to repair leaks on a hot water system [0.10:3]
Impact
[0.10]
This behaviour will reduce the electricity consumption of a household’s hot water energy system
if it has developed a leak. No information relating to the average frequency with which hot water
systems develop leaks was found, or to the amount of water which would be expected to be lost
in such an event. The size of the impact would also depend upon the type of hot water system
being used. It is assumed that this would be infrequent, however, and that sizeable leaks would
not be left unattended for a long period of time. Hence, the impact of this behaviour has been
estimated as being relatively low.
Likelihood
[3]
This behaviour is likely to incur costs in the form of call out fees and repair costs, although the
higher than average income of Townsville residents may suggest this might be less of an issue.
The alternative behaviour may be that a leaking hot water system is replaced by a new system
altogether, which may be more efficient, however will have life cycle impacts. Given that a
leaking hot water system may damage surrounding areas, and could impact on the quality of the
hot water being delivered to the household, this is assumed to have a moderate to high
likelihood.
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Identification and Assessment of Homeowner Behaviours Related to Reducing Residential Energy Demand
19. Conducting home –repairs on leaks on a hot water system [0.10:1]
Impact
[0.10]
The impact of this behaviour, as discussed in the above behaviour (Contract a plumber to repair
leaks on a hot water system) will depend on the type of hot water system being used and the
size of the leak. It is assumed that the impact is relatively low for this behaviour.
Likelihood
[1]
The likelihood of households performing this behaviour depends on their skills, and in having the
necessary tools and materials. It is assumed that few households would be able to perform this
behaviour, therefore it has been assigned a low likelihood.
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Identification and Assessment of Homeowner Behaviours Related to Reducing Residential Energy Demand
20. The installation of the hot water heater to minimise total pipe length during house
construction [0.1:0.5]
Impact
[0.1]
This behaviour will reduce the amount of electricity used to heat water by minimising heat losses
in the pipe system. On average, around 30 percent of the energy used to heat water is wasted
through losses in the pipes and the tanks,92 and it is assumed that losses in the pipes are
responsible for half of this. This behaviour may be able to reduce pipe length and energy losses
by, it is assumed, 40 percent, or 6.9 percent of the total energy consumption of an electric
storage hot water system (estimated to use on average 2,100kWh per year). This would result in
yearly electricity savings of 126kWh, or 2 percent of the total annual household consumption.
The impact of this behaviour is thus estimated to be 0.10.
The expert panel confirmed these findings, suggesting that whilst this behaviour helps, the
savings are relatively minimal.
Likelihood
[0.5]
This is a one off behaviour, which involves consideration of housing design (where to place
water uses) as well as where to locate the tank. The behaviour may reduce the ongoing
operating costs of the house, as well as construction costs (if less piping and associated
infrastructure are required).
The behaviour requires knowledge to be available during design and construction (architects
and plumbers) and a willingness to compromise on housing design (locate showers above
laundry and near the kitchen etc). It is assumed that given the relatively low energy savings from
this behaviour, house designers may prioritise other factors such as functionality in terms of
where the water uses are located within the house. Thus this behaviour has a low likelihood.
92
Riedy, C., Milne, G. and Reardon, C. (2008) 6.5 Hot water service - Technical Manual, Design for Lifestyle and the Future,
Commonwealth of Australia. Available at: http://www.yourhome.gov.au/technical/fs65.html, accessed 03 November 2008
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Identification and Assessment of Homeowner Behaviours Related to Reducing Residential Energy Demand
21. The relocation/retrofitting of the hot water system to minimise total pipe length
[0.10:0.5]
Impact
[0.10]
This behaviour will reduce the amount of electricity used to heat water by minimising heat losses
in the pipe system. On average, around 30 percent of the energy used to heat water is wasted
through losses in the pipes and the tanks,93 and it is assumed that losses in the pipes are
responsible for half of this. It is also assumed that this behaviour may be able to reduce pipe
length and energy losses by 40 percent, or 69 percent of the total energy consumption of an
electric storage hot water system (estimated to use on average 2,100kWh per year). This would
result in yearly electricity savings of 126kWh, or 2 percent of the total annual household
consumption. The impact of this behaviour is thus estimated to be 0.10.
Likelihood
[0.5]
This behaviour would potentially require the plumbing to be altered and the hot water system to
be moved. It may also require more extensive renovations of the house to move the potential
uses closer together. Given the relatively low cost of electricity compared with that of renovating
a house, this may be unlikely. It may be likely only when a house is being renovated for other
reasons. Thus, this behaviour has been given a low priority.
93
Riedy, C., Milne, G. and Reardon, C. (2008) 6.5 Hot water service - Technical Manual, Design for Lifestyle and the Future,
Commonwealth of Australia. Available at: http://www.yourhome.gov.au/technical/fs65.html, accessed 03 November 2008
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Townsville CitySolar Community Capacity Building Program
Identification and Assessment of Homeowner Behaviours Related to Reducing Residential Energy Demand
22. Insulating the hot water tank using a thermal blanket [0.25:1]
Impact
[0.25]
This behaviour can reduce electricity consumption within the home by reducing heat losses from
the tank. It is estimated that around 30 percent of the energy used to heat water is lost through
losses in the tank and pipes,94 of which half is assumed to come from the tank. Assuming a
household is using an electric storage hot water system, using 2,100kWh per year, this would
result in savings of 315kWh, assuming that the tank insulation was able to virtually eliminate
these losses. This represents approximately 5 percent of the annual electricity consumption of a
house in Townsville, hence this behaviour is rated as having an impact of 0.25.
The expert review panel suggested that, at least in the US, efficiency standards are now high
enough that this behaviour is no longer a priority. Other members of the panel, however, have
suggested that this behaviour can have a significant impact hence the impact has been left as
calculated above.
Likelihood
[1]
This is a one off behaviour, however requires some skills and planning to undertake. Insulating
is relatively inexpensive to buy and is available at most hardware stores. This behaviour is
considered to be low to moderately likely.
The expert panel suggested that this behaviour was less likely, hence the score has been rated
as 1.
94
Riedy, C., Milne, G. and Reardon, C. (2008) 6.5 Hot water service - Technical Manual, Design for Lifestyle and the Future,
Commonwealth of Australia. Available at: http://www.yourhome.gov.au/technical/fs65.html, accessed 03 November 2008
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23. Insulating hot water pipes as a retrofit [0.1:1.50]
Impact
[0.1]
This behaviour can reduce electricity consumption within the home by reducing heat losses from
the pipes. It is estimated that around 30 percent of the energy used to heat water is lost through
losses in the tank and pipes,95 of which half is assumed to come from the pipes (author’s own
estimate). The literature suggest that it is only effective to insulate the first two metres of pipes
coming from the tank, and to only do so where long pipe runs exist. 96 Hence, it will be estimated
that this degree of insulation might reduce heat losses from the pipes by 40 percent. Assuming a
household is using an electric storage hot water system, using 2,100kWh per year, this would
result in savings of 126kWh each year. This represents approximately 2 percent of the annual
electricity consumption of a house in Townsville, hence this behaviour is rated as having an
impact of 0.1.
Likelihood
[1.50]
This is a one off behaviour, in which the cost of the materials and labour would be marginal
compared with the cost of the hot water system and the house. Studies indicate that an $80 hot
water cylinder wrap should save a typical household $65 per year in electricity costs, 97 providing
a short payback period.
If the pipes from the hot water system are not easily accessible, then this will be unlikely as it will
be complicated. It will also, however, be likely to be less necessary as pipes inside the house
will not lose as much heat.
Given this information, it is estimated that this behaviour has a moderate likelihood.
The expert review panel noted that there can be concern that leaks in old pipes after they have
been insulated can remain undetected, and this may be a disincentive. Also, it was mentioned
that plumbers seldom insulate pipework, making this behaviour less likely. As a result, the
likelihood has been downscaled to 1.50.
95
Riedy, C., Milne, G. and Reardon, C. (2008) 6.5 Hot water service - Technical Manual, Design for Lifestyle and the Future,
Commonwealth of Australia. Available at: http://www.yourhome.gov.au/technical/fs65.html, accessed 03 November 2008
96
SEDO (c) (2008) Installation and Operation tips – Hot Water Systems, Energy Smart Homes Sustainable Energy development
Office, Government of Western Australia. Available at: http://www.sedo.energy.wa.gov.au/pages/insthw.asp, accessed 03 November
2008.
97
DEUS & SEDO (nd) Energy Saving Manual – Section 10, Hot Water Systems, Department of Energy, Utilities and Sustainability,
NSW Government and Sustainable Energy Development Office, WA Government. Available at:
http://www.energysmart.com.au/sedatoolbox/esm10.asp, accessed 03 November 2008.
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Additional Behaviours not considered further at this stage:
24. Installing a thermostat timer on electric hot water systems
Impact
[]
This will allow heating to be varied so the hot water system will operate only when it is typically
needed.
Allows for heating only during off-peak periods.
Likelihood
[]
One off task
Cost involved with buying and installing the timer may be a deterrent – online, timers sell for
between around AU$40.00 and over AU$300.00 (NexTag, 2008).98
Depends on knowledge being available (plumbers and hardware stores) and disseminated a key
times, such as purchase of the hot water system.
Reduces running costs of hot water system
May require behavioural change in terms of hot water usage (when showers are taken etc)
98
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2.2
Reducing Electricity Consumption – Kitchen Appliances (Fridge 14%,
Cooking 5%, Dishwasher 1%)
25. The purchase of an energy efficient dishwasher (rather than a less efficient model)
[0.23:4]
Impact
[0.23]
This behaviour will reduce electricity consumption in the home relative to the reduced amount of
electricity which an efficient model might use. This behaviour will only save electricity where it
replaces a less efficient machine, as buying a new machine where one wasn’t owned before
may in fact increase the electricity consumption of the household.
The most energy efficient dishwashers currently available (4 star) use 225kWh for 365 washes
(Kleenmaid, DW47, 14 place setting), whilst the least efficient currently available (1 star) use up
to 570kWh, also for 365 washes (Miele, G1020, 14 place settings).99 The difference between
these is 345kWh per 365 washes.
On the assumption that a household would use a dishwasher once each day, this behaviour
could potentially save 345kWh each year. It is important to note that this makes a comparison
between the most efficient dishwasher currently available, and the least. A household may,
however, be making a comparison between two relatively efficient models, and thus the energy
savings quoted here would be exaggerated. It also does not consider the energy which might be
saved if a household is replacing their existing model, which may be even less efficient that the
models suggested here, and would result in larger energy savings. This behaviour is not
considering the change in energy related to a household switching from hand washing dishes to
using a dishwasher. Based on these assumptions, this behaviour has the potential to save
345kWh per year, or approximately 5.6 percent of a household’s yearly electricity usage. Its
impact is therefore rated at 0.28. The expert panel was of the opinion that there was not a
significant difference in energy use between the most energy efficient and least energy efficient
models. This contradiction might possibly be attributable to observations of US markets, where
energy efficiency regulations have been in place for longer and may have resulted in a more
uniformly efficient selection of dishwashers. Nonetheless, the impact of this behaviour has been
downscaled to 0.23 to recognise this.
Likelihood
[4]
In terms of the likelihood that a household would purchase an efficient dishwasher over a less
efficient model, it was noted that energy efficiency was considered more important by Australian
households than water efficiency when buying a dishwasher, and both these factors played a
greater role than price when purchasing a new appliance. 100 Dishwashers in Australia are
required to display an Australian Energy Label, which shows its energy consumption (based on
365 washes per year) as well as a star rating which is an indication of its energy efficiency.
These factors suggest that a moderate to high likelihood that households would undertake this
behaviour.
99
Energy Rating (nd) Search and compare appliances, Energy Rating, Department of Water, Heritage and the Arts, Australian
Government. Available at: http://www.energyrating.gov.au/appsearch/default.asp, accessed 17 November 2008.
100
ABS (2008) Environmental Issues – Energy Use and Conservation, Australian Bureau of Statistics, Australian Government.
Available at:
http://abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/39433889d406eeb9ca2570610019e9a5/E95A38518401BD24CA25750E00108119?opendocum
ent, accessed 02 December 2008.
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26. The purchase a water efficient dishwasher (rather than a less efficient model) [0.17:3]
Impact
[0.17]
This behaviour will reduce electricity consumption in the home relative to the amount of
electricity which is saved by the reduced amount of hot water which is used by the dishwasher.
The most water efficient dishwashers currently available in Australia (according to the Australian
Government WELS scheme website) use around 1.23 litres per place setting, per wash (several
Fisher and Paykel models) whereas the least efficient models use up to 3.05 litres per place
setting, per wash (several Thor models). 101 This equates to a per wash water saving of between
7.08 litres for a four place settings and 10.62 litres for a six place setting. As the hot cycle on
dishwashers is generally around 50 oC, whereas a hot water system heats water to 60 oC, it will
be assumed that only 5/6 of the water used comes from the hot water system. Based on various
sources, it is estimated that heating 15 litres of water in an electric storage hot water system
uses around 1kWh of electricity.102 Thus, this behaviour has the potential to save 144kWh and
215kWh of electricity a year, assuming that the dishwasher is run once per day, that the two
dishwasher models in question use water at the same temperature, that the efficiency with
which the dishwasher heats water internally is equivalent to that of an electric storage hot water
system, and that heating 15 litres of water to 60 oC uses 1kWh of electricity.
Based on these calculations, this behaviour could save between 2.3 and 3.5 percent of a
household’s yearly electricity consumption. Hence this behaviour has been rated at 0.17.
Likelihood
[3]
In terms of the likelihood that a household would purchase a water efficient dishwasher, it is
noted that energy efficiency was considered more important by Australian households than
water efficiency when buying a dishwasher, however both of these played a greater role than
price when purchasing a new appliance.103 The Australian Government’s Water Efficiency
Labelling and Standards (WELS) Scheme applies to dishwashers, therefore all models available
for sale in Australia must display water efficiency information.104
It is therefore considered moderately likely that households will purchase a water efficient
dishwasher.
101
Australian Government (2008) Water Efficiency Labelling and Standards (WELS) Scheme, Australia. Available at:
http://www.waterrating.gov.au/, accessed 18 December 2008.
102
Based on estimates from the Australian Conservation Foundation (2008), that heating 15 litres of water releases 1kg of
greenhouse gas emissions, and from SEDO (b, 2008) in Western Australia, who estimated that using a coal fired power station, this
level of emissions would result from generating 1kWh of electricity. This does not take into account transmission losses and is
intended to give an indication only.
103
ABS (2008) Environmental Issues – Energy Use and Conservation, Australian Bureau of Statistics, Australian Government.
Available at:
http://abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/39433889d406eeb9ca2570610019e9a5/E95A38518401BD24CA25750E00108119?opendocum
ent, accessed 02 December 2008.
104
Australian Government (2008) Water Efficiency Labelling and Standards (WELS) Scheme, Australia. Available at:
http://www.waterrating.gov.au/, accessed 18 December 2008.
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27. Composting rather than using an ‘insinkerator’ (Food Waste Disposers) [0:1]
Impact
[0]
Several studies have been done to assess the environmental impact of Food Waste Disposers
(FWD) (for a variety of reasons), one of which noted that the average yearly electricity
consumption is 3kWh.105 Composting uses no electricity, hence this behaviour will save, on
average, 3kWh per year (not taking into account the electricity consumed by a wastewater
treatment plant, which is outside the scope of this investigation).
No figures have been found for the market penetration of FWD in Townsville, so it is not
possible to estimate at this stage the impact of this behaviour over the whole community.
Hence, for those houses to which this behaviour applies, it is estimated that it could save around
0.04 percent of their annual electricity consumption. Hence the impact of behaviour is rated at
0.002, and has been scaled to 0.
As noted by the expert review panel, this behaviour would have a larger impact on the waste
stream than energy consumption, hence even though it has a low impact rating for these
purposes it may still be a beneficial behaviour to promote to reduce municipal greenhouse
gases and waste production.
Likelihood
[1]
FWD are promoted in some locations as an alternative to composting in cooler months when
lower temperatures inhibits the bacterial growth which is necessary to decompose compost, and
can result in vermin infesting the compost pile.106 In Townsville, however, the relatively mild
winters may mean that this is not a problem. This behaviour may be made more likely by water
saving measures, as FWD require the tap to be running while the FWD is switched on.
Households which have a FWD already installed may have done so for personal reasons
regarding cleaning habits and hygiene. Thus, in those households which have FWD, it is
considered that this behaviour would have a low likelihood.
Evans, T. (nd) Environmental Impact Study of Food Waste Disposers, for The County Surveyors’ Society, Herefordshire Council
and Worcestershire County Council. Available at: http://www.insinkerator.com/pdfs/fwd_eis_summary.pdf, accessed 05 December
2008.
106
Laumer, J. (2008) Trash-Talking The GarbageDisposal: Examination of a not so green US export, Treehugger, Discovery
Communication, LLC. Available at: http://www.treehugger.com/files/2008/02/trash-talking-the-garbage-disposal.php, accessed 05
December 2008.
105
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28. Cleaning the seals around the fridge [0.5:3]
Impact
[0.5]
This behaviour will help ensure that the fridge seals properly and prevents cool air from
escaping. It is necessary to estimate how much air dirty seals will allow to escape (no such
metrics have been found). The specific heat capacity of air at 25 degrees Celsius is
1.005kJ/kg.K.107 Assuming that half a litre of cool air can escape through dirty seals an hour, and
will need to be replaced with warm air cooled by the refrigerator (the density of air at room
temperature is 1.205kg/m3, and at 3 degrees Celsius, around 1.293 kg/m3, hence to replace the
cooled air, 0.54 litres of warmer air will be needed,108 this will result in an additional energy
requirement of 0.014kJ per hour (assuming the refrigerator is set to 3 degrees Celsius). Over a
year, assuming this is not remedied, this would result in 125.19kJ, or 0.035kWh. This would
have virtually no impact on a household’s yearly electricity consumption, therefore this
behaviour has been rated at 0.
The expert panel suggested that this behaviour may in fact have a low impact, hence the impact
rating has been increased to 0.5.
Please note that there are many assumptions in this calculation, for instance that the amount of
air which is escaping, that the ambient air temperature is 25 degrees Celsius year round, and
that the refrigerator is perfectly efficient and only requires as an input the actual amount of
energy required to cool the warmer air.
Likelihood
[3]
Dirty seals may be cleaned for other reasons also, such as for hygiene or aesthetics (the build
up of dirt or mould can be visible). Households may feel some cool air exiting the fridge, which
may alert them to a potential problem with the fridge, as might food going bad more quickly.
Therefore this behaviour has been estimated to have a moderate likelihood.
107
The Engineering Toolbox (b) (2005) Air properties, Available at: http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/air-properties-d_156.html,
accessed 04 December 2008.
108
The Engineering Toolbox (b) (2005) Air properties, Available at: http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/air-properties-d_156.html,
accessed 04 December 2008.
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29. Ensuring that nothing is blocking the fridge door from shutting [0:4]
Impact
[0]
This behaviour will enable the refrigerator door to shut completely. The impact of this will
depend on for how long an object might have kept the door open, and by how much. As this
behaviour would be intermittent and the energy saved highly variable, it is difficult to estimate its
impact. It is assumed, however, that it would be very low, therefore this behaviour is assumed to
have a negligible impact overall.
Likelihood
[4]
The fridge door being open may, in some models, cause the fridge to beep at the household and
alert them to the fact that the door is open. Alternatively, most fridges have an internal light
which comes on when the door is open by a certain amount, and in some cases this may alert
households that something is blocking the door. Households are likely to ensure the fridge door
stays shut to preserve the life of their food, therefore this behaviour is considered very likely.
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30. Keeping bottles of water in the fridge if not otherwise well stocked [0:1]
Impact
[0]
This behaviour will reduce the amount of air in the fridge that can exit each time the door is
open. For each two litre bottle of water, for instance, there will be two litres less of air.
The specific heat capacity of air at 25 degrees Celsius is 1.005kJ/kg∙K.109 Assuming that this two
litres of cool air escapes each time the fridge door is opened (as an estimate, ten times a day)
and will need to be replaced with warm air cooled by the refrigerator (the density of air at room
temperature is 1.205kg/m3, and at 3 degrees Celsius, around 1.293 kg/m3 , hence to replace the
cooled air, 2.15 litres of warmer air will be needed,110 this will result in an additional energy
requirement of 0.57kJ per day (assuming the refrigerator is set to 3 degrees Celsius). Over a
year, assuming this is constant, this would result in 208.7kJ, or 0.058kWh.
However, the energy required to bring a 2 litre bottle of water to the temperature of the fridge
from room temperature is 10 times as much electricity as if the same amount of air had
escaped.111 Hence, this behaviour will only save energy when the bottles of water remain more
permanently in the fridge.
The amount of energy saved by this behaviour is negligible compared with the overall energy
consumption of a household, hence the impact of this behaviour has been rated as 0.
Likelihood
[1]
This behaviour may be affected by several factors. One such factor is that the contents of many
fridges are highly variable, as food and drink is consumed and replaced. The addition and
removal of bottles of water to compensate for this may make this behaviour cumbersome and
will not save as much energy. For these reasons, the likelihood of this behaviour has been
estimated as being low.
109
The Engineering Toolbox (b) (2005) Air properties, Available at: http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/air-properties-d_156.html,
accessed 04 December 2008.
110
The Engineering Toolbox (b) (2005) Air properties, Available at: http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/air-properties-d_156.html,
accessed 04 December 2008.
111
Australian Greenhouse Office (b)(2007) Global Warming Cool It - Appliances, Department of Environment and Natural
Resources, Australian Government. Available at: http://www.environment.gov.au/settlements/gwci/appliances.html, accessed 29
September 2008.
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31. Avoiding unnecessarily opening the fridge (considering what is wanted before the
door’s opened) [0:1]
Impact
[0]
This behaviour will reduce the number of times which the cooler air in the fridge can exit through
the open door, and potentially also the amount of air which exits if the door is open for shorter
periods of time. Assume that two litres of air exit the fridge each time the door is opened.
The specific heat capacity of air at 25 degrees Celsius is 1.005kJ/kg∙K.112 Assuming that this two
litres of cool air escapes each time the fridge door is opened (as an estimate, it will be assumed
that this behaviour will reduce overall the number of times the fridge door is opened by half, and
that prior to this behaviour, the fridge door was opened ten times a day allowing on average two
litres of cool air to escape) and will need to be replaced with warm air cooled by the refrigerator
(the density of air at room temperature is 1.205kg/m3, and at 3 degrees Celsius, around 1.293
kg/m3 , hence to replace the cooled air, 2.15 litres of warmer air will be needed.113 Prior to this
behaviour, 0.57kJ per day (assuming the refrigerator is set to 3 degrees Celsius) would have
been needed to replace this lost, cool air. Over a year, assuming this is constant, this would
result in 208.7kJ, or 0.058kWh.
Following this behaviour, the door will only be opened half the number of times, or perhaps for
half the time. This would hence save 0.029kWh per year. This figure is very low in comparison
to the yearly energy consumption of a household, thus this behaviour is assumed to have an
impact of 0.
Please note that there are many assumptions in this calculation, for instance that the whole two
litres of air will escape each time the door is opened, that the ambient air temperature is 25
degrees Celsius year round, that the fridge door is opened ten times a day, and that the
refrigerator is perfectly efficient and only requires as an input the actual amount of energy
required to cool the warmer air.
Likelihood
[1]
This behaviour may be governed by other factors, such as households feeling hungry but not
knowing what food is in the fridge to chose from, habit, indecision and so on. Given the
negligible amount of energy saved by performing this behaviour, and the variety of reasons for
which households would be opening the fridge, this behaviour is assumed to have a low
likelihood.
112
The Engineering Toolbox (b) (2005) Air properties, Available at: http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/air-properties-d_156.html,
accessed 04 December 2008.
113
The Engineering Toolbox (b) (2005) Air properties, Available at: http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/air-properties-d_156.html,
accessed 04 December 2008.
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32. Vacuuming the refrigerator coils regularly [0.08:1]
Impact
[0.08]
This behaviour can increase the efficiency of a fridge, as accumulated dust on the coils can
increase electricity consumption by up to 30 percent.114 The most energy efficient fridge on the
market with 100 - 200 litre capacity (185kWh/annum for a 123L fridge, a six star rated fridge
made by Fisher and Paykel) and the least efficient available now uses 322kWh/annum for a
188L fridge, a two star rated fridge made by TGA unlimited.115 This behaviour suggests that if not
vacuumed, the power usage by these appliances would increase to 240kWh per annum for the
most efficient (an increase of 55kWh per year), and to 419kWh for the least efficient (an
increase of 97kWh). Therefore, approximately 55 – 97 kWh could be saved by performing this
behaviour.
This represents approximately 1.6 percent of the average household’s yearly electricity
consumption, hence the impact of this behaviour has been calculated to be 0.08.
Although outside the scope of this investigation, it may be worth noting that refrigerators can use
up to 20 percent more on hot days, disproportionately contributing to peak demand.116
Note that the above calculations have been made for currently available models. Models which
are older than twenty years can use over three times as much electricity as these,117 which would
also increase threefold the potential impact of this behaviour.
Likelihood
[1]
This behaviour may be hindered by the location of fridges, which is typically in a cavity which
does not allow for easy access. Otherwise, they are often located with the coils close the wall,
which again may make access with a vacuum cleaner difficult. Some coils are located beneath
the fridge, or encased within a protective covering. As the coils are typically out of sight, they
may also be out of mind and households may forget to perform this behaviour.
This behaviour assumes that households have a vacuum cleaner. In 2005, 95.2 percent of
Australian households had a vacuum cleaner, a figure which had remained steady since 1999.118
Based on this information, this behaviour is assumed to have a low likelihood.
It was noted by the expert review panel that this behaviour may expose a risk of breaking the
refrigerator coils.
114
Greenconsumerguide (2008), Refrigeration, Green Media Publishing Ltd, United Kingdom. Available at:
http://www.greenconsumerguide.com/domesticll.php?CLASSIFICATION=50&PARENT=44, accessed 04 December 2008.
115
Energy Rating (nd) Search and compare appliances, Energy Rating, Department of Water, Heritage and the Arts, Australian
Government. Available at: http://www.energyrating.gov.au/appsearch/default.asp, accessed 17 November 2008.
116
Pears, A. (2004) ‘Energy Efficiency: Long Term Potential and an Approach to Incorporating Consideration of Energy Efficiency
into Economic Modelling’, Greenhouse Challenge for Energy: Appendices – Report to the Victorian Department of Infrastructure and
Department of Sustainability and Environment, The Allen Consulting Group. p139-140.
117
The Yellow House (nd) Appliances, United Kingdom. Available at: http://www.theyellowhouse.org.uk/themes/appli.html#a7,
accessed 05 December 2008.
118
ABS (2007) Environmental Impact of household energy use, Australian Bureau of Statistics, Australian Government. Available at:
http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/bb8db737e2af84b8ca2571780015701e/a300c2a2b4e0b91fca2571b000197552!Open
Document, accessed 03 December 2008.
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33. When designing the kitchen, locating the refrigerator away from the oven [0.1:1]
Impact
[0.1]
This behaviour assumes that the heat from the oven will impact on the efficiency of the fridge.
The impact of this behaviour will therefore depend on the efficiency of the oven, and the type of
window glazing, as this will determine how much heat emanates from this appliance. For
example, some oven manufacturers build ovens with triple glazing, and estimate (for example)
that when the inside temperature is 200oC, the outside temperature of the window is 40 oC.119
Many other similar products are available. Thus, the effect of the oven on a fridge may be
minimal.
There is little information available from which the impact of this behaviour can be gauged,
however it is presumed to be relatively low to negligible, hence it has been rated at 0.1.
The expert panel suggested that in reality most households use their ovens very little these
days, which would confirm the relatively low impact rating given here.
Likelihood
[1]
There are other factors which are likely to influence this decision, namely the way in which the
principle user of the kitchen would like the kitchen to be laid out to make it most user friendly, in
terms of where benches are and the accessibility of various areas. It will also be influenced by
the layout of the rest of the house and the consequential dimensions of the kitchen itself. Thus,
the likelihood of this behaviour is considered to be low, unless undertaken for other reasons
(such as the desired kitchen layout).
119
ASKO (2006) ASKO oven range, ASKO appliances, Pty Ltd. Available at: http://www.asko.com.au/our_products/ovens/,
accessed 17 November 2008.
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34. Buying less food more frequently to reduce the fridge capacity required [0.4:2]
Impact
[0.4]
This behaviour may have the impact of reducing the need for a second fridge, or reducing the
required capacity of principle fridge.
Second fridges tend to be older models, hence less efficient. Older fridges (twenty years old)
can use over 2kWh a day to run, whereas newer, more efficient, models can use as little as
0.66kWh per day.120 Switching off a second fridge by having less food to store could save
730kWh a year. This represents 12 percent of the annual electricity consumption of a Townsville
household, and would indicate a potentially high impact of this behaviour. As it is recognised
that this is an upper extreme and contains many assumptions, the impact of this behaviour has
been rated at 0.4.
One member of the expert review panel commented that in the US, the size and electricity
consumption of fridges are in fact poorly correlated, and hence a bigger fridge may not
necessarily consume more electricity than a smaller one.
Please note that this behaviour may have the undesirable effect of increasing personal car
usage, if this is the mode of transport used to purchase food. It may, however, have the positive
side effect of facilitating other transport mechanisms, such as walking, bike riding or public
transport, if it becomes easier to carry smaller loads of shopping.
Likelihood
[2]
About 33 percent of households in Townsville have a second fridge,121 and may be accustomed
to having this additional capacity, which may make this behaviour less likely. This behaviour
may be governed by other factors, such as the working hours of a household and when then are
able to go shopping, eating habits, and the size of the household.
This behaviour is considerately low to moderately likely.
120
The Yellow House (nd) Appliances, United Kingdom. Available at: http://www.theyellowhouse.org.uk/themes/appli.html#a7,
accessed 05 December 2008.
121
Goudie, D. (1995) Sustainable Domestic Energy Use in North Queensland, James Cook University, Australia.
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35. Stacking the contents of the fridge to allow for good air circulation [0:1]
Impact
[0]
This behaviour will improve the efficiency of the fridge. No metrics have been found to quantify
the impact of this behaviour. It is, however, considered to have a negligible to low impact,
therefore the impact has been rated at 0.
Likelihood
[1]
The contents of a fridge are likely to be stack according to a variety of motivations, including
how accessible an item needs to be (for instance, the milk may be placed near the front), how
full the fridge is, how much time the household has to arrange the fridge, whether the household
uses Tupperware or other containers to help organise the fridge contents, the layout of the
fridge itself (whether it has a vegetable crisper, egg compartment etc) and so on. The actual
contents of the fridge are likely to change regularly as they are added or consumed, hence this
is a repetitive behaviour which may be more likely at some points (for instance when the fridge
is less full) than others.
Overall, given the above considerations, this behaviour is estimated to have a low likelihood.
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36. The purchase of a fridge without an ice and water dispenser [0.05:3]
Impact
[0.05]
The ice and water dispensers that are commonly seen in fridges nowadays can increase the
electricity consumption of the appliance by between 14 and 20 percent.122 The most energy
efficient fridge on the market with 100 -200 litre capacity (185kWh/annum for a 123L fridge, a six
star rated fridge made by Fisher and Paykel) and the least efficient available now uses
322kWh/annum for a 188L fridge, a two star rated fridge made by TGA unlimited 123 (please note
that the information given at this site does not include whether these fridges have ice and water
dispensers, and comparing different models which do is difficult as there are other factors which
will affect their energy efficiency. This may provide some indication of the energy consumption
of fridges, and the amount by which ice and water dispensers will increase this). From this
information, it could be inferred that an ice and water dispenser will consume between around
25.9kWh/annum and 64.4kWh/annum as the best and worse case scenario for currently
available models in Australia.
Based on these figures, this behaviour could save between 0.4 percent and 1 percent of a
household’s yearly electricity consumption, giving it an upper rating of 0.05.
Please note that this may overestimate the impact of this behaviour, as it could be assumed that
having an ice and water dispenser will reduce the number of times the fridge and freezer doors
are opened. Conversely, as mentioned in other behaviours, when a fridge is not adequately
stocked, keeping bottles of water (or some other liquid or food) in the fridge will enhance its
efficiency by reducing the amount of cool air in the fridge, which can escape each time the door
is opened. This behaviour may provide additional encouragement to store such bottles in the
fridge.
Likelihood
[3]
This behaviour may be influenced by whether a consumer wishes to have cold water and ice
readily available, and that this may be more convenient from a dispenser than by keeping
bottles of water in the refrigerator, and trays of ice cubes in the freezer. It may also be
influenced by the appeal of a ‘gimmick’. Consumers may be unaware of the additional electricity
costs of an ice and water dispenser (on Tariff 11, from July 2009 prices,124 this would cost
between $4.44, and $11.03 extra to run each year).
Since 1986, many appliances in Australia have had to carry a label stating how energy efficiency
it is. The label also provides an estimated annual electricity consumption in kWh/year. The
labels are now mandatory for clothes washers. The Australian Government’s Energy Rating
website states that some 25 percent of consumers say that energy efficiency is the most
important factor governing appliance selection. On average, energy efficiency ranks as the
fourth most important attribute in appliance selection (this is lower when there are no prompts
present, such as energy efficiency labels). 14 percent of consumers stated that energy efficiency
was ‘not particularly’ or ‘not at all’ important to them when they buy a new appliance. 40 to 50
Appliance.com (undated) The Cold Zone – editorial, Appliance.com. Available at:
http://www.appliance.com/fridge/editorial.php?article=1366&zone=1010&first=1, accessed 18 June 2009.
123
Energy Rating (nd) Search and compare appliances, Energy Rating, Department of Water, Heritage and the Arts, Australian
Government. Available at: http://www.energyrating.gov.au/appsearch/default.asp, accessed 17 November 2008.
124
DME (2009) Retail electricity prices for non-market customers, Queensland Government Gazette, Department of Mines and
Energy. Vol. 351 No. 41. Available at: http://www.dme.qld.gov.au/zone_files/Electricity/09.06.09_-_%5B41%5D__extra_gazette.pdf,
accessed 18 June 2009.
122
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percent of surveyed individuals who had recently bought, or were intending to buy, an appliance
said that they had or were intending to use the information which the energy labels provide
when making a decision.125
This behaviour is considered to have a moderate likelihood.
125
Energy Rating (2007) The Energy Label, Australian Government. Available at: http://www.energyrating.gov.au/con3.html,
accessed 10 November 2008.
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37. Defrosting the freezer regularly [0.1:4]
Impact
[0.1]
A layer of ice in the freezer can act to insulate the compartment from the cooling mechanisms of
the appliance, which will make it less efficient. No metrics have been found to provide an
estimate of how great the impact of this would be, however most sites recommend that the
freezer be defrosted once the layer of ice reaches 5mm thick.126
It is assumed that this behaviour has a relatively low impact, and has been estimated at 0.1.
The expert review panel noted that at least in the case of the United States, most freezers are
now frost free.
Likelihood
[4]
The layer of frost in a freezer will be visible to residents and this may serve as a reminder, or
incentive, for this behaviour. This may be impacted by factors such as a household having
somewhere to store the food from the freezer while it is defrosted, having time to perform this
behaviour, and understanding that this behaviour is necessary and that energy may be saved.
There may be additional impetus in the fact that frost can affect food stored in the freezer, and
that thick frost will decrease the available space. Therefore, this behaviour is estimated to have
a moderate to high likelihood.
126
MEFL (nd) Keeping it cool, Moreland Energy Foundation Ltd, Australia. Available at:
http://www.mefl.com.au/documents/Keeping_It_Cool.pdf, accessed 08 December 2008.
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38. Washing dishes by hand rather than using a dishwashing machine [0:1]
Impact
[0]
The Californian Energy Commission estimates that washing dishes in a dishwasher actually
uses 37 percent less water than doing them by hand, and that at least 80 percent of the energy
used by a dishwasher goes to heating the water.127 The temperature of water when hand
washing may be less than inside a dishwasher so as to not burn the hands of the individual
washing the dishes. The electricity saved by this behaviour will hence be the difference between
the electricity used to heat the water in either case, as well as the electricity used to actually run
the dishwasher.
The most energy efficient dishwashers (4 star) use 225kWh for 365 washes (Kleenmaid, DW47,
14 place setting), whilst the least efficient currently available (1 star) use up to 570kWh, also for
365 washes (Miele, G1020, 14 place settings),128 however depending on how the water is
heated, this may not represent the full electricity consumption.
It is estimated that the temperature of water inside a dishwasher is on average 60oC, and that
when washing dishes by hand, this will be around 40 oC. The average dishwasher uses 16 litres
per cycle, or 12 on an economy cycle.129 If the water is being heated by an electric hot water
system, then the electricity consumed can be approximated. Based on figures provided by the
Australian Conservation Foundation130 and SEDO131 in Western Australia, a 12 litre cycle would
consume around 0.8kWh, and a 16 litre cycle around 1.07kWh. When washing by hand, then, to
do the same amount of dishes it is assumed that 25 litres of water will be needed (based on a
16 litre cycle using 37 percent less water than washing dishes by hand). Assuming that in either
case, the water has been heated from 20 oC, then in the case of hand washing, this will require
half the electricity, hence 0.5kWh per 15 litres, or 0.83kWh for the same load of dishes (please
note that the water temperature will in either case have been raised to around 60 oC, as this is
the normal temperature of hot water systems in Australia,132 however in the case of washing
dishes by hand, a suitable amount of cold water is assumed to have been added to provide a
resultant temperature of around 40oC, which is assumed to give the same approximate energy
consumption as if all of the water had been heated to only 40oC. The heat losses in the pipe
have been discounted as they will apply in either scenario).
The electricity saved, other than through hot water usage, by washing dishes by hand is
assumed to be twenty percent of the total electricity consumption of the dishwasher, which
based on the above figures would save 0.12kWh for the most efficient dishwasher, and 0.31kWh
for the least. As a total, the energy savings from this behaviour range from 0.06kWh for a water
127
Californian Energy Commission (2008) Dishwashers, Consumer Energy Center, USA. Available at:
http://www.consumerenergycenter.org/home/appliances/dishwashers.html, accessed 05 December 2008.
128
Energy Rating (nd) Search and compare appliances, Energy Rating, Department of Water, Heritage and the Arts, Australian
Government. Available at: http://www.energyrating.gov.au/appsearch/default.asp, accessed 17 November 2008.
129
QWC (nd) How to cut water consumption to 140 litres per person a day, Queensland Water Commission, Queensland
Government. Available at: http://www.target140.com.au/myfiles/uploads/Target%20140%20documents/TARGET140_CUTS.pdf,
accessed 04 December 2008.
130
ACF (2008) 4. Take a short, efficient shower, Australian Conservation Foundation, Australia. Available at:
http://www.acfonline.org.au/articles/news.asp?news_id=151&c=141244, accessed 14 November 2008.
131
SEDO (b) (2008), Running Costs and Greenhouse Gas Emissions, Sustainable Energy development Office, Government of
Western Australia. Available at: http://www.sedo.energy.wa.gov.au/pages/emissions.asp, accessed 27 October 2008
132
Queensland Government (2008) Hot Water Systems, Climate Smart Living, Australia. Available at:
http://www.climatesmart.qld.gov.au/your_home/kitchen/hot_water, accessed 05 December 2008.
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efficient machine on an economy setting, to 0.52kWh for the least efficient available machine, on
a regular setting.
These energy savings represent between a negligible percentage of the annual electricity
consumption of an average household (between 0.001 percent and 0.008 percent), and this
behaviour has consequently been rated as having an impact of 0.
These findings were confirmed by the expert review panel, which noted that most dishwashers
do in fact use less electricity than hand washing, depending on the efficiency of the dishwasher
and the method of handwashing. It is, as one reviewer noted, possible to use considerably less
energy to wash dishes by hand, but it requires some thought and education.
(Please note that if the dishes in the dish washer are rinsed in hot water prior to being put into
the dishwasher, then it is likely that this behaviour will save considerably more electricity than
suggested here.)
Likelihood
[1]
This behaviour is likely to be governed by other factors, such as the time involved in washing
dishes by hand, perceptions of whether dishes washed by hand are as clean as when put
through the washing machine (due to the hotter temperatures and rinse cycles) and the ability of
dishwasher to ‘hide’ the dirty dishes before washing them (as opposed to sitting on the bench
waiting for handwashing). If a household has a dishwasher already, it may be less likely that
they will not use it as opposed to a household which does not already have a dishwasher and is
considering purchasing one.
The cost savings of the reduced electricity quoted above, based on Tariff 11 prices for
Queensland as of July 2009133 are 1 cent per load to 8.9 cents. If the hot water system is
operating from either Tariff 31 or Tariff 33, these cost savings will be lower.
This behaviour, based on the above information, is estimated to have a low likelihood.
133
DME (2009) Retail electricity prices for non-market customers, Queensland Government Gazette, Department of Mines and
Energy. Vol. 351 No. 41. Available at: http://www.dme.qld.gov.au/zone_files/Electricity/09.06.09_-_%5B41%5D__extra_gazette.pdf,
accessed 18 June 2009.
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39. Only using the dishwasher when full [0.23:2]
Impact
[0.23.5]
The most energy efficient dishwashers currently available 134 (4 star) use 225kWh for 365 washes
(Kleenmaid, DW47, 14 place setting), whilst the least efficient currently available (1 star) use up
to 570kWh, also for 365 washes (Miele, G1020, 14 place settings).135
Dishwashers that are run when only half full, for example, will result in twice the number of loads
being done, and twice the electricity quoted above (as well as the electricity used to heat the hot
water) will be used. If it is assumed that a dishwasher is run once a day, when it is only full every
second day, then this behaviour could save between 112kWh and 285kWh each year. This
represents between 2 and 4.5 percent of the average household’s electricity consumption, and
the impact of this behaviour is calculated at 0.23.
In terms of relative impact, the expert review panel commented that this behaviour is more
important than the efficiency of the appliance itself.
Likelihood
[2]
There may be other factors which influence this behaviour, for instance whether the household
has enough plates and cutlery to wait for the dishwasher to be full before running it, the time it
will take to fill the dishwasher (in a small household with an oversized dishwasher, this may take
many days and result in the plates smelling, or food being hardened onto the plates), routine (for
instance, putting the dishwasher on before going to work, and emptying it in the evening) or a
perceptions of hygiene and cleanliness.
This behaviour is considered to be low to moderately likely.
See the Australian Government’s Energy Rating website, at: http://www.energyrating.gov.au/
Energy Rating (nd) Search and compare appliances, Energy Rating, Department of Water, Heritage and the Arts, Australian
Government. Available at: http://www.energyrating.gov.au/appsearch/default.asp, accessed 17 November 2008.
134
135
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40. Using economy settings on dishwashers [0.16:3]
Impact
[0.16]
Economy settings on dishwasher in general save energy by reducing, or removing, the heated
drying cycle. Room temperature air may be circulated through the dishwasher instead to dry the
dishes, or some models may suggest the door to the dishwasher be opened to allow for natural
circulation. It is estimated that this will save around 7 percent of the energy used by the
dishwasher, which (based on currently available models) may be between 0.61kWh to 1.56kWh
per load,136 which represents an energy saving of between 0.043kWh and 0.1kWh. If it is
assumed that a dishwasher is run once per day, over a year this behaviour would reduce
electricity consumption by between 16kWh and 37kWh. This is less than 0.5 percent of the
average annual electricity consumption of a household, and hence the impact for this behaviour
has been calculated at 0.03.
The expert review panel suggested that this behaviour had a higher impact than was suggested
here, hence it has been increased to 0.16 to reflect their experiential knowledge.
Likelihood
[3]
Many dishwashers may remember the previous settings, so once the economy setting has been
selected, it is more likely to continue to be used. It is possible that other factors will influence this
behaviour, such as whether it is perceived that the economy setting will clean the plates
adequately, whether the household is being influenced by water saving campaigns, and whether
the dishwasher actually has an economy setting. It is estimated that this behaviour has a
moderate to high likelihood.
The expert review panel considered this behaviour to be less likely than was estimated here,
and as a result it has been downscaled to moderately likely (3).
136
Energy Rating (nd) Search and compare appliances, Energy Rating, Department of Water, Heritage and the Arts, Australian
Government. Available at: http://www.energyrating.gov.au/appsearch/default.asp, accessed 17 November 2008.
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41. The purchase of a frost free fridge over a cyclic defrost fridge [0.1:4.5]
Impact
[0.1]
Cyclic defrost fridges tend to use more energy than frost free fridges of the same size. The
freezer compartment normally needs to be manually defrosted 3 to 4 times a year, while the
refrigerator section defrosts automatically. The layer of frost which develops in the freezer in
between when it is defrosted will cause the freezer to be less efficient. A single thermostatic
switch controls the whole system. A frost free fridge, however, melts the ice regularly based on a
timer, and the water is passed beneath the cabinet, where it is evaporated from the compressor
or condenser coils.137
No metrics were found to suggest the actual energy difference between these models, however
the impact is assumed to be low and has been rated at 0.1.
Likelihood
[4.5]
Frost free fridges tend to be easier to maintain than cyclic defrost. On the Clive Peters website,
all of the models available are frost free,138 including those at the bottom of the price range.
Based on this information, it is estimated that this behaviour will have a high likelihood. These
findings were reinforced by a Seattle based expert reviewer, who noted that in the United
States, refrigerators are now almost universally frost free. Interestingly, many of the review
panel were unsure of the impact of this behaviour, suggesting that it is not a well known fact
about the energy efficiency of fridges.
Origin Energy (b) (nd) Kitchen – refrigeration, Australia. Available at: http://www.originenergy.com.au/2677/Kitchen, accessed 032
December 2008.
138
Clive Peters (2008) Product search, Australia. Available at: http://www.clivepeeters.com.au/modules/products/search, accessed
17 November 2008.
137
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42. Buying the most energy efficient fridge possible [0.11:3]
Impact
[0.11]
The difference between, for example, the most energy efficient fridge currently on the market
with 100 -200 litre capacity (185kWh/annum for a 123L fridge, a six star rated fridge made by
Fisher and Paykel) and the least (322kWh/annum for a 188L fridge, a two star rated fridge made
by TGA unlimited) is 137kWh/annum.139
Based on this information, it is estimated that this behaviour could save 137kWh each year
when a household buys the most efficient fridge available over the least efficient, and as much
as 683kWh per year by replacing their current model with a highly efficient new model. This is
approximately 2.2 percent of the average annual electricity usage, hence the impact of this
behaviour has been calculated at 0.11.
Although it is outside the scope of this report, it may be worth mentioning that refrigerators can
use up to 20 percent more on hot days, disproportionately contributing to peak demand.140
Likelihood
[3]
This is a one-off purchasing decision. Personal communications with staff from Electrolux, who
make some of the more energy efficient fridges (branded as Westinghouse), confirmed that
energy efficiency is not the principle factor in determining the price of the fridge and that other
aspects, such as size, features and the finish on the fridge will play a larger role,141 hence price
may not be a determining factor in the likelihood of this behaviour.
Refrigerators are required to carry a label stating both the energy efficiency and estimated
annual energy consumption of the appliance. The Australian Government’s Energy Rating
website states that some 25 percent of consumers say that energy efficiency is the most
important factor governing appliance selection. On average, energy efficiency ranks as the
fourth most important attribute in appliance selection (this is lower when there are no prompts
present, such as energy efficiency labels). 14 percent of consumers stated that energy efficiency
was ‘not particularly’ or ‘not at all’ important to them when they buy a new appliance. 40 to 50
percent of surveyed individuals who had recently bought, or were intending to buy, an appliance
said that they had or were intending to use the information which the energy labels provide
when making a decision.142 Anecdotally, a sales assistant from Harvey Norman in Brisbane City
noted that the energy efficiency ratings had very little influence. Even where prices did not vary
significantly (for instance, a $650 washing machine with 3 stars, compared with a $700 5 star
machine), the majority of customers would chose immediate savings over long term savings. 143
This is in contrast to a recent (March 2008) ABS survey, which found that energy efficient was
139
Energy Rating (nd) Search and compare appliances, Energy Rating, Department of Water, Heritage and the Arts, Australian
Government. Available at: http://www.energyrating.gov.au/appsearch/default.asp, accessed 17 November 2008.
140
Pears, A. (2004) ‘Energy Efficiency: Long Term Potential and an Approach to Incorporating Consideration of Energy Efficiency
into Economic Modelling’, Greenhouse Challenge for Energy: Appendices – Report to the Victorian Department of Infrastructure and
Department of Sustainability and Environment, The Allen Consulting Group. p139.
141
Electrolux, Susan (2008) personal communications, 28 November 2008.
142
Energy Rating (2007) The Energy Label, Australian Government. Available at: http://www.energyrating.gov.au/con3.html,
accessed 10 November 2008.
143
Josh, from Harvey Norman, Brisbane City. Personal communications, 17 November 2008. Contact details available at:
http://harveynorman.findnearest.com.au/findnearest.asp?OriginSuburbPostcode=HIGHGATE+HILL+QLD+4101&groupid=2017&ima
ge.x=9&image.y=6&EnvironmentID=655&submittopage=locatorresult.asp&Log=1&sessionid=&originlocalityid=
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the most important factor when purchasing a refrigerator, ranking more highly than the price. 144
Based on this information, it is estimated that there is a moderate likelihood that households will
undertake this behaviour.
ABS (2008) Environmental Issues – Energy Use and Conservation, Australian Bureau of Statistics, Australian Government.
Available at:
http://abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/39433889d406eeb9ca2570610019e9a5/E95A38518401BD24CA25750E00108119?opendocum
ent, accessed 02 December 2008.
144
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43. Replacing an existing fridge with a more efficient model [0.55:1]
Impacts
[0.55]
It is estimated that refrigerators currently account for on average 14 percent145 of a household’s
electricity consumption, which (assuming the average household uses 6,200kWh per year),
would indicate that many fridges currently in use consume around 868kWh per year. A six star
123L fridge energy efficient fridge which is currently available uses 185kWh per annum. 146 Thus,
replacing an existing model fridge could reduce the household electricity consumption by as
much as 683kWh each year, or 11 percent of the total annual usage. The impact of this
behaviour is calculated at 0.55.
Likelihood
[1]
This is a one off purchasing decision. It would be an expensive decision to replace a working
fridge with a newer model, and this may be done for aesthetic or other reasons besides energy
efficiency. It may also be done as part of a kitchen renovation if the allocated space for the new
fridge will be a different size to the existing fridge, or if the colour or other attributes of the fridge
do not suit the renovated décor. Fridges may run for twenty years or more, and models of this
age will consume considerably more electricity than currently available models. 147 The price of a
fridge is determined more by factors including its size, brand and additional features than
efficiency148 hence price is considered to play a minimal role in terms of influencing the degree of
energy efficiency in the fridge which is chosen to replace the existing one.
Based on this information, it is assumed that this behaviour has a low to moderate likelihood.
The expert review panel suggested that fridges are likely to only be replaced when the existing
fridge fails. This behaviour was rated lower than was suggested here, and as a result the
likelihood has been decreased to 1.
Some sources suggest lower amounts, such as the Australian Government’s Your Home Technical Manual (available at:
http://www.yourhome.gov.au/technical/fs61.html) while other sources, such as the Australian Government’s Energy Rating site
(available at: http://www.energyrating.gov.au/rfl.html) suggest that the fridge and freezer together use 20 percent of the average
household’s electricity consumption.
146
Energy Rating Search and compare appliances, Energy Rating, Department of Water, Heritage and the Arts, Australian
Government. Available at: http://www.energyrating.gov.au/appsearch/default.asp, accessed 17 November 2008.
147
DEWHA (2008), Frequently Asked Questions, Department of Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, Australian Government.
Available at: http://www.energyrating.gov.au/faq.html#rf, accessed 28 November 2008.
148
Personal communications with an Electrolux consultant, and with a Harvey Norman store assistant (November 2008).
145
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44. The purchase an appropriately sized fridge [0.1:3]
Impacts
[0.1]
This behaviour will reduce electricity consumption by reducing the excess refrigerator capacity,
and/or minimising the use of second fridges. Energy efficiency ratings are per litre of storage, so
a very efficient big fridge may use more power than a less efficient but much smaller fridge. A
three star 160L fridge is estimated to consume around 440kWh per year, whereas a similarly
rated 415L fridge would consume 620kWh each year and a 540L fridge around 750kWh.149
These figures are provided to give an indication only. Determining the actual amount of
electricity saved by this behaviour depends on the efficiency of the fridge purchased and the
size difference between the fridges in comparison. For the sake of providing metrics, it might be
assumed a household purchases a 415L fridge rather than a 540L fridge. This would reduce
their electricity consumption by 130kWh, or approximately 2 percent of the average yearly
electricity consumption. Such a reduction would rate this behaviour at 0.1.
It is noted in assessing the impact of this behaviour that there is an inherent assumption that
fridges may be purchased with excess capacity, or that lifestyles (i.e. food purchasing and
storing habits) can be adjusted to accommodate a smaller refrigerator. This behaviour also
takes into account the possibility of a fridge which is undersized being purchased, in which case
a second, (often older and less efficient) fridge may also being used which can cause greater
electricity consumption. 150
As was noted in earlier behaviours, the expert panel suggested that fridge size and energy
efficiency are not as highly correlated as might be thought, and hence it can be possible to buy a
larger fridge which uses less energy than a smaller fridge. Given the information provided by the
Australian Government, however (as noted above) the impact rating has not been adjusted.
Likelihood
[3]
This behaviour is a one off purchasing decision, which will be dependent upon: the household
knowing the capacity that they require; the household being willing to maintain that capacity over
time (not buy a larger fridge ‘just in case’); and the size of the cavity into which the fridge will go
(which may result in households buying the same capacity fridge as they previously had).
The Harvey Norman website shows that larger fridges are also more expensive, and this may
make it more likely for a household to buy a fridge which is not oversized.151
Based on these assumptions, it is assumed that this behaviour will be moderately likely. It is
presumed that the tendency would be for households to purchase a fridge which is of a similar
size to their previous fridge, so as to maintain their food buying and storing habits and so that
the fridge fits into the kitchen in the same way that their previous fridge did.
Approximate figures, taken from the Australian Government’s Energy Rating site, see www.energyrating.gov.au
DEWHA (2008), Frequently Asked Questions, Department of Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, Australian Government.
Available at: http://www.energyrating.gov.au/faq.html#rf, accessed 28 November 2008.
151
Harvey Norman (2008) Fridges, Australia. Available at:
http://www.harveynorman.com.au/products/index.php/electrical/fridges.html, accessed 28 November 2008.
149
150
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45. Placing the fridge to allow for air circulation around the coils [0.12:2]
Impact
[0.12]
This behaviour will reduce the electricity consumption of a household by allowing air to circulate
more freely over the heat exchange coils of the refrigerator, improving its efficiency. It is
estimated that this behaviour can save up to 150 kilograms of greenhouse gas emissions a
year,152 which according to figures supplied by SEDO in Western Australia,153 equates to
approximately 151kWh of electricity a year (from a coal fired power station). This is equivalent to
2.4 percent of the average household’s annual electricity consumption, hence the impact of this
behaviour has been calculated to be 0.12.
It should be noted that these calculations make several assumptions, including that the
efficiencies of the fridges in question are consistent with those used by the Australian
Greenhouse Office in making their estimations, and that the power generation efficiency and
emissions profile in Western Australia is similar to that in Townsville.
Likelihood
[2]
This will require the fridge to be positioned such that air can circulate, or alternatively that a
venting system is built. This may require either that a house is constructed to allow such
ventilation, or that the fridge is pulled out away from the wall to allow an adequate gap. If
allowed for during construction, this will be quite likely. If it isn’t, then allowing such space may
impede the movement of people around the fridge. The likelihood of this behaviour may be
reduced by households who have positioned their refrigerators for aesthetic reasons, or to save
space. Hence, this behaviour has been rated as being low to moderately likely.
152
Australian Greenhouse Office (2007) Global Warming Cool It - Appliances, Department of Environment and Natural Resources,
Australian Government. Available at: http://www.environment.gov.au/settlements/gwci/appliances.html, accessed 29 September
2008.
153
SEDO (2008), Running Costs and Greenhouse Gas Emissions, Sustainable Energy development Office, Government of Western
Australia. Available at: http://www.sedo.energy.wa.gov.au/pages/emissions.asp, accessed 27 October 2008
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46. Putting the fridge and freezer in a cool spot [0.08:2]
Impact
[0.08]
This behaviour may reduce the electricity consumption of a household by minimising the
electricity needed to run the refrigerator. It is estimated that the refrigerator can use up to
approximately 101kWh less electricity each year when positioned in a cool location.154 This
represents around 1.6 percent of the average household’s yearly electricity usage, and so this
behaviour is calculated as having an impact of 0.08.
Likelihood
[2]
This behaviour will be more likely if the location of the fridge has been considered during the
house design and construction, with specific focus on the temperature of the location of the
fridge. If passive design has been considered during housing design, the kitchens may be
placed on the cooler side of the house as it is a frequently used room. Second fridges are often
located in the garage, and this may be on the hottest side of the house. If this has not been a
consideration during house design, then this behaviour is assumed to be less likely.
This behaviour is estimated to have a low to moderate likelihood, as there may be many other
factors which influence the decision over where to locate the fridge other than energy efficiency.
154
These figures are based on findings by the Australian Greenhouse Office, which suggests this behaviour reduces equivalent
GHG emissions by 100kg per year, which based on figures supplied by SEDO in Western Australia, would result from the generation
of 101kWh of electricity in a coal fired power station. See: http://www.environment.gov.au/settlements/gwci/appliances.html, and
http://www.sedo.energy.wa.gov.au/pages/emissions.asp
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47. Ensuring the temperature of the fridge and freezer is set to recommended levels
[0.1:4.5]
Impact
[0.1]
The optimal temperature for a refrigerator is 3-5 degrees Celsius, and for each degree lower
there is an associated 15 to 50 kilograms of greenhouse gas emissions which, 155 according to
figures supplied by SEDO in Western Australia156 equates to approximately 151kWh of electricity
a year (from a coal fired power station). Although it would depend upon the efficiency of the
fridge, and the number of degrees by which the temperature on the thermostat is altered, this
behaviour has the potential to reduce a household’s electricity consumption by about 2.4
percent of their average annual usage for each degree warmer they set their thermostat. It is
assumed that this behaviour will apply only to households which have set their thermostat lower
than necessary, and that there would be on average only one degree by which it needs to be
adjusted.
Based on these assumptions, this behaviour has been rated at 0.005, which has been scaled to
0.1
Likelihood
[4.5]
A consultant from the Electrolux call centre stated that their fridges are freezers are set at the
factory to between 3 and 5 degrees, and -18 degrees Celsius respectively. It was confirmed that
instructions for changing the temperature of these appliances is supplied with them, and that this
process is generally very simple. Newer (and more expensive) refrigerators tend to be digital,
and this temperature can be set quite precisely, and older models have a dial usually located
inside of the appliance with can be manually changed.157 As food within the refrigerator can be
destroyed by temperatures which are too low, and based on the above information, it is
assumed that this behaviour is highly likely.
155
Australian Greenhouse Office (2007) Global Warming Cool It - Appliances, Department of Environment and Natural Resources,
Australian Government. Available at: http://www.environment.gov.au/settlements/gwci/appliances.html, accessed 29 September
2008.
156
SEDO (2008), Running Costs and Greenhouse Gas Emissions, Sustainable Energy development Office, Government of Western
Australia. Available at: http://www.sedo.energy.wa.gov.au/pages/emissions.asp, accessed 27 October 2008
157
Electrolux, Susan (2008) personal communications, 28 November 2008.
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48. Refitting old and damaged seals on refrigerators and freezers [0:1.5]
Impact
[0]
It is difficult to estimate the amount of electricity which could be saved through repairing
damaged seals on refrigerators and freezers, as it depends on the type of fridge, how badly the
seal is damaged and also where the seal is damaged (a seal which is compromised at the top of
a fridge door will have less impact than if it is damaged down the bottom, as cool air sinks). It is
assumed, however, that the impact of this behaviour would be low and similar to that of the
behaviour: ”Avoid opening the fridge unnecessarily – consider what is wanted before the door’s
opened”. Hence, the impact of this behaviour has been rated at 0.
Likelihood
[1.5]
It is not complicated to check whether the seals are working using a piece of paper. Some signs
that the fridge seals aren’t working might include the motor running for longer periods of time, or
food going off sooner. The seals (also around the oven) could be visually damaged also. The
ease with which fridge seals are changed depends on the model of the fridge or oven. It is
possible to mail order seals for certain models, whilst others may require a technician to install
them. There are step by step instructions available for refitting seals, which do not require much
technical expertise. It can be time consuming, however, as the seals and the screws which hold
the seal in place may need to be adjusted to ensure that the door shuts properly. 158 Personal
communications with a refrigeration mechanic from a company offering to replace fridge seals
stated that while the price is highly variable to purchase fridge seals (depending on the make
and model of the fridge and its size), a ballpark figure to buy a new seal would be $95. If a
technician were to fix the seal, it would cost approximately $150 including the seal.159
Based on this information, it is estimated that this behaviour would have a moderate likelihood.
The expert review panel commented that if a fridge is old enough to have old or damaged seals,
then it is likely to be considered appropriate to replace the entire fridge. The likelihood of this
behaviour was estimated by the panel to be lower than suggested above, hence it has been
rated as 1.5.
158
Fridge Seals Online (2008), How to fit D4 type fridge seals, Australia. Available at: http://www.fridgeseals.com/blog/cat/fittingguides, accessed 14 November 2008.
159
Seal-a-fridge (2008) Personal Communications, 14 November 2008. Contact details available at:
http://www.sealafridge.net.au/contact.htm
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49. Putting cold items back in the fridge as soon as possible [0:2]
Impact
[0]
This behaviour will reduce electricity consumption by minimising the amount of cooling which the
refrigerator is required to do. It is estimated that letting a 2 litre bottle of water come back to
room temperature before putting it back in uses 10 times as much electricity as opening the door
again to put it back in straight away.160 The electricity consumed by having to cool the water from
room temperature can be calculated using the specific heat capacity of water, which is 4.18
kJ/kg.K.161 Hence, cooling a 2 litre bottle of water from room temperature (assume to be 24
degrees Celsius) to fridge temperature (assume to be 3 degrees Celsius) requires 175.6kJ of
energy (to be extracted), or 0.049kWh. As this is ten times the amount of energy which is lost
from opening the door, it assumed that this behaviour will save 0.044kWh each time. Assuming
that this happens once a day, in a year this behaviour will save 16.6kWh. As this represents only
0.2 percent of the average yearly household electricity usage, the impact of this behaviour has
been set at 0.
Please note that the above calculations assume that the refrigerator is perfectly efficient, which
is unlikely. In reality, the effect of this behaviour may be larger than stated here. There are also
assumptions regarding the size of the items left out of the refrigerator, their heat capacity and
the frequency with which a household might currently do this.
Likelihood
[2]
This is a repetitive action. It may be influenced by what item was taken out and how long it will
be needed to be used for, and if it will be needed again soon. It may also be influenced by the
nature of the household and their eating and drinking habits. For instance, a large household in
which several people may come to eat breakfast over a period of time may be more likely to
leave items such as milk and yoghurt out so that the next person can use them.
Given the habitual nature of this behaviour and its low impact, it is assumed to have a low to
moderate likelihood.
160
Australian Greenhouse Office (b)(2007) Global Warming Cool It - Appliances, Department of Environment and Natural
Resources, Australian Government. Available at: http://www.environment.gov.au/settlements/gwci/appliances.html, accessed 29
September 2008.
161
The Engineering Toolbox (2005) Water – Thermal properties, Available at: http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/water-thermalproperties-d_162.html, accessed 04 December 2008.
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50. Turning the fridge and freezer off when going away for longer periods [0:2]
Impact
[0]
The impact of this behaviour will depend upon the size and efficiency of the refrigerator and
freezer which are being turned off. The most energy efficient 434 litre fridge (six star) listed on
the Australian Government Energy Rating website (Electrolux ERM4307SC) uses 250kWh to
run for a year, which would equate to on average 0.68kWh per day (note that fridges use more
electricity during summer than winter). A less efficient 415 litre model uses 620kWh a year, or
around 1.7kWh each day.162 Older model fridges will use more electricity than this, as will larger
sized fridges, whilst smaller fridges may use less.
If it is assumed that households may leave the house for two weeks a year, then this behaviour
could reduce their electricity consumption by between 9.52kWh and 23.8kWh each year. This
represents a negligibly small portion of the average annual electricity usage, hence the impact of
this behaviour has been calculated at 0.
It should also be noted that this behaviour may have other impacts which may be unintended,
such as the wastage of still viable food.
Reviewers on the expert panel noted the variability of this behaviour between households. They
commented that an average household might have two weeks away a year, in which case the
impact of this behaviour would be minimal, and food spoilage concerns might dominate. For
some households, however, this behaviour could be quite significant.
Likelihood
[2]
This behaviour is a repetitive action each time the house is left unoccupied. It would involve
consideration of the food left behind, and how long it will take the fridge to cool back down when
the household returns. It will also depend on whether the fridge and freezer can be run
independently, as is may be less practical to turn off the freezer than the fridge. Westinghouse
claims that turning the fridge on and off does not harm the appliance.163 The higher than average
income of Townsville residents may result in residents taking more holidays.
Freezers may require periodic defrosting (depending on the type of freezer) and households
may see this behaviour as providing an opportunity to do so, and to clean the refrigerator.
It is assumed that this behaviour, based on the above information, has a low to moderate
likelihood.
See the Australian Government’s Energy Rating site, at: www.energyrating.gov.au for more information.
Electrolux (2006), Frequently Asked Questions, Refrigerators, Australia. Available at:
http://www.westinghouse.com.au/faq/search?category=Refrigerators&gobutt.x=16&gobutt.y=10&gobutt=GO, accessed 28
November 2008.
162
163
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51. Having the fridge inspected if the motor runs continuously [0.35:2]
Impact
[0.35]
Refrigeration motors which run continuously are malfunctioning, and this can occur periodically.
Optimally, these should run on average for 50 to 60 percent of the time during winter, and up to
70 or 80 percent of the time in summer, although this will depend on the make and model of the
fridge.164 Presumably, a refrigerator in which the motor runs continuously would then use
between 65 and 100 percent more electricity than usual in winter, and between 25 and 40
percent more in summer. The most energy efficient 434 litre fridge (six star) listed on the
Australian Government Energy Rating website (Electrolux ERM4307SC) uses 250kWh to run for
a year. A less efficient 415 litre model uses 620kWh a year.165 Older model fridges will use more
electricity than this, as will larger sized fridges, and smaller fridges may use less.
Hence, for these recent models, this behaviour has the potential to reduce household electricity
consumption by between 434kWh each year, and 113kWh per year, based on the upper and
lower limits of the additional running times and the range of energy consumptions in these
refrigerator models. This represents between 2 and 7 percent of the average yearly electricity
consumption, hence this behaviour has been calculated to have an impact of 0.35.
Likelihood
[2]
The likelihood of this behaviour will depend on a household:

noticing that the motor is running continually;

being aware of refrigeration mechanics they can call;

being willing to cover the cost involved in maintaining the fridge; and

being aware that this is problematic and using more electricity than is necessary.
It is assumed based on this that this behaviour has a low to moderate likelihood.
164
Electrolux (2006), Frequently Asked Questions, Refrigerators, Australia. Available at:
http://www.westinghouse.com.au/faq/search?category=Refrigerators&gobutt.x=16&gobutt.y=10&gobutt=GO, accessed 28
November 2008.
165
See the Australian Government’s Energy Rating site, at: www.energyrating.gov.au for more information.
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52. Turning off a second fridge where possible [0.6:1.5]
Impact
[0.6]
Second fridges are often older models, and hence generally less energy efficient. Older fridges
(twenty years old) can use over 2kWh a day to run, where as newer more efficient models can
use as little as 0.66kWh per day.166 Switching off a second fridge could therefore save 730kWh a
year. This is approximately 12 percent of the average annual electricity consumption of a typical
Townsville household, hence the impact of this behaviour has been calculated as 0.6.
They are also often less well stocked, causing the fridge to run less efficiently. Nearly 30 percent
of Australian households have a second fridge.167 Often, one larger fridge can be more energy
efficient than two smaller fridges (however this is not always the case). 168
Likelihood
[1.5]
This behaviour may require households to change purchasing habits (buy less food more often)
as well as lifestyle habits (keep fewer beers in the fridge, replace them as they are drunk). This
may be a one off behaviour – once the second fridge has been turned off, it would be less likely
to turn it back on. If the second fridge is sold or disposed of, the above behaviours may become
necessary and more likely.
The number of fridges and freezers in use is expected to increase 70 percent from 1986 until
2020 (from 10 million to 17 million),169 which may reflect in part a growing population, in part the
decreasing size of households however also in part more fridges in each household. About 33
percent of households in Townsville have a second fridge.170
It can be more energy efficient (however now always) to run one larger fridge rather than two
smaller ones, 171 and the purchase of a new principle fridge may catalyse this behaviour.
Based on this information, it is estimated that this behaviour has a moderate likelihood.
The expert panel noted that research had uncovered significant resistance to turning off second
and third fridges, and in general the panel rated the likelihood of this behaviour lower than has
been suggested here. As a result, the likelihood has been downscaled to 1.5.
166
The Yellow House (nd) Appliances, United Kingdom. Available at: http://www.theyellowhouse.org.uk/themes/appli.html#a7,
accessed 05 December 2008.
167
DEWHA (2009) Tips for choosing an efficient refrigerator, Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts,
Australian Government. Available at: http://www.energyrating.gov.au/rfl.html, accessed 22 June 2009.
168
DEWHA (2009) Tips for choosing an efficient refrigerator, Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts,
Australian Government. Available at: http://www.energyrating.gov.au/rfl.html, accessed 22 June 2009.
169
DEWHA (2008) Energy Use in the Australian residential sector 1986 – 2020, Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage
and the Arts, Australian Government. Available at:
http://www.environment.gov.au/settlements/energyefficiency/buildings/publications/energyuse.html
170
Goudie, D. (1995) Sustainable Domestic Energy Use in North Queensland, James Cook University, Australia.
171
DEWHA (2009) Tips for choosing an efficient refrigerator, Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts,
Australian Government. Available at: http://www.energyrating.gov.au/rfl.html, accessed 22 June 2009.
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53. Purchasing an energy efficient freezer [0.33:4]
Impact
[0.33]
The most energy efficient chest freezers (6 star) can consume upwards of 182kWh per year to
run, with some large 400 litre chest freezers using 495 kWh a year (note that these are currently
available models, which are more energy efficient than those sold prior to 2005, which may be
the second freezer in use in many households). Similarly, for upright freezers, the most efficient
5 ½ star, 130 litre freezer will use 231 kWh of electricity each year with a 389 litre, 3 star model
using 644kWh.172 This indicates that the annual electricity savings from an energy efficient
freezer would range between 313kWh and 413kWh (as an indicative guide only). This behaviour
could hence reduce the average annual electricity consumption of a household by around 6.5
percent, hence the impact of this behaviour has been calculated to be 0.33.
About 60 percent of households in Townsville have a freezer (this is assumed to mean a
separate, or second freezer, not one attached to the main fridge). 173
Likelihood
[4]
An ABS survey found that energy efficiency was the most important factor when purchasing a
separate freezer (for 46 percent of survey respondents).174 In terms of refrigerators, a consultant
from Electrolux confirmed that energy efficiency does not account for price difference in general
and that other factors (size, additional features) play a more significant role.175 Therefore, price is
less likely to affect whether a household purchases an energy efficient freezer. Based on this
information, it is considered highly likely that a household would undertake this behaviour.
172
Energy Rating (nd) Search and compare appliances, Energy Rating, Department of Water, Heritage and the Arts, Australian
Government. Available at: http://www.energyrating.gov.au/appsearch/default.asp, accessed 17 November 2008.
173
Goudie, D. (1995) Sustainable Domestic Energy Use in North Queensland, James Cook University, Australia.
174
ABS (2008) Environmental Issues – Energy Use and Conservation, Australian Bureau of Statistics, Australian Government.
Available at:
http://abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/39433889d406eeb9ca2570610019e9a5/E95A38518401BD24CA25750E00108119?opendocum
ent, accessed 02 December 2008.
175
Electrolux, Susan (2008) personal communications, 28 November 2008.
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54. Avoiding the use of large, second freezers [0.4:2]
Impact
[0.4]
Second freezers may enable families to buy in bulk and store the food for longer periods of time,
however their use can represent a significant portion of a household’s electricity bill.
The most energy efficient chest freezers (6 star) can consume upwards of 182kWh per year to
run, with some large 400 litre chest freezers using 495 kWh a year (note that these are currently
available models, which are more energy efficient than those sold prior to 2005, which may be
the second freezer in use in many households). Similarly, for upright freezers, the most efficient
5 ½ star, 130 litre freezer will use 231 kWh of electricity each year with a 389, 3 star model
using 644kWh.176 This behaviour could hence save between 3 and 8 percent of a household’s
electricity usage, based on the models of freezers currently available. This behaviour is hence
estimated to have an impact of 0.4. The upper bound of this range has been used, as it is
assumed that many households would own and operate freezers which are considerably less
efficient than those which are currently available on the market.
Likelihood
[2]
This is a one off behavioural change in terms of turning off, or getting rid of the second freezer. It
may require ongoing behavioural change, however, such as buying bulk between friends rather
than individually to minimize storage requirements, or shopping more frequently to purchase
fewer items. In a city such as Townsville, it is unlikely that residents will need to stock food, as
shops are relatively accessible, however about 60 percent of households in Townsville have a
freezer (this is assumed to mean a separate, or second freezer, not one attached to the main
fridge).177 This behaviour is hence estimated to have a low to moderate likelihood.
176
Energy Rating (nd) Search and compare appliances, Energy Rating, Department of Water, Heritage and the Arts, Australian
Government. Available at: http://www.energyrating.gov.au/appsearch/default.asp, accessed 17 November 2008.
177
Goudie, D. (1995) Sustainable Domestic Energy Use in North Queensland, James Cook University, Australia.
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55. Not refrigerating / freezing items unnecessarily [0:2]
Impact
[0]
This behaviour may reduce the need for a larger fridge or freezer, or for a second fridge or
freezer. In the case of the refrigerator, it may enable air to circulate better (although a well
stocked fridge does operate more efficiently, and freezers work best when there is minimal air
space). It is assumed that there is a minimal number of items, however, that are currently being
refrigerated that aren’t needed to be kept cool. Thus, it is unlikely that this behaviour could
actually result in a household owning a smaller appliance, or being able to turn of a second
appliance. Hence the impact of this behaviour has been rated as negligible (0).
Likelihood
[2]
This is a repetitive behavioural change. It will require reconsidering the refrigeration needs of
some items (such as tomato sauce, flour or chocolate perhaps), as well as purchasing habits. It
may be enhanced through having cupboards which are in a cool dark location where food won’t
spoil. It also requires behavioural change in, for instance, refilling a single ice cube tray when ice
cubes are used, or replacing beers as they are taken out of the fridge and drunk. The likelihood
of this behaviour has been estimated at 2.
As noted by the expert review panel, individuals may be ingrained habits with respect to this
behaviour which may be hard to break, as well as perceptions over the hygiene and safety of
food.
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56. Cooking extra food when preparing meals which can be frozen and reheated [0.1:2]
Impact
[0.1]
The impact of this behaviour is difficult to gauge, as it will depend on the nature of the food
which is being cooked, and how it is reheated. Ovens can waste up to 90 percent of their heat
due to the large size, with a typically sized, electric oven using 1800 watts.178 Cooking more food
at once in the oven may extend the cooking time somewhat, however this may be more efficient
than using the oven two days consecutively to cook a meal. If this meal is being reheated in a
microwave (rather than in the oven), this will again save energy as microwaves use half the
electricity of an oven, and cooking times are generally much faster.179 The impact of this
behaviour is estimated to be relatively low, and has been set at 0.1. This is also to reflect that
some households may use gas cooking.
Likelihood
[2]
Cooking extra food will require a household to plan ahead and to have the equipment (pans,
dishes et cetera) to cook a larger quantity at once, as well as containers for storage. It will,
however, reduce their cooking and preparation time for other meals, and this may be a driving
force behind this behaviour rather than to save energy. Meals which are cooked in advance and
stored in the freezer will not have to be eaten as quickly, and households which adopt this
behaviour may find that the convenience of having pre-prepared meals in the freezer saves
them money which would otherwise have been spent on takeaway and may potentially be
healthier as well. The likelihood of this behaviour is estimated to be relatively low.
SEDO (2008) Cooking – Energy Smart Homes, Sustainable Energy development Office, Government of Western Australia.
Available at: http://www1.sedo.energy.wa.gov.au/pdf/cooking.pdf, accessed 03 November 2008.
179
Aurora Energy (2007) Household energy saving tips, Aurora Energy, Tasmania. Available at:
http://www.auroraenergy.com.au/save_energy/green_scheme_house.asp, accessed 03 November 2008.
178
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57. Planning ahead to cook several things at once when using the oven [0.1:1]
Impact
[0.1]
This behaviour suggests that households cook several different dishes in the oven at once (as
opposed to cooking larger amounts of the same dish). For instance, if a two or three course
meal is to be prepared, that this be coordinated so that both the main meal and the dessert can
be cooked at the same time. Ovens waste up to 90 percent of their energy, mainly due to the
large amount of empty space inside of the oven. 180 This behaviour will reduce the amount of time
an oven needs to be on for (a typical, electric oven will use 1800 watts181), filling more of the
empty space within the oven. It is difficult to estimate the frequency with which this behaviour
might be undertaken and the amount of energy which it will save, however the impact of this
behaviour is considered to be low as it is presumed that the opportunity for this behaviour will
not arise often.
The expert review panel commented that most people’s oven use is minimal, suggested that this
behaviour would have low applicability.
Likelihood
[1]
Households which adopt this behaviour will be required to plan ahead such that several dishes
are ready to be put into the oven at once. This may be limited by factors such as the availability
of utensils and dishes, the required cooking temperature for dishes (where this may differ
between each dish), the time at which each should come out (if they are required to be hot when
eaten) and the layout of the oven (whether this will facilitate several dishes being in the oven at
once). A fan forced oven will make cooking several dishes at once easier, as these circulate the
air around the oven. Whilst this will save energy, this behaviour may be hindered by the
inconvenience of having to prepare several dishes at once and utilise the same kitchen space to
do so. The likelihood of this behaviour is considered to be low and has been rated at 1.
SEDO (2008) Cooking – Energy Smart Homes, Sustainable Energy development Office, Government of Western Australia.
Available at: http://www1.sedo.energy.wa.gov.au/pdf/cooking.pdf, accessed 03 November 2008.
181
SEDO (2008) Cooking – Energy Smart Homes, Sustainable Energy development Office, Government of Western Australia.
Available at: http://www1.sedo.energy.wa.gov.au/pdf/cooking.pdf, accessed 03 November 2008.
180
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58. Cleaning oven and stovetops to promote maximum heat reflection [0.01:4]
Impact
[0.01]
The sides and surfaces of an oven, as with some stovetops, can reflect the heat. If these
become dirty, they will be less able to reflect the heat and will absorb more of it hence reducing
the efficiency of the oven.182 No metrics have been found which suggest an amount by which this
behaviour might increase the efficiency of the oven, and it is worth noting that this behaviour will
only lower the electricity consumption of a household relative to the amount which they use the
oven, and if their oven is an electric model.
Hence, the impact of this behaviour is estimated to be very low, and has been set at 0.01.
Likelihood
[4]
Households may also clean their oven and stovetops for aesthetic appeal (particularly the
stovetop, which is more visible), and to reduce the smell of burning food from spills and drips.
Many ovens are now self cleaning, and use very high temperatures to burn spilt food off the
inside. These may end up using more energy, if they are not done right after cooking when there
is still residual heat in the oven. Self cleaning ovens tend to have the added advantage of better
insulation, which can be necessary due to the high temperatures which are reached during the
self cleaning cycle. Other ovens have a ‘continuous clean’ design, in which the oven surface
maintain the stain, preventing them from hardening, so that they can be more easily wiped off.183
The likelihood of this behaviour is hence estimated to be relatively high.
Foster (nd) Energy Efficiency – how to save energy in the kitchen…Foster Refrigeration, the United Kingdom. Available at:
http://www.fosterrefrigerator.co.uk/uploadeddocuments/Green%20Papers/NJB0234_Energy_Efficient_Green_Paper.pdf, accessed
03 December 2008.
183
HowStuffWorks (2008) How do self cleaning ovens work? Discovery Communications, North Carolina. Available at:
http://recipes.howstuffworks.com/question559.htm, accessed 03 December 2008.
182
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Identification and Assessment of Homeowner Behaviours Related to Reducing Residential Energy Demand
59. Checking oven seals, and replacing if necessary [0.02:1.6]
Impact
[0.02]
Oven seals which are compromised will allow hot air to escape from the oven while it is on,
requiring the oven to continually heat more air to maintain the desired temperature. Food may
also take longer to cook. A typical, electric oven will use 1800 watts. 184 If it is assumed that this
behaviour might increase cooking time by 10 percent (own estimate) and that a household may
use their oven twice a week, for an hour on each occasion (own estimate), then this behaviour
would save 18.7kWh each year. This equates to approximately 0.3 percent of the average
yearly electricity consumption of a Townsville household, hence the impact of this behaviour has
been rated at 0.015, rounded up to 0.02.
Likelihood
[1.6]
Oven seals can be checked with a piece of paper, which should remain in the oven door and not
be able to be easily pulled out when the door is shut. 185 Households may realise that the seals
need to be replaced by feeling the heat around the oven, or by noticing that cooking times are
increasing.
Some oven seals (gaskets) can be replaced by the household themselves, and others may
require a technician. Where an oven seal is mounted on the door frame, the old one can be
removed by taking off the screws, the door frame cleaned and a new one inserted in its place.186
This will require the purchase of an appropriate seal of the correct size and shape for the oven.
These are generally available from the oven manufacturer or from specialised dealers. If the
gasket is mounted on the oven itself, then a technician may be required to change it as this is a
more difficult process.
A household will need the right tools in order to change the seal themselves, including a
screwdriver and the new gasket.
It is therefore assumed on the basis of this information that it is moderately likely that a
household would check and replace their oven seals.
The expert review panel considered this behaviour to be less likely than suggested here, and
hence the likelihood has been adjusted to 1.6.
SEDO (2008) Cooking – Energy Smart Homes, Sustainable Energy development Office, Government of Western Australia.
Available at: http://www1.sedo.energy.wa.gov.au/pdf/cooking.pdf, accessed 03 November 2008.
185
SEDO (2008) Cooking – Energy Smart Homes, Sustainable Energy development Office, Government of Western Australia.
Available at: http://www1.sedo.energy.wa.gov.au/pdf/cooking.pdf, accessed 03 November 2008.
186
Fix-it Club (2008) How to repair an oven, How Stuff Works. Available at: http://home.howstuffworks.com/how-to-repair-anoven.htm, accessed 14 November 2008.
184
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60. If using aluminium foil when cooking, putting the dull side down [0:1]
Impact
[0]
There is considerable debate over the impact of this behaviour, with some authors claiming that
this will make no difference as food is not typically cooked using radiation, but rather convection
and conduction which will not be impacted by a reflective surface.187 There is similarly debate
over whether the dull side should face the food, or away from the food. Reynolds Wrap
Aluminium Foil,188 manufacturers of aluminium foil, state that the difference between the shiny
and the dull side of the foil is due to the manufacturing process and that it makes no difference
which side is used.
The impact of this behaviour has hence been rated as 0.
Likelihood
[1]
This behaviour may be governed by habit, and by education. The likelihood of this behaviour is
considered to be low.
The debate mentioned above was also revealed in the comments supplied by the expert review
panel, suggesting that the likelihood of this behaviour is indeed low, due to the conflicting
sources of information.
187
Ask Metafilter (2006) Why do you cook with the shiny side of the tin foil in? Federated Media Publishing. Available at:
http://ask.metafilter.com/40394/Why-do-you-cook-with-the-shiny-side-of-the-tinfoil-in, accessed 03 December 2008.
188
Reynolds (undated) Frequently Asked Questions, Reynolds Kitchens. Available at:
http://www.reynoldspkg.com/reynoldskitchens/en/faq_detail.asp?info_page_id=743&prod_id=1789&cat_id=1337, accessed 22 June
2009.
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61. Using a gas hotplate to boil water rather than a microwave [0.03:1]
Impact
[0.03]
It is noted that using a gas hotplate to boil water, rather than the microwave, generates about
half as many greenhouse gas emissions,189 however in terms of electricity will use none. Cooking
typically uses around 4 percent of a household’s energy consumption,190 and boiling water will
use a portion of this. It is estimated that this behaviour might save 0.5 percent of a household’s
electricity usage, hence the impact of this behaviour is estimated to be 0.03. This is noted with
caution, as it assumes firstly that the choice for boiling water is between a gas stove top
(households may use an electric stovetop) and the microwave, whereas anecdotal evidence
would suggest that an electric kettle may be the more common appliance used.
The expert review panel questioned whether this behaviour would in fact result in higher
greenhouse gas emissions, which should perhaps be considered if this behaviour were to be
suggested.
Likelihood
[1]
This behaviour requires a house to have a gas hotplate. In Australia in 2005, over half the
households used electricity for cooking (54 percent) whilst 39 percent used gas191 (note that
reticulated gas is not available in Townsville, however some new sub-developments have large
gas tanks, which is locally reticulated to that development. Hence, the proportion of households
in Townsville using gas for cooking may be lower than the Australian average). The likelihood of
this behaviour is estimated to be low.
189
Aurora Energy (2007) Household energy saving tips, Aurora Energy, Tasmania. Available at:
http://www.auroraenergy.com.au/save_energy/green_scheme_house.asp, accessed 03 November 2008.
190
ABS (2007) Environmental Impact of household energy use, Australian Bureau of Statistics, Australian Government. Available at:
http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/bb8db737e2af84b8ca2571780015701e/a300c2a2b4e0b91fca2571b000197552!Open
Document, accessed 03 December 2008.
191
ABS (2007) Environmental Impact of household energy use, Australian Bureau of Statistics, Australian Government. Available at:
http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/bb8db737e2af84b8ca2571780015701e/a300c2a2b4e0b91fca2571b000197552!Open
Document, accessed 03 December 2008.
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62. Using an electric kettle to boil water rather than a microwave [0.05:4.5]
Impact
[0.05]
Using an electric kettle to boil water is estimated to be responsible for generating around half as
many greenhouse gases as a microwave,192 and seeing as both processes use electricity it could
be inferred that it also uses half as much electricity.
The heat capacity of water is 4.18kJ per kg, per degree of change. (4.18kJ∙kg -1K-1). Hence, for
each cup of water that a household boils, (250g of water), assuming the water is originally at
around 22oC, this will consume 81.51kJ of energy (approximately 0.023kWh). Presumably, a
microwave will use twice this to boil the same amount of water. The amount of electricity that
this behaviour will save will depend on the number of times a day which boiling water is needed.
If it is assumed that a household boils 2 litres of water a day, this behaviour would save
67.16kWh each year, or 1 percent of the average annual electricity consumption. The impact of
this behaviour is therefore calculated to be 0.05.
It should be noted that the calculations for the energy used by a kettle to boil water is based on
the assumption that the kettle is perfectly efficient and that only the energy actually required to
raise the temperature of the water is all the energy that will be used by the kettle to perform this
action. As both appliances will have inherent inefficiencies, this assumption has been assumed
to be acceptable for making a comparison and to assess the overall impact of this behaviour.
Likelihood
[4.5]
90.6 percent of Australian homes have a microwave (as of 2005), which is an increase from
2002 when 87.3 percent of homes had one, and from 1999 when 82.9 percent had such an
appliance.193 No such statistics were found for the portion of households which have an electric
kettle, however from anecdotal experience, it is assumed to be at least this high. An electric
kettle will automatically switch off when boiling has finished, which may provide extra
convenience. This behaviour is assumed to be very likely.
It was the opinion of the expert review panel that most people already would perform this
behaviour, confirming the given likelihood.
192
Aurora Energy (2007) Household energy saving tips, Aurora Energy, Tasmania. Available at:
http://www.auroraenergy.com.au/save_energy/green_scheme_house.asp, accessed 03 November 2008.
193
ABS (2007) Environmental Impact of household energy use, Australian Bureau of Statistics, Australian Government. Available at:
http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/bb8db737e2af84b8ca2571780015701e/a300c2a2b4e0b91fca2571b000197552!Open
Document, accessed 03 December 2008.
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63. Not boiling more water than you need at that time. [0.03:1]
Impact
[0.03]
This behaviour will save electricity by reducing the amount of excess water being boiled.
The heat capacity of water is 4.18kJ per kg, per degree of change (4.18kJ∙kg-1K-1). An estimate
in the UK was that every time the kettle is boiled, around twice the necessary amount of water is
put in and boiled.194 Hence, for each cup of extra water that a household boils unnecessarily,
(250g of water), assuming the water is originally at around 22oC, this will consume 81.51kJ of
energy (approximately 0.023kWh). The amount of electricity that this behaviour will save will
depend on the number of times a day which the kettle is boiled, and the efficiency of the kettle
itself. If it’s assumed that a household boils 2 litres of water each day, however only needs 1
litre, then this behaviour could save 34kWh each year, or 0.5 percent of the household’s yearly
electricity consumption. The impact of this behaviour is calculated to be 0.03.
The expert review panel suggested that boiling more water than necessary was indeed a
common problem in households, as is ‘clicking’ the kettle several times.
Likelihood
[1]
Kettles require the heating element to be covered, which necessitates that a minimum amount of
water must be boiled each time. Inspection of many kettles indicates (anecdotal evidence) that
this amount is less than for one cup of water. The makers of the Eco Kettle in the United
Kingdom suggest that measuring the amount of water which is put into the kettle is difficult for
most individuals, even with the clear windows which are standard in many kettles. There may be
other factors, such as an uncertainty of whether another individual in the household will also
want a cup of tea, or if the kettle has been accidently overfilled there may be a desire
(particularly in the context of current drought in Eastern Australia) to not waste water by
removing the excess.
There have been kettles designed which allow for greater control over how much water is boiled,
and which have shown in consumer trails to save energy.195 These kettles are of a similar price
to regular kettles which don’t have this additional control.196 These kettles may make this
behaviour more likely.
Overall, however, the likelihood of this behaviour is estimated to be low.
194
Grownupgreen (2005) Tea time to save the planet, United Kingdom. Available at:
http://www.grownupgreen.org.uk/library/?id=726, accessed 04 December 2008.
195
NECO (2008) The Eco Kettle, NECO Superstore, Australia. Available at:
http://www.neco.com.au/product.asp?pID=1125&cID=77&c=42820, accessed 04 Decemeber 2008.
196
My Shopping (2008) Kettles, MyShopping.Com.Au, Australia. Available at: http://www.myshopping.com.au/PT-296_Small_Kitchen_Appliances_Electric_Kettles__fs_6570_e__?Sort=PB, accessed. 04 December 2008.
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64. Simmering rather than boiling food when cooking [0.11:3]
Impact
[0.11]
Boiling maintains the temperature of a liquid either at, or just above, the boiling point and results
in a continual loss of steam. Simmering maintains the liquid just below boiling point and will
result in the loss of less liquid as steam and will hence use less energy.197 The latent heat
capacity of water is 2,270kJ/kg, meaning that for each litre of water which is evaporated,
2,270kJ of energy has been wasted (0.63wKh), even though the temperature of the food being
cooked will have remained around the same temperature in either case.
To estimate the impact of this behaviour, it is assumed that a household might cook one dish a
week for which this behaviour is relevant, and could save half a litre of water from evaporating in
each case. In a year, the behaviour would then save 16kWh, or 0.3 percent of the yearly
electricity usage. The impact is hence calculated to be 0.01.
Please note that there are other calculations found in the literature, for instance in Western
Australia, SEDO estimated that for each litre of water which boils off while cooking, a kilo of
greenhouse gas is generated. Based on figures for Western Australia (coal fired power plants),
this would equate to around 1kWh of electricity usage.198
The expert review panel considered that this behaviour has the potential to have a higher impact
than was suggested here, hence the rating has been adjusted upwards to 0.11.
Likelihood
[3]
Many recipes ask the cook to bring the food to a boil, and then reduce to simmering. This
requires cooks to firstly understand what simmering is, to be able to adjust the temperature of
the stovetop to do this, and then to actually perform this behaviour. This may be more likely if
the recipe requests this to occur. In instances where this is not specifically mentioned, or where
a recipe is not being used, this may be less likely.
The likelihood of this behaviour is estimated to be moderate based on this information.
197
Dictionary.com (2008) Simmer, Boiling, Dictionary.com LLC, Available at: http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/simmer,
accessed 04 December 2008.
198
SEDO (2008), Running Costs and Greenhouse Gas Emissions, Sustainable Energy development Office, Government of Western
Australia. Available at: http://www.sedo.energy.wa.gov.au/pages/emissions.asp, accessed 27 October 2008
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65. Putting lids on pots when cooking to keep the heat in and reduce heat losses [0:3]
Impact
[0]
Using a lid when cooking will reduce electricity consumption for those households using an
electric stovetop. For each litre of water which boils off while cooking, a kilo of greenhouse gas
is generated. Based on figures for Western Australia (coal fired power plants), this would equate
to around 1kWh of electricity usage.199 Some foods which are cooked on stovetops require the
liquid to boil off, and this behaviour will not be relevant in such a case.
If it is assumed that a household cooks one meal a week on the stovetop, and that a third of
these do not need the liquid in the dish to be reduced, then this behaviour could save 8.7kWh
each year, based on the estimate that 500mL of water is prevented from evaporating in each
case. This is equivalent to 0.1 percent of the annual electricity usage of the average Townsville
household, and hence the impact of this behaviour is calculated to be 0.
(please see above behaviours for other estimates of the electricity consumption of boiling off
water).
Likelihood
[3]
Keeping a lid on a pot while cooking can cause the liquid to ‘boil over’, and this may be a
disincentive for some residents. It may help food to cook faster, however, and it is assumed that
this behaviour is moderately likely.
199
SEDO (2008), Running Costs and Greenhouse Gas Emissions, Sustainable Energy development Office, Government of Western
Australia. Available at: http://www.sedo.energy.wa.gov.au/pages/emissions.asp, accessed 27 October 2008
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66. Thawing food in the fridge or in the sink rather than in the microwave or oven [0.1:3]
Impact
[0.1]
This behaviour will save the electricity consumption needed to power the microwave or oven for
defrosting, and will additionally help to cool other items in the fridge as the food defrosts.
Microwaves come with a variety of wattages, and often have settings which will also vary this
wattage. From a scan of internet sites, the wattage of microwaves would vary between 600
watts and 1300 watts. Defrost settings often use a lower wattage (around 30 percent of full
power200 which would result in an electricity consumption of around 180 to 390 watts.
Similarly, a typical electric oven, average size, uses 1,800 watts, whereas a large electric oven
uses 2,500 watts, 201 although this will depend upon the temperature setting. The time for which
the food is in the microwave or oven will depend on the size and nature of the food, but this may
provide an indication of the energy which will be saved by allowing food to defrost naturally.
It is difficult to provide a calculation for the amount of energy which this behaviour will save,
however it is assumed to be relatively low, hence the impact has been estimated at 0.1.
Likelihood
[3]
Defrosting food naturally takes time and this may require the household to consider what food
they would like to eat well in advance. Food will defrost more quickly outside of the refrigerator,
due to the warmer temperature, however the risk of insects or bacteria compromising the food
may be a disincentive for many households. Where the household work during the day, this
behaviour will likely require the food to be taken out of the freezer in the morning for it to be
defrosted and ready to cook by the evening.
There are perceptions about microwaves, and microwavable containers, in the community which
may lead to some households preferring not to use them, and may enhance the likelihood of this
behaviour.
The likelihood of this behaviour is estimated to be moderately high.
The expert review panel considered this behaviour to be less likely than suggested here, hence
the rating has been adjusted downwards to 3.
200
USDA (2006) Microwave ovens and food safety, United States Department of Agriculture, USA. Available at:
http://www.fsis.usda.gov/FactSheets/Microwave_Ovens_and_Food_Safety/index.asp, accessed 04 December 2008.
201
SEDO (2008) Cooking – Energy Smart Homes, Sustainable Energy development Office, Government of Western Australia.
Available at: http://www1.sedo.energy.wa.gov.au/pdf/cooking.pdf, accessed 03 November 2008.
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67. Using frypans or microwaves over ovens [0.05:3]
Impact
[0.05]
This behaviour can save electricity by using the most energy efficient appliance to cook food.
Ovens can waste up to 90 percent of the heat they generate (mainly through excess space in
the oven).Microwaves use half the electricity of an oven.202 No figures were found to compare the
energy consumption of a frypan to an oven, and it’s assumed that this is due to the large amount
of variability. It will be assumed that, like microwaves, they can use half the heat of the oven.
It’s estimated that one meal a week could be cooked in the microwave or with a frypan rather
than the oven. A typical electric oven, average size, uses 1,800 watts, whereas a large electric
oven uses 2,500 watts.203 Assuming a cooking time of one hour, this behaviour could save
between 47kWh and 65kWh each year, or the equivalent of around 1 percent of the average
annual electricity usage. The impact of this behaviour is hence calculated to be 0.05.
Likelihood
[3]
There is some debate in the community over the health impact of using microwaves.
Microwaves can also heat food differently to how an oven would, for instance bread cannot be
warmed in the microwave or it will go stiff, and food can heat unevenly. Microwaves heat food
faster than an oven, particularly if the oven is electric and will require a heating up period and
may make this a more appealing option. Containers which are microwave safe (ie, plastic
containers) are also often used for storing leftovers, however cannot be used in the oven. The
microwave may be preferred out of convenience and to reduce washing up.
The likelihood is estimated to be moderate on the basis of this information.
202
Aurora Energy (2007) Household energy saving tips, Aurora Energy, Tasmania. Available at:
http://www.auroraenergy.com.au/save_energy/green_scheme_house.asp, accessed 03 November 2008.
203
SEDO (2008) Cooking – Energy Smart Homes, Sustainable Energy development Office, Government of Western Australia.
Available at: http://www1.sedo.energy.wa.gov.au/pdf/cooking.pdf, accessed 03 November 2008.
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68. Using a toaster rather than the grill [0.01:4.5]
Impact
[0.01]
Using a grill to cook toast heats a much larger area, and hence uses up to three times the
amount of electricity than a toaster.204 A brief internet search reveals a wide range of toaster
wattages, from as low as 350 watts to 1650 watts. Presumably, a lower wattage will require
longer time, thereby using an equivalent amount of electricity. It is estimated that to cook two
slices of bread, a high wattage toaster will take one minute, using 0.0275kWh in the process. If a
household makes toast five mornings a week using a toaster rather than the griller, it would save
14.3kWh each year. This is approximately 0.2 percent of the yearly electricity usage of the
average household, and the impact of this behaviour has been accordingly calculated to be
0.01.
Likelihood
[4.5]
A toaster is a common household appliance, and it is likely that most households will have one.
They have internal timers which can help ensure that bread does not burn, unlike a grill. This
behaviour is therefore assumed to have a high likelihood.
SEDO (2008) Cooking – Energy Smart Homes, Sustainable Energy development Office, Government of Western Australia.
Available at: http://www1.sedo.energy.wa.gov.au/pdf/cooking.pdf, accessed 03 November 2008.
204
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69. Turning the oven off ten minutes before cooking is finished to use the residual heat
[0.05:2]
Impact
[0.05]
The average sized electric oven uses 1800 watts, while a large oven uses 2500. 205 If the oven is
used perhaps 4 times a week, and each time is turned off ten minutes early, this will save
around 2,000 minutes (or over 33 hours) of cooking time a year. This would result in 60kWh
saved for the average oven, or 83kWh for the large oven. This is about 0.1 percent of the yearly
electricity usage of an average Townsville household, and the impact for this behaviour is
calculated to be 0.05.
Likelihood
[2]
Turning the oven off early might be achieved through setting the timer, or by manually doing this
by checking the oven. Opening the oven door to check food can cause the temperature to drop,
which may make this behaviour less effective. It may prevent food from burning by allowing the
temperature to slowly drop towards the end of the cooking time.
Assuming that the food will be cooked to the same quality, the likelihood of this behaviour is
estimated to be moderately high. The expert review panel, however, considered this behaviour
to be less likely than suggested here, hence the likelihood has been down-scaled to 2.
SEDO (2008) Cooking – Energy Smart Homes, Sustainable Energy development Office, Government of Western Australia.
Available at: http://www1.sedo.energy.wa.gov.au/pdf/cooking.pdf, accessed 03 November 2008.
205
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70. When using the oven, avoiding opening the door unnecessarily [0.1:1]
Impact
[0.1]
Opening the door to the oven can cause the temperature to drop by 14 to 16 degrees.206 The
impact of this will depend on the size of the oven, and hence the size of the space which is then
needing to be reheated. The impact of this behaviour is estimated to be negligible, and has been
assumed to be 0.1.
Likelihood
[1]
Most ovens have an internal light which can reduce the need to open the door. It is often difficult
to assess how well cooked the food is, however, through the glass door, and many types of food
will need to be tested physically to see if it has ‘set’, and this will require the door to be opened.
The use of a timer may reduce the need to open the door often. The likelihood of this behaviour
is assumed to be relatively low.
206
DME (2008) Low and no cost energy improvements for renters, Department of Mines and Energy, Queensland Government.
Available at: http://www.environment.gov.au/settlements/local/publications/pubs/brochure4.pdf, accessed 27 October 2008
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71. Matching the size of the saucepan to the size of the element to reduce heat losses
[0.1:1]
Impact
[0.1]
This behaviour will prevent heat from escaping around the side of the saucepan and being
wasted.207 The impact will depend upon how often a poorly sized saucepan is replaced with a
more appropriate size, and the amount of energy needed to cook the food. This behaviour will
also only reduce the electricity consumption for those households which have an electric
stovetop. The impact overall is assumed to be low to negligible, and has been estimated as 0.1.
The expert review panel noted in addition to this behaviour, it is important to ensure that a flat
bottomed pan is used on electric hotplates (this is presumably in contrast to pans such as woks,
which have a curved bottom).
Likelihood
[1]
This is a repetitive action which depends on residents having the right sized saucepans to match
the elements, and then using those saucepans. This will then also depend on what is being
cooked, and the amount of food being cooked. The likelihood of this behaviour is estimated to
be low, given that there are several other factors which may influence the choice of saucepan.
207
Waitakere City Council (2008) Household Appliances, New Zealand. Available at:
http://www.waitakere.govt.nz/Abtcit/ec/bldsus/pdf/energy/householdapps.pdf, accessed 22 June 2009.
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72. Avoiding pre-rinsing dishes in hot water [0.4:3]
Impact
[0.4]
This behaviour will reduce electricity consumption where the household has an electric water
heater. On average, each time the hot tap is turned on, one litre of cooler water has to exit the
tap before hot water replaces it.208 After rinsing, the same amount of hot water is left sitting in the
pipes again to cool. The energy used to heat the water which is actually used to wash the dishes
must also be taken into account. One estimate suggested that five minutes of hot water rinsing a
day, will equate to half a tonne of GHG emissions a year (electric system) (504kWh/year).209 This
amount of electricity represents 8 percent of the yearly electricity consumption of the household,
thus the impact of this behaviour has been calculated as 0.4.
Likelihood
[3]
This behaviour is a repetitive action, which may be encouraged by water saving campaigns. A
representative from the Electrolux call centre (dishwasher manufacturers), confirmed that plates
do not need to be rinsed for the dishwasher to function well, however she finds this is a personal
preference for some users.210 Some households may be concerned that their dishes may not be
cleaned properly without rinsing, or that they will begin to smell if the dishwasher is not going to
be run soon. Households may be more likely to use cold water to rinse dishes than to not rinse
dishes at all. The likelihood of this behaviour is estimated to be moderate.
The expert review panel questioned how often households rinse in hot water. One member
noted that as the hot tap is usually on the left, and the majority of people are right handed, that it
tends to be used less than the cold tap.
DEWHA (b) (2008) Global Warming – Cool it, Water Heating, Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts,
Australian Government. Available at: http://www.environment.gov.au/settlements/gwci/water.html, Accessed 20 October 2008.
209
The conversion from GHG emissions to kWh is based on figures provided by SEDO in Western Australia, for a coal fired power
station (SEDO (b), 2008).
210
Electrolux, Susan (2008) personal communications, 28 November 2008.
208
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73. Purchasing an oven with triple glazing [0.1:2]
Impact
[0.1]
Ovens with triple glazing reduce the heat losses through the glass, resulting in less electricity
being needed to cook food. It may also enable the oven to be turned off before the cooking has
finished to utilise residual heat. It is difficult to estimate the impact of having triple glazing as
opposed to double (there are not many, if any, ovens sold without at least double glazing) as
this isn’t considered a sales point in Australia.211 The impact of this behaviour is hence assumed
to be relatively low.
Likelihood
[2]
A consultant from Clive Peters (MacGregor store) 212 remarked that the efficiency of an oven is
rarely a consideration for customers. He was unable to say the approximate electricity
consumption of any of the models they sold as he was not supplied with this information.
Customers are interested in buying triple glazing only out of safety considerations, as the glass
is considerably cooler and hence not a burning hazard for small children. He could say that the
cheaper models tend to be double glazed, although must show how hot the external glass can
get to warn customers of this. From their website, however, one of the three cheapest models
was triple glazed.213
The likelihood of this behaviour is estimated to be moderately high. The expert review panel felt
that this behaviour was less likely than suggested here, hence the rating has been adjusted to 2.
211
Sales assistant from Clive Peters MacGregor. Personal communications, 17 November 2008. Contact details available at:
http://www.clivepeeters.com.au/page/contact_us
212
Sales assistant from Clive Peters MacGregor. Personal communications, 17 November 2008. Contact details available at:
http://www.clivepeeters.com.au/page/contact_us
213
Clive Peters (2008) Product search, Australia. Available at: http://www.clivepeeters.com.au/modules/products/search, accessed
17 November 2008.
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74. Purchasing an appropriately sized oven [0.03:1]
Impact
[0.03]
Ovens waste over 90 percent of their electricity in general as they have to heat the entire oven
space. An oversized oven will waste more electricity than a smaller oven. A typical electric oven,
of average size, uses 1,800 watts, whereas a large electric oven uses 2,500 watts.214 If a large
oven is installed when an average size would suffice, and a household uses the oven on
average once week for an hour on each occasion, this behaviour will save 36.4kWh each year.
This is equivalent to 0.6 percent of the average household electricity consumption each year,
and the impact of this behaviour has hence been calculated to be 0.03.
Likelihood
[1]
Ovens may be installed during house construction, and hence would often be chosen by a
builder or developer rather than the resident. Renovations are presumed to be commissioned by
the homeowner, and a new oven may be installed at this point. Ovens come in fairly standard
widths, and capacity varies with this, so ovens of varying capacities will fit in the same area of a
kitchen.215
A sales consultant from Harvey Norman in Brisbane City, however, noted that many customers
are generally unfamiliar with specific features they might require in an oven, especially in terms
of factors such as size.216
With regards to price: cheaper doesn’t necessarily mean smaller. The Harvey Norman selection,
as well as Clive Peters, had a range of ovens from 23 litre capacity to over 80 litres, and price
did not some seem to vary with this capacity.
The likelihood of this behaviour is hence assumed to be low. This is confirmed by the expert
review panel, who noted that the size of the oven is generally not a consideration, and that there
are other factors which are more heavily considered (perhaps oven functions, appearance and
so on).
SEDO (2008) Cooking – Energy Smart Homes, Sustainable Energy development Office, Government of Western Australia.
Available at: http://www1.sedo.energy.wa.gov.au/pdf/cooking.pdf, accessed 03 November 2008.
215
Harvey Norman (2008) Cooking, Australia. Available at:
http://www.harveynorman.com.au/products/index.php/electrical/cooking.html, accessed 17 November 2008.
216
A sales consultant from Harvey Norman, Brisbane City. Personal communications, 17 November 2008. Contact details available
at:
http://harveynorman.findnearest.com.au/findnearest.asp?OriginSuburbPostcode=HIGHGATE+HILL+QLD+4101&groupid=2017&ima
ge.x=9&image.y=6&EnvironmentID=655&submittopage=locatorresult.asp&Log=1&sessionid=&originlocalityid=
214
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75. Purchasing a fan-forced oven [0.21:5]
Impact
[0.21]
Fan forced ovens use 35 percent less energy than conventional ovens, and allow more things to
be cooked in the oven at once. They also require less preheating.217 Cooking can account for 12
percent of a household’s electricity consumption, 218 hence this could save up to 4.2 percent of a
household’s overall electricity consumption, assuming most cooking is done in the oven. The
impact of this behaviour has been calculated at 0.21.
Likelihood
[5]
Virtually all ovens available from Clive Peters and Harvey Norman have fan forced capability,
across all price ranges.219 It would seem that it is no longer possible to buy a standard oven
which doesn’t have fan-forcing. The likelihood of this behaviour therefore is high.
SEDO (2008) Cooking – Energy Smart Homes, Sustainable Energy development Office, Government of Western Australia.
Available at: http://www1.sedo.energy.wa.gov.au/pdf/cooking.pdf, accessed 03 November 2008.
218
SEDO (2008) Cooking – Energy Smart Homes, Sustainable Energy development Office, Government of Western Australia.
Available at: http://www1.sedo.energy.wa.gov.au/pdf/cooking.pdf, accessed 03 November 2008.
219
Clive Peters (2008) Product search, Australia. Available at: http://www.clivepeeters.com.au/modules/products/search, accessed
17 November 2008, and Harvey Norman (2008) Cooking, Australia. Available at:
http://www.harveynorman.com.au/products/index.php/electrical/cooking.html, accessed 17 November 2008.
217
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76. Purchasing a pressure cooker for use rather than other cooking appliances [0.08:2]
Impact
[0.08]
Some estimates suggest that pressure cookers can use up to 70 percent less electricity to cook
food than a regular saucepan or using the oven.220 They aren’t suitable for all sorts of food (they
generally require a certain amount of liquids), however, hence it will be assumed that a pressure
cooker could replace other cooking methods for one meal a week. Assuming that this pressure
cooker replaces an hour of cooking in an average oven which uses 1,800 watts, 221 then in a year
this behaviour would have reduced the household electricity consumption by 93.6kWh, or
around 1.5 percent. Accordingly, the impact of this behaviour has been calculated at 0.08.
Likelihood
[2]
Prices for a pressure cooker range from around $109 to just under $200.222 They require different
cooking methods to unpressurised cooking, such as careful timing and monitoring liquid levels.
Food cooks faster, which may be considered an additional benefit, and also retains more
nutrients than many other cooking methods.223 The likelihood of this behaviour is rated as
moderately low.
220
There was a range of efficiencies claimed, this is the upper limit, however refers to more recent models of pressure cookers. This
figure was from Fagor, manufacturers of pressure cookers (see:
http://fastcooking.ca/pressure_cookers/energy_savings_pressure_cooker.php) and it is acknowledged that this claim is unverified,
however has been used due to the lack of other sources.
221
SEDO (2008) Cooking – Energy Smart Homes, Sustainable Energy development Office, Government of Western Australia.
Available at: http://www1.sedo.energy.wa.gov.au/pdf/cooking.pdf, accessed 03 November 2008.
222
My Shopping (2008) Pressure Cookers, Australia. Available at: http://www.myshopping.com.au/PT-312_Kitchen_Pressure_Cookers__fs_9530_e__, accessed 17 November 2008.
223
Trowbridge Filippone, P. (2008), Pressure Cookers, About.com, The New York Times Company. Available at:
http://homecooking.about.com/od/appliancecookery/a/pressuretips.htm, accessed 17 November 2008.
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77. Buying / Installing electric induction hotplates [0.01:1]
Impact
[0.01]
Induction hotplates are reported to be 20 to 50 percent more efficient than electric hotplates.
Typical electric hotplates are relatively inefficient: for example coil hotplates are between 55 and
65 percent efficient, solid electric hotplates are between 50 and 55 percent, ceramic standard
hotplates are 55 to 60 percent efficient, ceramic halogen hotplates are 45 to 50 percent efficient
whilst ceramic induction hotplates are 80 to 85 percent efficient. 224
If it’s assumed that a household uses their stovetop three times a week, and that each time the
stove top is used the household needs to cook food equivalent to boiling a litre of water. The
heat capacity of water is 4.18kJ per kg, per degree of change (4.18kJ∙kg -1K-1). Assuming the
water is originally at around 22oC, boiling a litre of water will consume approximately 0.092kWh.
Using a ceramic induction hotplate, this would require 17.94kWh each year, whereas using a
hotplate which is only 55 percent efficient (as a rough average of the other available types of
electric hotplates), this would require 26kWh each year – an additional 8.2kWh. The amount of
electricity will vary between households depending on their cooking methods and the amount
that they cook, however this would indicate that this behaviour has the potential to save 0.1
percent of the annual electricity usage, hence the impact of this behaviour has been rated as
0.01.
Likelihood
[1]
Ceramic induction hotplates tend to have a more ‘stylish’ look to them and are easier to clean,
but are normally more expensive. Some cookware can’t be used with induction hotplates, such
as standard glass, aluminium, copper based or stainless steel pans which don’t have an iron
core. 225 Based on this, it is presumed that this behaviour would have a low likelihood.
SEDO (2008) Cooking – Energy Smart Homes, Sustainable Energy development Office, Government of Western Australia.
Available at: http://www1.sedo.energy.wa.gov.au/pdf/cooking.pdf, accessed 03 November 2008.
225
SEDO (2008) Cooking – Energy Smart Homes, Sustainable Energy development Office, Government of Western Australia.
Available at: http://www1.sedo.energy.wa.gov.au/pdf/cooking.pdf, accessed 03 November 2008.
224
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78. Buying and installing gas cooktops and oven rather than electric [0.5:3]
Impact
[0.5]
This behaviour will reduce the electricity consumption of a household by switching their energy
source for cooking from electricity to gas. In Western Australia, cooking accounts for 12 percent
of the electricity and it is presumed that this is also a reasonable estimate for Townsville. 226 Not
all cooking is done in the oven or stovetop (some may be done with the microwave, toaster and
kettle) hence it is assumed that this behaviour could reduce electricity consumption by ten
percent, or around 620kWh each year. The impact of this behaviour has been calculated as 0.5.
It is of note that gas cooktops and stoves generate only half the greenhouse gas emissions of a
conventional electric one. Additionally, gas ovens do not need to be preheated and typically it is
possible to have greater control over the temperature of a gas oven or stovetop which can limit
cooking time. 227 This is not the central aim of this investigation, however may be an additional
incentive for encouraging this behaviour.
Likelihood
[3]
Townsville does not have reticulated gas, however some new developments are installing large
central gas tanks to reticulate within that development. Gas can be provided through tanks,
which need to be reordered and delivered as they are used.228 As it is possible to have greater
control over the temperature of a gas oven or stovetop, and also as they are almost instantly hot
(as opposed to electric), they tend to be preferred.229 Standard gas and electric stoves are similar
in price, however if gas fittings do not already exist, they will need to be installed.
The Queensland Government is offering an additional $200 to residents who switch to gas
cooking (a minimum four burner stove) from electric if they are also switching (or have switched)
to gas hot water (a rebate for $300 is available for this).230
In Australia, electric cooktops and ovens are still the most common form of cooking appliances,
accounting for 75 percent of ovens and 56 percent of cooktops.231
Based on this information, it is assumed that this behaviour is moderately likely.
One member of the expert review panel noted that it can be necessary to change cooking pots if
switching from electric to gas cooktops.
SEDO (2008) Cooking – Energy Smart Homes, Sustainable Energy development Office, Government of Western Australia.
Available at: http://www1.sedo.energy.wa.gov.au/pdf/cooking.pdf, accessed 03 November 2008.
227
SEDO (2008) Cooking – Energy Smart Homes, Sustainable Energy development Office, Government of Western Australia.
Available at: http://www1.sedo.energy.wa.gov.au/pdf/cooking.pdf, accessed 03 November 2008.
228
Envestra (2008) personal communications, November 2008.
229
Conger (2008) Which is greener, gas or electric cooking?, How Stuff Works. Available at: http://home.howstuffworks.com/gas-vselectric-cooking1.htm, accessed 14 November 2008.
230
DME (f) (2008) Residential Gas Installation Rebate Scheme, Department of Mines and Energy, Queensland Government.
Available at: http://www.dme.qld.gov.au/energy/gas_rebate.cfm, accessed 14 November 2008.
231
ABS (2008) Environmental Issues – Energy Use and Conservation, Australian Bureau of Statistics, Australian Government.
Available at:
http://abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/39433889d406eeb9ca2570610019e9a5/E95A38518401BD24CA25750E00108119?opendocum
ent, accessed 02 December 2008.
226
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2.3
Reducing Electricity Consumption – Entertainment Equipment (TV/VCR 3%)
79. Reducing the number of televisions in the house [0.5:1]
Impact
[0.5]
Electricity consumption from televisions in Australia is expected to double between 2004 and
2014, in fact the Australian Government report ‘Energy Usage in the Residential Sector’232 found
that the predicted growth in electricity consumption from electrical appliances was the largest of
any sector (based on modelling from 1990 to 2020) at around 4.7% per annum. It is expected to
match space heating as the largest end electricity use by 2020. Television use in 1986 was
estimated to consume 3PJ, in 2005 12PJ and it is predicted to use 45PJ in 2020. One of the
main drivers in this projected increase in electricity consumption from televisions is the number
of televisions per household, which is expected to increase from 1.5 in 1986 to 2.1 by 2020.
Secondary televisions are generally used intensively.
It’s predicted that by 2012, 90% of televisions sold will be plasma screen or LCD. Over its
lifetime, these televisions will consume significant amounts of electricity – including when on
standby. The purchasing decision will hence have significant impact on household energy
consumption.233
The purchase a plasma screen TV (300 – 400 watts) can increase household electricity use by
10 percent.234 This is assumed to consider both the electricity used when the television is in
active use and the standby power consumption, (televisions use on average 10 watts on
standby).235
Based on the assumption that televisions are increasingly likely to be plasma screen televisions,
and that their usage is as suggested by the research quoted above (and will increase electricity
consumption by 10 percent) it is estimated that for each extra television avoided, a household’s
electricity usage will decline by around 620kWh each year. If it is assumed that this behaviour
refers to one television only, then the impact of this behaviour is calculated to be 0.5.
It is noted that the discussion for this behaviour may refer to both avoiding purchasing an
additional television, and in reducing the number of televisions already owned by the household.
Likelihood
[1]
This behaviour may be influenced by other factors, such as the demographics of a household
(income, age, principle activities) and whether there is a perceived need to have multiple
televisions in order that they can be watched separately, and perhaps privately. There may also
be a perception that a larger number of appliances such as a television reflects a certain social
and economic status. The cost of electricity for this appliance (around $60 - $90 a year)
DEWHA (2008) Energy Use in the Australian residential sector 1986 – 2020, Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage
and the Arts, Australian Government. Available at:
http://www.environment.gov.au/settlements/energyefficiency/buildings/publications/energyuse.html
233
Moreland Energy Foundation (2008) How much energy is your TV guzzling?, Moreland City Council. Available at:
http://www.mefl.com.au/documents/How_much_energy_is_your_TV_guzzling.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008
234
Pears, A. (2004) ‘Energy Efficiency: Long Term Potential and an Approach to Incorporating Consideration of Energy Efficiency
into Economic Modelling’, Greenhouse Challenge for Energy: Appendices – Report to the Victorian Department of Infrastructure and
Department of Sustainability and Environment, The Allen Consulting Group. p139-140.
235
Moreland Energy Foundation (2003) A practical guide to minimize energy use in your home, Moreland City Council. Available at:
http://www.mefl.com.au/documents/A_Practical_Assessment_Guide_To_Minimise_Energy_Use_In_Your_Home.pdf, accessed 20
October 2008
232
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represents such a small fraction of the purchase price (as much as $7000) and is often not a
consideration, being only 1 percent of the initial purchase price and only about 20 percent of the
cost of cable TV. LCD screens, which use about a quarter of the electricity, are only beginning to
penetrate the market now.236 Based on this information, this behaviour is assumed to have a low
likelihood.
Pears, A. (2004) ‘Energy Efficiency: Long Term Potential and an Approach to Incorporating Consideration of Energy Efficiency
into Economic Modelling’, Greenhouse Challenge for Energy: Appendices – Report to the Victorian Department of Infrastructure and
Department of Sustainability and Environment, The Allen Consulting Group. p139-140.
236
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80. Switching televisions off when not being watched [0.2:2]
Impact
[0.2]
This behaviour assumes that televisions are left on for a period of time even if not being
watched. It will save electricity by reducing the amount of time for which a television is in
operational mode, which for a plasma screen television can consume between 300 and 400
watts,237 whereas on standby, this may be around 10 watts.238 This represents between 290 and
390 watts less power, which if this behaviour was undertaken for 2 hours a day, would save
between 211kWh and 284kWh each year. This is equivalent to between 3 and 5 percent of a
household’s yearly electricity consumption, and the impact of this behaviour has been calculated
as 0.2.
The impact of this behaviour assumes that most households have plasma screen televisions (it’s
predicted that by 2012, 90% of televisions sold will be plasma screen or LCD239 and that
televisions are left on but not watched for two hours a day. The impact of this behaviour may
have been overestimated as a result of these assumptions.
Likelihood
[2]
Households may leave televisions switched on when not watching them to provide some
background noise, out of habit or if they are not sure whether someone else will come to watch
it. In reality, there may be minimal benefit from having the television still switched on, and with
standby modes of operation in which the television can be turned on and off remotely and
quickly, it may be a simpler task to turn the television off than in previous years. The likelihood of
this behaviour is assumed to be moderate to low.
Pears, A. (2004) ‘Energy Efficiency: Long Term Potential and an Approach to Incorporating Consideration of Energy Efficiency
into Economic Modelling’, Greenhouse Challenge for Energy: Appendices – Report to the Victorian Department of Infrastructure and
Department of Sustainability and Environment, The Allen Consulting Group. p139-140.
238
Moreland Energy Foundation (2003) A practical guide to minimize energy use in your home, Moreland City Council. Available at:
http://www.mefl.com.au/documents/A_Practical_Assessment_Guide_To_Minimise_Energy_Use_In_Your_Home.pdf, accessed 20
October 2008
239
Moreland Energy Foundation (2008) How much energy is your TV guzzling?, Moreland City Council. Available at:
http://www.mefl.com.au/documents/How_much_energy_is_your_TV_guzzling.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008
237
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81. Using a radio for background noise rather than a television [0.2:2]
Impact
[0.2]
A radio uses approximately 15 watts to run, and a typical CD player around 85 watts.240 A large
screen (109cm) plasma television uses between 300 and 400 watts.241 As the news can be
obtained from a radio, and music and ‘background noise’ from either a radio or CD player, an
equivalent service may be obtained with energy savings of between 385 and 215 watts an hour.
If this behaviour was undertaken for three hours a day, for instance, it would provide energy
savings of between 157 and 281kWh each year. This is equivalent to between 2.5 and 4.5
percent of a household’s electricity consumption, hence the impact of this behaviour has been
calculated to be 0.2.
Likelihood
[2]
The use of a television over either a radio or a CD player may be due to a preference for the
visual stimulation (however this behaviour suggests switching at times when background noise
alone is desired) or for a certain style of programming or noise, such as talkback shows or
sitcoms for instance. This behaviour may be impeded by convenience and habit, where the
television is easily accessed via remote control and has imbedded preferences for the style of
entertainment which is delivered through this medium. The likelihood of this behaviour is
assumed to be moderate to low.
240
McMahon, R. (2008) Resources: Solar Energy and power and power facts, figures and guidelines, Australia. Available at:
http://www.mrsolarenergy.com/resources.html, accessed 08 December 2008.
241
Pears, A. (2004) ‘Energy Efficiency: Long Term Potential and an Approach to Incorporating Consideration of Energy Efficiency
into Economic Modelling’, Greenhouse Challenge for Energy: Appendices – Report to the Victorian Department of Infrastructure and
Department of Sustainability and Environment, The Allen Consulting Group. p139-140.
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82. Using timers on the television when watching in bed to go to sleep [0.4:1.5]
Impact
[0.4]
The use of a timer on a television will enable an individual to fall asleep to the television,
however after a certain amount of time, reduce the energy consumption of the television from
operational mode consumption (between 300 and 400 watts for a 109cm plasma screen
television242 to standby power consumption, of around 10 watts.243 Assuming a person sleeps for
eight hours, and that after half an hour of them falling asleep the television timer switches the
television off, over a year this would save between 794 and 1068kWh each year, or the
equivalent of between 13 and 17 percent of the annual electricity usage. This assumes,
however, that without the television would otherwise remain on all night, whereas in reality the
viewer may wake at some stage to switch it off. The impact of this behaviour has been
calculated to be between 0.65 and 0.85 however has been scaled down to 0.4 in recognition of
the degree of variability surrounding the assumptions. It is also assumed that this behaviour
would relate only to a certain portion of the population.
Likelihood
[1.5]
This behaviour depends on a television having a timer, on an individual knowing how to use it,
and to preferring to (or at least being willing to) sleep with the television off despite wanting to
fall asleep to it. There is evidence to suggest that, at least in children, watching television while
sleeping can lead to poorer quality, and less, sleep and this may be an incentive to perform this
behaviour.244 This behaviour is assumed to be moderately likely.
The expert review panel noted that they were unsure of the likelihood of this behaviour, however
estimated it would be less than suggested here. Consequently, the likelihood has been adjusted
downwards to 1.5.
Pears, A. (2004) ‘Energy Efficiency: Long Term Potential and an Approach to Incorporating Consideration of Energy Efficiency
into Economic Modelling’, Greenhouse Challenge for Energy: Appendices – Report to the Victorian Department of Infrastructure and
Department of Sustainability and Environment, The Allen Consulting Group. p139-140.
243
Moreland Energy Foundation (2003) A practical guide to minimize energy use in your home, Moreland City Council. Available at:
http://www.mefl.com.au/documents/A_Practical_Assessment_Guide_To_Minimise_Energy_Use_In_Your_Home.pdf, accessed 20
October 2008
244
Owens, J. et al, (1999) ‘Television-viewing Habits and Sleep Disturbance in School Children’, Pediatrics, Vol. 104 No. 3,
September. P27. Available at: http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/104/3/e27, accessed 08 December 2008.
242
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83. Avoiding screensavers on computers and using the sleep option instead [0.10:3]
Impact
[0.10]
Screensavers require energy to run. As a minimum, they can use around 42 watts, however
those with 3D graphics can use up to 114.5 watts. This is compared with the energy
consumption of a computer in sleep mode, which is about 3.1 watts.245 Assuming that a computer
might go to screensaver for on average 3 hours a day, then this behaviour could save from
42.6kWh a year, to 122 kWh a year. This is equivalent to between 0.7 and 2 percent of the
average annual electricity consumption of a Townsville household, hence the impact of this
behaviour has been calculated to be 0.10.
Australian and New Zealand energy efficiency regulators are proposing to recommend minimum
energy performance standards (MEPS) for both computers and monitors from October 2009. 246
This may influence the amount of power consumed in either mode, and may also influence the
default settings of the computer.
Likelihood
[3]
This behaviour is a one off behaviour, in that once the settings on the computer have been
changed it is likely that they will remain that way. Individuals may select a screensaver for
reasons other than energy saving, such as a misperception that this ‘saves’ the monitor life, to
have a visually appealing design on the screen while the computer is not actively being used
and if this was the default setting on the computer when it was purchased.
As computers go to screensaver or sleep mode when the computer is not in use, this may
suggest that the computer user is also not looking at the screen. This may enhance the
likelihood of switching the computer setting to use sleep mode rather than a screensaver, as
there may be little ‘benefit’ derived from the screensaver. This behaviour is assumed to be
moderately likely.
245
Bay Area Resource Council, (nd) PCs and energy consumption, Florida, USA. Available at:
http://70.167.229.112/barc/thinkgreen/pc's%20and%20energy%2010-23-08.pdf, accessed 08 December 2008.
246
E3 Team (2007) Computers and Monitors, The case for minimum energy performance standards, Equipment Energy Efficiency
Team, Energy Rating, Australian Government. Available at: http://www.energyrating.gov.au/library/pubs/2007-factsheet-computermonitor.pdf, accessed 14 November 2008.
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84. Switching computers off overnight [0.34:2]
Impact
[0.34]
Laboratory tests of PC computers running Microsoft Windows show that they use, on average,
42.7 watts in active mode. It will use around 3.1 watts in sleep mode, and 2.3 watts in hibernate
mode. Similarly, when on, a flat screen monitor will use around 22 watts, and 3.3 watts in
sleep.247 Other computer peripherals, such as a printer will use 8 watts on standby and a scanner
will use 10 watts.248 Overall, one source estimated that a PC would use up to 35 watts in standby
mode.249 Turning a computer off overnight will reduce this power consumption to zero (if turned
off at the wall), providing a saving (assuming it is switched off for eight hours) of up to 102kWh a
year. This is equivalent to approximately 1.6 percent of the average household’s annual
electricity usage, hence the impact of this behaviour has been calculated to be 0.08.
The expert review panel suggested that the impact of this behaviour could be higher, hence the
impact has been adjusted upwards to 0.34.
Likelihood
[2]
This is a repetitive behaviour, which will need to be performed each night. Computers may be
left on overnight for several reasons, including to take advantage of overnight download rates,
for the convenience of not having to switch the computer on again the next morning and reopen
programmes (this may take several minutes), out of habit or forgetfulness, or because the
computer user believes this is better for the computer (this concept is now refuted by computer
manufacturers.250 The likelihood of this behaviour is assumed to be moderate to low.
247
Bay Area Resource Council, (nd) PCs and energy consumption, Florida, USA. Available at:
http://70.167.229.112/barc/thinkgreen/pc's%20and%20energy%2010-23-08.pdf, accessed 08 December 2008.
248
Moreland Energy Foundation (2003) A practical guide to minimize energy use in your home, Moreland City Council. Available at:
http://www.mefl.com.au/documents/A_Practical_Assessment_Guide_To_Minimise_Energy_Use_In_Your_Home.pdf, accessed 20
October 2008
249
Scapicchio, M. (2005) ‘You’ve Got The Power (Management)’, Smart Computing, December 2005, Vol.16 Issue 12. Page(s) 3233 (in print issue), Available at:
http://www.smartcomputing.com/editorial/article.asp?article=articles%2F2005%2Fs1612%2F08s12%2F08s12.asp, accessed 25
November 2005.
250
Bay Area Resource Council, (nd) PCs and energy consumption, Florida, USA. Available at:
http://70.167.229.112/barc/thinkgreen/pc's%20and%20energy%2010-23-08.pdf, accessed 08 December 2008.
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Identification and Assessment of Homeowner Behaviours Related to Reducing Residential Energy Demand
85. Unplugging mobile phone chargers when not being used [0.05:4]
Impact
[0.05]
A mobile phone charger will consume electricity whilst plugged in to a power point, even if it is
not actually charging a phone at the time. It is estimated that each charger plugged in costs 60
cents a year, or 7 kg of greenhouse gases,251 which based on figures supplied by SEDO in
Western Australia,252 this would equate to about 7kWh a year. Within each household, there may
be several mobile phone chargers, potentially one for each individual living in the home. The
average household size in Townsville is 2.6 persons,253 and should this behaviour be undertaken
by the household, this may result in all of the mobile phone chargers being unplugged when not
in use, which would provide electricity savings of 18.2kWh a year. This represents 0.3 percent of
the annual electricity usage of an average Townsville household, hence the impact of this
behaviour has been calculated to be 0.01.
The expert review panel suggested that this behaviour could be higher, hence the rating has
been scaled upwards to 0.05 based on their proposed ratings.
Likelihood
[4]
This is a repetitive action which will require an individual to unplug the phone charger (or switch
of the power point) each time the phone is finished charging. It is likely that mobile phone
chargers are left plugged in for the convenience of being able to more quickly plug a phone into
it to charge. As a mobile phone is a heavily used and relied upon appliance, many households
may find that they charge their mobile phones on a daily (or nightly) basis to ensure that they
have sufficient charge. This may reduce the likelihood of this behaviour.
A recent report by the National Appliance and Equipment Energy Efficiency Program found that
69 percent of individuals unplug their mobile phone chargers when they’re not in use.254 The
likelihood of this behaviour is estimated to be moderately high on the basis of this information.
ABC (d) (2007) ‘The Bettenays’ Carbon Cops, ABC Television. Available at:
http://www.abc.net.au/tv/carboncops/factsheets/cc_bettenays.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008.
252
SEDO (b) (2008), Running Costs and Greenhouse Gas Emissions, Sustainable Energy development Office, Government of
Western Australia. Available at: http://www.sedo.energy.wa.gov.au/pages/emissions.asp, accessed 27 October 2008
253
ABS (2007) Census QuickStats: Townsville (Qld), Australian Bureau of Statistics, Commonwealth of Australia. Available at:
http://www.censusdata.abs.gov.au/ABSNavigation/prenav/LocationSearch?collection=Census&period=2006&areacode=3057&produ
cttype=QuickStats&breadcrumb=PL&action=401, accessed 24 October, 2008.
254
NAEEEC (2001) Residential Standby Power Consumption in Australia, Prepared for the National Appliance and Equipment
Energy Efficiency Program, Australia. Available at: http://energyrating.gov.au/library/pubs/standby-2001.pdf, accessed 08 December
2008.
251
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Identification and Assessment of Homeowner Behaviours Related to Reducing Residential Energy Demand
86. Purchasing an energy efficient television [0.60:1]
Impact
[0.60]
Electricity consumption from televisions in Australia is expected to double between 2004 and
2014. The Australian Government report ‘Energy Usage in the Residential Sector’255 found that
the predicted growth in electricity consumption from electrical appliances was the largest of any
sector (based on modelling from 1990 to 2020) at around 4.7% per annum. It is expected to
match space heating as the largest end electricity use by 2020. Television use in 1986 was
estimated to consume 3PJ, in 2005 12PJ and it is predicted to use 45PJ in 2020.
It is expected that by 2012, 90% of televisions sold will be plasma screen or LCD. Over its
lifetime, a TV will consume significant amounts of electricity – including when on standby. The
purchasing decision will hence have significant impact.256
The purchase of high electricity consuming appliances, such as a plasma screen TV (300 – 400
watts), can increase household electricity use by 10 percent. LCD screens, which use about a
quarter of the electricity, are only beginning to penetrate the market now. 257 Figure A shows the
comparative operating power of various types of televisions, with plasma screen televisions
having a very narrow range of electricity consuming patterns suggesting that there is limited
scope to purchase an ‘energy efficient’ plasma screen, as there is only one available efficiency.
The Australian Government introduced voluntary labelling for televisions in 2008, which will
become mandatory in October 2009. Their rating system suggests that a one star 106cm
television would consume on average 1,100kWh a year whereas an efficient six star television
of the same size would use only around 360kWh.258 This suggests savings to the order of
740kWh are possible with this behaviour, and could reduce the electricity consumption of the
average Townsville household by around 11.9 percent. The impact of this behaviour has been
calculated as 0.60.
Figure A: Operating power consumption for different television types (Pears, 2004)
DEWHA (2008) Energy Use in the Australian residential sector 1986 – 2020, Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage
and the Arts, Australian Government. Available at:
http://www.environment.gov.au/settlements/energyefficiency/buildings/publications/energyuse.html
256
Moreland Energy Foundation (2008) How much energy is your TV guzzling?, Moreland City Council. Available at:
http://www.mefl.com.au/documents/How_much_energy_is_your_TV_guzzling.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008
257
Pears, A. (2004) ‘Energy Efficiency: Long Term Potential and an Approach to Incorporating Consideration of Energy Efficiency
into Economic Modelling’, Greenhouse Challenge for Energy: Appendices – Report to the Victorian Department of Infrastructure and
Department of Sustainability and Environment, The Allen Consulting Group. p139-140.
258
DEWHA (2009) Energy rating labels and performance standards for televisions, Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage
and the Arts, Australian Government. Available at: http://www.environment.gov.au/settlements/energyefficiency/tvs.html, accessed
22 June 2009.
255
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Likelihood
[1]
This is a one off purchasing decision. One in four households now buys a new television every
year, and the number of televisions per household is increasing.259
There is predicted to be a significant increase in LCD and plasma screen purchases by 2012,
there are industry estimates which predict that over 90 percent of televisions sold will be LCD or
plasma screens by 2012.260 As there is not a large range of operating powers for plasma screen
televisions, there is not much scope to purchase an efficient model. In fact, they are all
inherently large electricity consumers. It is possible to buy an efficient LCD television, however it
should be noted that the metrics given in Figure 4.1.2 are for a relatively small LCD screen
compared with a large plasma screen, although a prediction has been made for a 109cm LCD
screen, which has a large range of operating powers which are considerably less than for an
equivalent plasma screen.
A television labelling scheme has been introduced, and is targeted to become mandatory in
October 2009, under which the electricity consumption of televisions is displayed for consumers
to be able to compare the energy efficiency.261
The cost of electricity for this appliance (around $60 - $90 a year) represents such a small
fraction of the purchase price (as much as $7000) and is often not a consideration, being only 1
percent of the initial purchase price and only about 20 percent of the cost of cable TV. 262
Based on this information, the likelihood of this behaviour is predicted to be moderate to low.
The expert review panel noted that televisions are generally bought for the service rather than
the efficiency. The likelihood has been adjusted downwards based on their estimates.
DEWHA (2008) Energy Use in the Australian residential sector 1986 – 2020, Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage
and the Arts, Australian Government. Available at:
http://www.environment.gov.au/settlements/energyefficiency/buildings/publications/energyuse.html
260
Moreland Energy Foundation (2008) How much energy is your TV guzzling?, Moreland City Council. Available at:
http://www.mefl.com.au/documents/How_much_energy_is_your_TV_guzzling.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008
261
DEWHA (2009) Energy rating labels and performance standards for televisions, Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage
and the Arts, Australian Government. Available at: http://www.environment.gov.au/settlements/energyefficiency/tvs.html, accessed
22 June 2009.
262
Pears, A. (2004) ‘Energy Efficiency: Long Term Potential and an Approach to Incorporating Consideration of Energy Efficiency
into Economic Modelling’, Greenhouse Challenge for Energy: Appendices – Report to the Victorian Department of Infrastructure and
Department of Sustainability and Environment, The Allen Consulting Group. p139-140.
259
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87. Switching microwaves off at the wall when they’re not being used [0.03:2]
Impact
[0.03]
Microwaves on stand-by power use, on average, 4 watts.263 Assuming that microwaves are used
for only small amounts of time (on average, half and hour a day), then this behaviour could save
94Wh per day, or 34kWh each year. This is equivalent to 0.5 percent of the average total
electricity consumption of a Townsville household each year, hence the impact of this behaviour
is calculated to be 0.03.
The expert review panel confirmed these findings, that microwaves have a relatively low standby
power consumption and may not be of key importance as a result.
Likelihood
[2]
This is a repetitive action. It may be limited by habit, accessibility of power points, frequency with
which appliances are used and education.
Microwaves often have digital clocks, and each time the microwave is turned off at the wall, the
clock will need to be reset or else an alternative clock will need to be used (if one is required). A
report by the National Appliance and Equipment Energy Efficiency Program found that 20
percent of households already switch their microwaves off at the wall when not in use (and
commented that this was a high proportion).264
The likelihood of this behaviour is estimated to be low to moderate based on this information.
263
Moreland Energy Foundation (2003) A practical guide to minimize energy use in your home, Moreland City Council. Available at:
http://www.mefl.com.au/documents/A_Practical_Assessment_Guide_To_Minimise_Energy_Use_In_Your_Home.pdf, accessed 20
October 2008
264
NAEEEC (2001) Residential Standby Power Consumption in Australia, Prepared for the National Appliance and Equipment
Energy Efficiency Program, Australia. Available at: http://energyrating.gov.au/library/pubs/standby-2001.pdf, accessed 08 December
2008.
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88. Switching the VCR or DVD player off at the wall when they’re not being used [0.05:2]
Impact
[0.05]
DVD and VCR players use, on average, 8 watts on standby.265 If it is assumed that these
appliances are used for two hours a day, and that for the remaining 22 they are on standby, then
this behaviour has the potential to reduce electricity consumption by 64kWh or around 1 percent
of the usage of the average household in Townsville. The impact of this behaviour is hence
calculated to be 0.05.
Likelihood
[2]
This is a repetitive action. It may be limited by habit, accessibility of power points, frequency with
which appliances are used and education.
A report prepared for the Australian Greenhouse Office suggested that as of 2003, standby
power accounted for 12 percent of household electricity use and was growing at 8 percent per
annum. The report suggests that there are actually greater barriers in getting consumers to
switch to lower power modes, and so operational electricity is a greater issue.266 VCRs and DVD
players are often operated by remote control, and this may require a more substantial shift in
behaviour than if they were turned on and off at the appliance itself. If the television is being
turned off at the wall, then it may be more likely that these appliances will also be turned off as
they cannot be used without the television.
The likelihood of this behaviour is assumed to be moderately low.
The expert review panel noted that the loss of settings on the VCR and DVD players may be a
disincentive to this behaviour.
265
Moreland Energy Foundation (2003) A practical guide to minimize energy use in your home, Moreland City Council. Available at:
http://www.mefl.com.au/documents/A_Practical_Assessment_Guide_To_Minimise_Energy_Use_In_Your_Home.pdf, accessed 20
October 2008
266
AGO (b) (2003) A study of home entertainment equipment operational energy use issues, Australian Greenhouse Office,
Commonwealth of Australia. Available at: http://www.energyrating.gov.au/library/pubs/200303-homeentertain.pdf, accessed 20
October 2008.
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89. Switching televisions off at the wall when they’re not being used [0.06:2]
Impact
[0.06]
Televisions use on average 10 watts on standby.267 If it is assumed that the television is in active
operation for 5 hours a day, then this behaviour relates to the remaining 19 hours for which it
could be on standby. Turning the television off at the wall could save 69kWh each year, or
approximately 1.1 percent of the average yearly electricity usage of Townsville households. The
impact of this behaviour is calculated to be 0.06.
Likelihood
[2]
This is a repetitive action. It may be limited by habit, accessibility of power points, frequency with
which appliances are used and education.
A report prepared for the Australian Greenhouse Office suggested that as of 2003, standby
power accounted for 12 percent of household electricity use and was growing at 8 percent per
annum. The report suggests that there are actually greater barriers in getting consumers to
switch to lower power modes, and so operational energy is a greater issue. 268
Televisions are often operated by remote control, and this may require a more substantial shift
in behaviour than if they were turned on and off at the television itself. The likelihood of this
behaviour is assumed to be moderately low based on this information.
267
Moreland Energy Foundation (2003) A practical guide to minimize energy use in your home, Moreland City Council. Available at:
http://www.mefl.com.au/documents/A_Practical_Assessment_Guide_To_Minimise_Energy_Use_In_Your_Home.pdf, accessed 20
October 2008
268
AGO (b) (2003) A study of home entertainment equipment operational energy use issues, Australian Greenhouse Office,
Commonwealth of Australia. Available at: http://www.energyrating.gov.au/library/pubs/200303-homeentertain.pdf, accessed 20
October 2008.
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90. Turning off the computer monitor when leaving the room for a few minutes or more
[0.05:1]
Impact
[0.05]
A common Sony 17 inch cathode ray tube (CRT) monitor uses 75 watts when in active use,269
and an LCD monitor, also 17 inch, would use around 20 Watts. These amounts can change
depending on the screen brightness, and the colours being displayed and consumption for each
monitor is negligible when turned off.270 The impact of switching these off will depend on how
long the room is vacated for. The amount of electricity saved will also be relative to the screen
saver and power saving settings which are used. The time delay between leaving the room and
when the computer goes to sleep mode may be fairly short and this will result in relatively limited
savings. Many monitors still consume electricity when on standby, and this behaviour will
minimise this. In one article, the electricity consumption of an LCD monitor was cited as, on
average, 35 watts, and whilst on standby mode 15 watts.271 There is typically a time delay
between when work on the computer has temporarily ceased and when standby mode is
activated. Hence, turning the monitor off while save 35 watts for the time period which has been
selected until standby mode is activated, and then 15 watts until the user returns to the
computer.
If it is assumed that, throughout the course of the day, there is a cumulative total of two hours for
which the computer is left running, but is not needed and hence the monitor could be switched
off. As this time might be staggered throughout the day, it’s assumed that for half of it, the
monitor will remain in active operation and for half it would switch to standby mode. Therefore
this behaviour has the potential to save 33kWh a year for a CRT monitor, and an LCD monitor
16kWh. This behaviour would then create yearly savings of between 0.5 and 0.2 percent of the
average yearly total electricity consumption, hence this behaviour has been calculated to have
an impact of 0.01.
The expert review panel provided ratings which suggested that the impact of this behaviour
could be higher, hence the rating has been adjusted upwards to 0.05.
Australian and New Zealand energy efficiency regulators are proposing to recommend minimum
energy performance standards (MEPS) for both computers and monitors from October 2009.272
269
Grisebach, M. (2003) How much power does your PC consume?, University of Waterloo, Canada. Available at:
http://windows.uwaterloo.ca/Hardware/PC_Power_Consumption.asp, accessed 14 November 2008.
270
Kedar (2006) Saving Energy – One Monitor at a Time, Saving Energy, Wordpress. Available at:
http://savingenergy.wordpress.com/2006/11/21/saving-energy-one-monitor-at-a-time/, accessed 14 November 2008.
271
Scapicchio, M. (2005) ‘You’ve Got The Power (Management)’, Smart Computing, December 2005, Vol.16 Issue 12. Page(s) 3233 (in print issue), Available at:
http://www.smartcomputing.com/editorial/article.asp?article=articles%2F2005%2Fs1612%2F08s12%2F08s12.asp, accessed 25
November 2005.
272
E3 Team (2007) Computers and Monitors, The case for minimum energy performance standards, Equipment Energy Efficiency
Team, Energy Rating, Australian Government. Available at: http://www.energyrating.gov.au/library/pubs/2007-factsheet-computermonitor.pdf, accessed 14 November 2008.
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Likelihood
[1]
Turning off the monitor does not affect the computer, as it is able to be left running. The Energy
Star website notes that turning the monitor on and off more than five times a day will only cause
an increase in the frequency of faults in the power transistors after 20 to 30 years of use.273
The sleep mode on monitors also reduces power consumption considerably, and may be a
preferred option by many users, and this may in effect make turning the monitor redundant.
The likelihood of this behaviour is assumed to be relatively low.
273
Energy Star (2005) Computers and Monitors, Department of Water, Heritage and the Arts, Australian Government. Available at:
http://www.energystar.gov.au/products/computers.html, accessed 14 November 2008.
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91. Buying a television with low standby power usage [0.08:1.5]
Impact
[0.08]
An average television has a standby power consumption of 10 watts,274 however it can be as
high as 19.7 watts.275 A television can spend up to 60 percent of the time on time on standby, 276
resulting in around 14.5 hours a day. Some televisions for sale have standby modes of less than
1 watt.277 Based on the above figures, this would translate to between around 48kWh and 99kWh
a year. The number of televisions in each household is also increasing, with televisions now
commonly found in bedrooms, the kitchen as well as potentially other rooms also.278 As each
household owns more televisions, their purchasing behaviour will amplify the effect per
household. The impact of purchasing one television with a low standby power usage would be to
decrease the total annual electricity consumption by around 1.6 percent, hence the impact has
been calculated at 0.08.
It is noted that the standby energy consumption can be reduced by up to 90 percent without
compromising the features provided.279 It is also relevant that in the last ten years, significant
improvements in standby energy efficiency have already been made, and it is predicted that
more will come (it is also noted that this attention on standby energy consumption from the One
Watt programme has diverted attention from operational energy consumption). The One Watt
programme deals with passive standby modes, and not active modes which can consume
considerable amounts of electricity also. It is noted that many appliances, such as televisions,
remain in operational mode, or active standby mode for long periods of time, reducing the
impact of low standby power modes. Furthermore, programmes such as Energy Star do not
require appliances to power down to passive standby mode if they aren’t used for a period of
time, causing them to remain in more active modes for longer periods of time. In fact, in the case
of televisions, modelling suggests that operational modes are responsible for between 74 and
99 percent of their total electricity consumption.280
Likelihood
[1.5]
There is a range in the standby power consumption of televisions. The Australian Government
has, through its Energy Rating programme, compiled a list of 7,000 appliances with their
standby electricity usage. The Energy Star programme is voluntary in Australia, and sets levels
274
Moreland Energy Foundation (2003) A practical guide to minimize energy use in your home, Moreland City Council. Available at:
http://www.mefl.com.au/documents/A_Practical_Assessment_Guide_To_Minimise_Energy_Use_In_Your_Home.pdf, accessed 20
October 2008
275
Moreland Energy Foundation (2008) How much energy is your TV guzzling?, Moreland City Council. Available at:
http://www.mefl.com.au/documents/How_much_energy_is_your_TV_guzzling.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008
276
Moreland Energy Foundation (2008) How much energy is your TV guzzling?, Moreland City Council. Available at:
http://www.mefl.com.au/documents/How_much_energy_is_your_TV_guzzling.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008
277
NAEEE (2002) Money isn’t all you’re saving, National Appliance and Equipment Energy Efficiency Program, National
Greenhouse Strategy, Australian Government.. Available at: http://www.energyrating.gov.au/library/pubs/200212-standby.pdf
278
AGO (2003) A study of home entertainment equipment operational energy use issues, Australian Greenhouse Office,
Commonwealth of Australia. Available at: http://www.energyrating.gov.au/library/pubs/200303-homeentertain.pdf, accessed 20
October 2008.
279
IEA (2007), Standby Power Use and the IEA “1-watt Plan”, International Energy Association, April 2007. Available at:
http://www.iea.org/textbase/papers/2007/standby_fact.pdf, accessed 14 November 2008.
280
NAEEEC (2003) A study of home entertainment equipment operational energy use issues, Prepared for Australian Greenhouse
Office by the National Appliance and Equipment Energy Efficiency Program by George Wilkenfeld and Associates, Australia.
Available at: http://www.energyrating.gov.au/library/pubs/200303-homeentertain.pdf, accessed 22 June 2009.
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for stand by power consumption.281 The Ministerial Council on Energy committed to addressing
stand-by electricity, under the umbrella of the International Energy Association’s ‘One Watt’
programme. From 2002 to 2012, products at risk of using ‘excessive standby power’ will be
targeted.282
The ‘One Watt’ programme, initiated by the International Energy Agency, has been taken up by
the Australian Government which will address appliances sold here in order of assessed priority,
ensuring that in passive stand-by mode they consume no more than one watt of electricity. In
Japan, the United States and the European Union, this programme is also being pursued. This
will lead to a marketplace which contains more of such appliances and through (presumably)
economies of scale, the costs of these energy efficient standby modes in appliances will
decrease.283 This will increase the likelihood that any television purchased will have a low
standby power consumption.
The likelihood of this behaviour is considered to be moderate, given that these measures are not
in place currently, however there is a strong possibility that they will be in the foreseeable future.
The expert review panel noted that, at present, it can be difficult to ascertain the standby power
consumption at the point of sale, and rated the likelihood of this behaviour as being quite low. As
a result, the likelihood of this behaviour has been adjusted to 1.5.
281
AGO (b) (2003) A study of home entertainment equipment operational energy use issues, Australian Greenhouse Office,
Commonwealth of Australia. Available at: http://www.energyrating.gov.au/library/pubs/200303-homeentertain.pdf, accessed 20
October 2008.
282
DEWHA (g), 2008, Standby Power, Department of Water, Heritage and the Arts, Australian Government. Available at:
http://www.energyrating.gov.au/standby.html, accessed 14 November 2008.
283
NAEEEC (2003) A study of home entertainment equipment operational energy use issues, Prepared for Australian Greenhouse
Office by the National Appliance and Equipment Energy Efficiency Program by George Wilkenfeld and Associates, Australia.
Available at: http://www.energyrating.gov.au/library/pubs/200303-homeentertain.pdf, accessed 22 June 2009.
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92. Buying a computer with low stand by power usage [0.05:1]
Impact
[0.05]
A computer monitor can consume around 5 watts on standby, while a printer can use 8 watts
and a scanner will use 10 watts.284 Many mice now have standby power consumption as they
operate through either infrared sensing technology, and many also now have standby (lower
power) settings. Standby modes can reduce the amount of power a computer uses considerably
compared with operation modes (they are able to switch, for instance, an LCD monitor into ‘Turn
Off Monitor’ mode, which will consume on average 15 watts or less compared with 35 watts
when on operational mode, and can stop the internal disks in the hard drive from spinning. On
average, a typical desktop computer setup will consume between 125 and 150 watts in
operation mode, a laptop between 15 and 45 watts and either will draw between 3 and 35 watts
in standby.285 Computers can also go into hibernation mode, in which a laptop will consume no
power, and a desktop will consume only as much as the monitor uses in ‘Turn Off Monitor’
mode.
Computers are often switched on for a large portion of the day (in operational mode and standby
mode), and whilst some are switched off over night, many may not be. Reasons for this may be
to take advantage of ‘off peak’ downloading times and for the convenience of not having to
switch computers back on the next morning. Even during the day, there may be periods of time
when the user takes a break, and the computer will go to standby mode. As a result, the standby
power consumption of computers, or the consumption in hibernation modes, may have an
increasing effect.
It is assumed that options exist for each of these components with low standby power
consumptions. One watt standby strategies already exist for computer printers and scanners, 286
and a review of the US Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy “Energy Star Program” reveals
that it is possible to purchase all computer components with standby power requirements of less
than one watt.287 Hence, it is estimated that this behaviour can reduce the total standby power
consumption from an average of 35 watts to around 8 watts (allowing for numerous devices). If
it is assumed that computers are on standby for 6 hours a day, then this behaviour could reduce
the annual electricity consumption of a household by 59kWh, or 1 percent. The impact has been
calculated as 0.05.
This calculation has been performed for a desktop with numerous peripheral devices, given the
negligible standby power consumption of all laptops.
Likelihood
[1]
284
Moreland Energy Foundation (2003) A practical guide to minimize energy use in your home, Moreland City Council. Available at:
http://www.mefl.com.au/documents/A_Practical_Assessment_Guide_To_Minimise_Energy_Use_In_Your_Home.pdf, accessed 20
October 2008
285
Scapicchio, M. (2005) ‘You’ve Got The Power (Management)’, Smart Computing, December 2005, Vol.16 Issue 12. Page(s) 3233 (in print issue), Available at:
http://www.smartcomputing.com/editorial/article.asp?article=articles%2F2005%2Fs1612%2F08s12%2F08s12.asp, accessed 25
November 2005.
286
See: DEWHA (2009) Energy Rating, Standby Power - Product Profiles, Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the
Arts, Australian Government. Available at: http://www.energyrating.gov.au/standby-profiles2.html, accessed 22 June 2009.
287
See: EERE (2007) Energy Efficient Products: How to buy products with low stand buy power, Energy Efficiency and Renewable
Energy, US Department of Energy. Available at: http://www1.eere.energy.gov/femp/procurement/eep_standby_power.html,
accessed 22 June 2009.
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The computer hardware will have some inbuilt factors which will affect standby power
consumption, such as the number of LED lights on the monitor and other peripherals. These can
be greatly affected by the settings which are chosen, and behavioural changes such as
switching off peripherals entirely.
Laptops which run off batteries will consume as little power as possible in standby, and users
are likely to consider this when purchasing a laptop, as well as the settings they chose for
standby to minimise power consumption so that the battery time can be maximised. Desktop
users may have a lower incentive to do so, however operating systems (such as Windows XP)
come with inbuilt settings to minimise standby power consumption. These can be manually
altered by the user. 288
The likelihood of this behaviour is considered low to moderate.
The expert review panel noted the difficulty in ascertaining the standby power consumption of
computers at the point of sale, and provided ratings for this behaviour which suggested a low
likelihood. The rating has been adjusted downwards accordingly.
Scapicchio, M. (2005) ‘You’ve Got The Power (Management)’, Smart Computing, December 2005, Vol.16 Issue 12. Page(s) 3233 (in print issue), Available at:
http://www.smartcomputing.com/editorial/article.asp?article=articles%2F2005%2Fs1612%2F08s12%2F08s12.asp, accessed 25
November 2005.
288
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93. Buying a DVD or VCR with low stand by power usage [0.10:1.5]
Impact
[0.10]
These appliances tend to have an ‘active’ standby mode, and a ‘passive’ standby mode, each
which use different amounts of power. It is noted that appliances, such as televisions, and DVD
players remain in operational mode, or active standby mode for long periods of time, reducing
the impact of low passive standby power modes. Furthermore, programmes such as Energy
Star do not require appliances to power down to passive standby mode if they aren’t used for a
period of time, causing them to remain in more active modes for longer periods of time. 289 The
passive standby power consumption of DVD players and VCR players was found to vary from
well below 1 watt to over 15 watts, and the active standby mode between 7.4 watts and 44.6
watts.290
If it is assumed that a household has both a DVD and VCR player, and that these are in
operational mode for two hours a day, in active standby for one hour a day and in passive
standby for the remaining 21 hours, then this behaviour could save 131kWh each year, or 2
percent of the total annual electricity consumption. Hence, the impact of this behaviour has been
rated as 0.10.
It is noted that in the last ten years, significant improvements in standby energy efficiency have
already been made, and it is predicted that more will come. The One Watt programme deals
with passive standby modes, and not active modes which can consume considerable amounts
of electricity also. 291
Likelihood
[1.5]
The IEA noted that electricity consumption can be reduced by up to 90 percent without
compromising the features provided,292 suggesting that consumers can buy an appliance with all
the features they desire, but low standby power modes. The Australian Government has,
through its Energy Rating programme, compiled a list of 7,000 appliances with their standby
electricity usage. The Energy Star programme is voluntary in Australia, and sets levels for stand
by power consumption.293 The Ministerial Council on Energy committed to addressing stand-by
electricity, under the umbrella of the International Energy Association’s ‘One Watt’ programme.
From 2002 to 2012, products at risk of using ‘excessive standby power’ will be targeted.294
The ‘One Watt’ programme, initiated by the International Energy Agency, has been taken up by
the Australian Government which will address appliances sold here in order of assessed priority,
289
NAEEEC (2003) A study of home entertainment equipment operational energy use issues, Prepared for Australian Greenhouse
Office by the National Appliance and Equipment Energy Efficiency Program, Australia. Available at:
http://www.energyrating.gov.au/library/pubs/200303-homeentertain.pdf, accessed 22 June 2009.
290
NAEEE (2003) Product Profile: DVD Players/Recorders and DVD/VCR Combo, National Appliance and Equipment Energy
Efficiency Committee, Australian Government. Available at: http://www.energyrating.gov.au/library/pubs/sb200301r2-dvd.pdf,
accessed 04 June 2009.
291
NAEEEC (2003) A study of home entertainment equipment operational energy use issues, Prepared for Australian Greenhouse
Office by the National Appliance and Equipment Energy Efficiency Program, Australia. Available at:
http://www.energyrating.gov.au/library/pubs/200303-homeentertain.pdf, accessed 22 June 2009.
292
IEA (2007), Standby Power Use and the IEA “1-watt Plan”, International Energy Association, April 2007. Available at:
http://www.iea.org/textbase/papers/2007/standby_fact.pdf, accessed 14 November 2008.
293
AGO (b) (2003) A study of home entertainment equipment operational energy use issues, Australian Greenhouse Office,
Commonwealth of Australia. Available at: http://www.energyrating.gov.au/library/pubs/200303-homeentertain.pdf, accessed 20
October 2008.
294
DEWHA (2008) Standby Power, Department of Water, Heritage and the Arts, Australian Government. Available at:
http://www.energyrating.gov.au/standby.html, accessed 14 November 2008.
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ensuring that in passive stand by mode, they consume no more than one watt of electricity. In
Japan, the United States and the European Union, this programme is also being pursued. This
will lead to a marketplace which contains more of such appliances and through (presumably)
economies of scale, the costs of these energy efficient standby modes in appliances will
decrease.295 Based on these findings, the likelihood of this behaviour is estimated to be
moderate.
Similar to the previous two behaviours, the expert panel found this behaviour relatively unlikely,
hence the rating here has been adjusted downwards.
295
NAEEEC (2003) A study of home entertainment equipment operational energy use issues, Prepared for Australian Greenhouse
Office by the National Appliance and Equipment Energy Efficiency Program, Australia. Available at:
http://www.energyrating.gov.au/library/pubs/200303-homeentertain.pdf, accessed 22 June 2009.
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94. Purchasing a cathode ray tube television rather than plasma screen [1.9:1]
Impact
[1.9]
It is estimated that CRT televisions use only on average a third of the electricity of a plasma
screen television, which is due to both the large screen sizes available for plasma screen
televisions, and their higher energy demand.296 For example, a 86cm CRT television uses 200
watts, where as a 125cm plasma screen television uses 350 watts and a 256cm plasma screen
television 1500 watts. Based on five hours of viewing each day297 (and assuming the difference
in standby power is negligible), this behaviour could reduce the annual electricity consumption
by as much as 2,373kWh, or 38 percent. This represents the higher end of the savings,
comparing the 126cm screen would save 274kWh or 4.4 percent. Nonetheless, this behaviour
clearly has the potential to provide high energy savings, hence the impact has been calculated
as 1.9.
It is noted that within this comparison, the screen sizes are not equivalent. It is understood that it
is not possible to buy a CRT television of the same size as the plasma screen television
discussed here.
Likelihood
[1]
This is a one off purchasing decision which is likely to be influenced by product availability and
marketing. Trends are currently towards higher rates of purchasing plasma screen and LCD
screen televisions, as well as larger size screens,298 and Industry experts predict that by 2012, 90
percent of televisions sold will be either plasma screen or LCD. 299 Hence, the likelihood of this
behaviour is considered to be low.
296
For more information, see: http://www.realestate.com.au/renovate/digital/articles/tv-energy-use.htm
The E3 committee estimates that televisions are watched between 5 and 8 hours a day. See the Equipment Energy Efficiency
Committee report ‘The Case for Television Energy Performance Standards and Comparitive Energy Labels’, (2007) at:
http://www.energyrating.gov.au/library/pubs/2007-factsheet-tv.pdf
298
DEWHA (2008) Energy Use in the Australian residential sector 1986 – 2020, Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage
and the Arts, Australian Government. Available at:
http://www.environment.gov.au/settlements/energyefficiency/buildings/publications/energyuse.html
299
EEEC (2007) ‘The Case for Television Energy Performance Standards and Comparative Energy Labels’, Equipment Energy
Efficiency Committee report, Australia. Available at: http://www.energyrating.gov.au/library/pubs/2007-factsheet-tv.pdf, accessed 22
June 2009.
297
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95. Purchasing an LCD television rather than a plasma screen television [0.11:3]
Impacts
[0.11]
LCD televisions can use less energy than equivalent sized plasma screens. The energy
consumption of an LCD screen depends largely on the means by which it is backlit, and recent
developments in using LED lights to perform this function are likely to significantly increase the
efficiency of these televisions. To provide some indicative metrics, an online site which
compares products (CNET) found that plasma screen televisions consume on average 0.34
watts per square inch of screen size, whereas LCD screens consume an average 0.27 watts per
square inch, although some are as low as 0.11 watts per square inch (presumably using LED
technology – some are also as high as 0.37 watts per square inch).300 This would provide
average savings of 21 percent, and potential savings of 68 percent (and it is possible that a LCD
screen would actually consume more electricity than some models of plasma screens).
Assuming that a television is on for 5 hours a day, and that instead of a 350 watt plasma screen
television, a LCD monitor which is 21 percent more efficient is purchased, then this behaviour
would save 134.1kWh a year, reducing the electricity consumption of the average Townsville
household by 2.2 percent. The impact of this behaviour has been calculated as 0.11.
Likelihood
[3]
This behaviour represents a one off purchasing decision. There appear to be advances in both
technologies, however a review of currently available televisions suggest that LCD screens are
not available with the same screen size as plasma screens. There is a variety of models and
makes available in each technology, and various internet sites suggest subtle differences
between the two. It is assumed that this behaviour is moderately likely.
300
CNET (undated) The basics of TV power, USA. Available at: http://reviews.cnet.com/green-tech/tv-power-efficiency/, accessed 22
June 2009.
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96. Purchasing and using a laptop rather than desktop [0.20:2]
Impacts
[0.20]
Laptops are estimated to use between 50 and 90 percent less energy than desktop computers,301
with desktops consuming between 80 and 300 watts when in active use, and laptops between
20 and 40 watts. Hence, this behaviour has the potential to reduce annual electricity usage by
between 36kWh and 252kWh, based on figures provided by the Australian Government that
computers are now used for on average 900 hours each year.302 This is between 0.6 percent and
4.1 percent of the average annual electricity consumption in Townsville, hence the impact of this
behaviour has been calculated as 0.20.
Likelihood
[2]
This behaviour represents a one off purchasing decision. Both the ownership of desktops and
laptops is expected to increase towards 2020, to 1.25 personal computers per household, and
0.65 for laptops (from 0.87 personal computers per household in 2005).303 This would suggest
that desktop computers will still be more popular as a home computer than laptops, hence the
likelihood of this behaviour is estimated to be low to moderate.
Queensland Government (2009) Climate Smart Living – Computers / Printers, Available at:
http://www.climatesmart.qld.gov.au/your_home/studyoffice/computer_printer, accessed 04 June 2009.
302
DEWHA (2008) Energy Use in the Australian residential sector 1986 – 2020, Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage
and the Arts, Australian Government. Available at:
http://www.environment.gov.au/settlements/energyefficiency/buildings/publications/energyuse.html
303
DEWHA (2008) Energy Use in the Australian residential sector 1986 – 2020, Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage
and the Arts, Australian Government. Available at:
http://www.environment.gov.au/settlements/energyefficiency/buildings/publications/energyuse.html
301
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97. Purchasing an LCD monitor rather than a conventional monitor [0.10:4.5]
Impacts
[0.10]
It is estimated that on average, a 17 inch CRT monitor uses 90 watts when in operation mode,
and 10 watts in low power mode. A LCD screen of the same size uses 35 watts in active mode,
and between 0 and 15 watts in lower power mode.304 Assuming the computer is in active use for
6 hours a day, and low power for 4, then this behaviour could save approximately 131kWh each
year, or 2.1 percent of the average annual electricity consumption of a Townsville household.
This behaviour has been calculated to have an impact of 0.10.
Likelihood
[4.5]
This behaviour is a one off purchasing decision, however may be influenced by how a computer
is sold as a package. A brief review of many articles on the internet suggests that LCD monitors
are rapidly becoming the norm, and most new computers are sold with one. They are said to
have benefits in terms of taking up less space, and producing better colour quality. The price for
LCD monitors is decreasing rapidly.305 Based on this information, this behaviour is considered to
be highly likely.
304
Bray, M. (2006) Review of Computer Energy Consumption and Potential Savings, Dragon Systems Software Limited, UK.
Available at: http://www.dssw.co.uk/research/computer_energy_consumption.html, accessed 04 June 2009.
305
Choice (b) (2005) Buying Guide – Computer Monitors, Choice Magazine, Australia. Available at:
http://www.choice.com.au/viewArticle.aspx?id=103224&catId=100533&tid=100008&p=1&title=Buying+guide%3a+Computer+monitor
s, accessed 24 October 2008
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2.4
Reducing Electricity Consumption – Laundry Appliances and Bathroom
(Clothes 2%)
98. Waiting for full loads of washing (to reduce both electricity and water usage) [0.12:3]
Impact
[0.12]
This behaviour will reduce electricity consumption in the household proportional to the reduced
number of loads of washing which are performed. This will be less if the half loads were washed
on half load settings, (however these reduce primarily water consumption).
The extent of the impact of this behaviour will be largely determined by whether the washing
cycles use hot or cold water, and whether a half load setting is selected. It has not been possible
at this stage to determine the electricity consumption of washing machines on various settings
(such as half load, compared with full load). However, to provide some context to the potential
impact of this behaviour, the energy consumption of several currently available washing
machines will be provided. Please note that these figures are for currently available washing
machines. Whilst Minimum Energy Performance Standards (MEPS) do not apply to washing
machines, they are required to show both their energy consumption (since 1990) and the water
consumption (since 2006)306 and this has resulted in energy efficiencies in current models such
that those in use in households may use more energy than quoted here.
The only five star rated washing machine available in Australia uses 152kWh per 365 warm
water washes, whereas the least efficient (1 star, by Mistral) uses 1095kWh (based on 365
warm water washes a year).307
The average household in Australia performs 7 loads of washing per week,308 hence if it were
assumed that this behaviour reduced this to 6 washes, it would save between 22kWh and
156kWh, assuming the washes use warm water. This is equivalent to between 0.4 and 2.5
percent of the average annual electricity demand of a Townsville, hence the impact of this
behaviour has been calculated as 0.12.
Likelihood
[3]
This is a repetitive action which depends on household size and activity type (how often the
clothes are needed). More frequent loads may be done where the same outfit(s) are required
frequently, preventing the household from waiting for a larger load before using the machine. It
may also be affected by routine, and a desire to separate load ‘types’ (i.e., towels, colours,
whites, very dirty clothes, baby nappies, linen). This will reduce the number of items which can
go into any one load. In households in which each individual washes their clothes
independently, the potential load size may also be smaller. This behaviour may also reduce the
workload of households, however. The likelihood of this behaviour is estimated to be moderate.
306
Wilkenfeld, G. and associates (2007) Minimum Water and Energy Standards for Clothes Washers in Australia, prepared for the
Department of Environment and Water Resources, Australia. Available at: http://www.energyrating.com.au/pubs/2007-whitegoodsmeps-cw.pdf, accessed 18 December 2008.
307
DEWHA (nd) Search and compare appliances, Energy Rating, Department of Water, Heritage and the Arts, Australian
Government. Available at: http://www.energyrating.gov.au/appsearch/default.asp, accessed 17 November 2008.
308
DEWHA (l), 2008, Tips for choosing an efficient clothes washer, Department of the Environment, Heritage and the Arts, Australian
Government. Available at: http://www.energyrating.gov.au/cwl.html, accessed 18 December 2008.
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99. Washing linen and clothes less frequently (if overwashing) [0.12:1]
Impact
[0.12]
This behaviour will reduce the electricity consumption of a household relative to the amount by
which it reduces the number of loads of washing which are performed. This behaviour will save
more electricity if loads of washing use hot water where the hot water is heated using an electric
hot water system, or where the water is heated inside the washing machine.
This behaviour has an inherent assumption that linen and clothes are currently being washed
more often than is necessary and that there is potential to reduce the frequency. The impact
depends on type of machine, type of hot water heater, settings on washing machine (hot or cold,
water level, economy settings, spin dry et cetera) and the current frequency of washing.
To provide some context for the potential electricity savings that this behaviour could achieve,
the following information is noted. The only five star rated washing machine available in
Australia uses 152kWh per 365 warm water washes, whereas the least efficient (1 star, by
Mistral) uses 1095kWh (based on 365 warm water washes a year). 309
The average household in Australia performs 7 loads of washing per week,310 hence if it were
assumed that this behaviour reduced this to 6 washes, it would save between 22kWh and
156kWh, assuming the washes use warm water. This is equivalent to between 0.4 and 2.5
percent of the average annual electricity demand of a Townsville, hence the impact of this
behaviour has been calculated as 0.12.
Likelihood
[1]
This behaviour is a repetitive action, which may require households to change their perceptions
over hygiene and the frequency of clothes and linen washing which is necessary.
The hot Townsville environment may lead to sweatier clothes and sheets, more frequent
showers and towel usage and so on. The hot weather will also allow clothes and linen to dry
more quickly (if put on the clothes line) and this may serve as an incentive, or at least remove a
potential disincentive, to wash clothes and linen.
This behaviour may also be influenced by a household’s working hours, or other schedules as
the timing of washing (for instance, weekly washes) may be chosen so that it can be done on
convenient days of the week, for instance on weekends.
The likelihood of this behaviour is estimated to be low.
309
DEWHA (nd) Search and compare appliances, Energy Rating, Department of Water, Heritage and the Arts, Australian
Government. Available at: http://www.energyrating.gov.au/appsearch/default.asp, accessed 17 November 2008.
310
DEWHA (2008), Tips for choosing an efficient clothes washer, Department of the Environment, Heritage and the Arts, Australian
Government. Available at: http://www.energyrating.gov.au/cwl.html, accessed 18 December 2008.
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100.
Purchasing a water efficient washing machine [0.25:4]
Impact [0.25]
This behaviour will save electricity relative to the amount by which it reduces the amount of hot
water used by a washing machine. It will only save electricity when the hot water is heated using
an electric hot water system (as noted in previous behaviours, over ninety percent of
households in Townsville use and electric storage hot water system311 and of the remainder,
some may use either an electrically booster solar hot water system, or an electric heat pump), or
where the washing machine heats the water internally.
It is estimated that a water efficient washing machine may use only a third of the water that a
less efficient machine would.312 The only five star rated washing machine available in Australia
uses 152kWh per 365 warm water washes, whereas the least efficient (1 star, by Mistral) uses
1095kWh (based on 365 warm water washes a year). 313 Given that a washing machine uses
around ninety percent of the quoted energy for water heating,314 it could be inferred that by
reducing the water consumption by two thirds, this would save around 60 percent of the
electricity consumption of the washing machine. Given the context provided above for the
amount of energy washing machines may use, this could save between 92kWh and 657kWh per
year, based on 365 warm water washes per year (please note that the DEWHA Energy Rating
website does not provide an indication of the water consumption or efficiency of the machines,
and hence the values quoted may already be for a water efficient machine). Based on this
information, this behaviour could save between 1.5 and 10.5 percent of an average household’s
yearly electricity consumption, hence the impact of this behaviour has been rated as 0.25 (an
average value of 5 percent has been taken to represent the uncertainty of these figures, and the
large variation in potential electricity savings).
The expert panel commented on the advent of ‘smart’ washing machines, which are able to
automatically adjust the water level depending on the size of the load put in the machine. One
reviewer noted, however, that such machines can use more on standby (the length of time is
unspecified) than to do a whole load of washing, suggesting that any advertised energy savings
may be consumed by the provision of additional features and displays.
Likelihood
[4]
An Australian Bureau of Statistics study found that the water efficiency rating of a washing
machine was the most important factor when buying a washing machine, more important than
price or energy efficiency.315 A Clive Peters sales executive stated that the purchase of front
loading washing machines, which tend to be more water efficient, had increased exponentially in
the previous twelve months despite their extra costs, which he estimates would be recouped but
311
TCC (2008) Hot Water Heating, Sustainable Housing for the Tropics, Townsville City Council. Available at:
http://www.townsville.qld.gov.au/resources/1987.pdf, accessed 18 June 2009.
312
Australian Government (2008) Water Efficiency Labelling and Standards (WELS) Scheme, Australia. Available at:
http://www.waterrating.gov.au/, accessed 18 December 2008.
313
DEWHA (nd) Search and compare appliances, Energy Rating, Department of Water, Heritage and the Arts, Australian
Government. Available at: http://www.energyrating.gov.au/appsearch/default.asp, accessed 17 November 2008.
314
Queensland Government (d), (2008) Washing Machines, Climate Smart Living, Queensland. Available at:
http://www.climatesmart.qld.gov.au/your_home/laundry/washing_machines, accessed 16 December 2008.
315
ABS (2008) Environmental Issues – Energy Use and Conservation, Australian Bureau of Statistics, Australian Government.
Available at:
http://abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/39433889d406eeb9ca2570610019e9a5/E95A38518401BD24CA25750E00108119?opendocum
ent, accessed 02 December 2008.
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would not provide additional savings.316 For instance, a typical front loading machine would cost
$1000 to purchase and $35 a year to run, whilst a middle of the range top loading machine has
a purchase cost of around $850, and yearly running costs of $56. This would provide a yearly
saving of $21, with the upfront price difference being $150.317
Based on this information, it is estimated that the likelihood of this behaviour would be moderate
to high.
316
Personal communications, November 2008.
Simos, V. (2008) ‘New Washing Machines are Loads Greener’, The Sydney Morning Herald, December 01. Available at:
http://www.news.com.au/heraldsun/story/0,21985,24730983-661,00.html, accessed 02 December 2008.
317
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101.
Choosing a clothes dryer with a dryness sensor [0.02:3]
Impact
[0.02]
This behaviour will reduce electricity consumption through only operating the clothes dryer for as
long as is necessary to ‘just’ dry the clothes. It assumes that it is difficult for an individual to
guess themselves how long it will take the clothes to dry, and that they may set the dryer to run
for longer than is necessary. Dryness sensors may be used in conjunction with ‘cool down’
cycles, in which the residual heat from the heated cycle is used, and the last part of the drying
cycle is run with increasingly cooler air.
The impact of this behaviour will really depend on the amount of time for which a household was
overestimating the drying time, and also the amount which the dryer is actually used.
Additionally, around 55 percent of Australian households have a clothes dryer, and this
behaviour will only be relevant to those households.318 One site estimated that, on average, this
behaviour will save around 15 percent of the costs of operating the clothes dryer, 319 which it is
assumed can be translated into energy consumption. Hence, as an average clothes dryer, used
52 times a year, consumes 210kWh of electricity per annum,320 this behaviour may save
31.5kWh a year. This is equivalent to 0.5 percent of the yearly electricity usage of an average
Townsville household, hence the impact of this behaviour has been rated as 0.02.
Likelihood
[3]
So long as a clothes dryer has a dryness sensor, there would presumably be few disincentives
to using it. Of the clothes dryers listed on the Clive Peters website, only one was advertised as
having ‘autosensing’ capability (this may be due to limited information being provided),321 an
internet search revealed many such models. The likelihood of this behaviour is hence estimated
to be moderate.
A US based reviewer on the expert panel noted that most dryers sold in the United States have
this feature.
318
Queensland Government (b) (2008) Clothes drying, Climate Smart Living, Queensland. Available at:
http://www.climatesmart.qld.gov.au/your_home/laundry/clothes_drying, accessed 08 December 2008.
319
Allen, T. (2006) ‘Clothes Dryers: Things you should know’, Ezine articles, Available at: http://ezinearticles.com/?Clothes-Dryers--Things-You-Should-Know&id=371690, accessed 08 December 2008.
320
Qld EPA (2008) Achieving early and affordable greenhouse gas reductions in Queensland - Strategies for voluntary household
and lifestyle changes, Environmental Protection Agency, Queensland Government. Available at:
http://www.climatechange.qld.gov.au/downloads/downloads/working_paper_1.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008
321
Clive Peters (2008) Product search, Australia. Available at: http://www.clivepeeters.com.au/modules/products/search, accessed
17 November 2008.
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102.
Spin drying clothes before putting them in a clothes dryer [0.10:4]
Impact
[0.10]
This behaviour will save electricity by reducing the length of time for which a load of washing will
need to be in the clothes dryer for. Mechanical spinning is able to remove a significant amount
of water from the washing, and uses less energy to do so than clothes dryers, which work
through heating and evaporation. A dedicated centrifugal dryer (Spin-X) is quoted as using 25
watt hours for a three minute spin, which then decreases drying time to 30 or 40 percent of what
it would have been without the spin (Please note that this is based on anecdotal evidence of
several bloggers, and refers to separate centrifugal dryers rather than the spin cycle which may
be inbuilt into either a washing machine or a clothes dryer. It is given to provide some indication
of the potential for this behaviour only).322
An average clothes dryer, used 52 times a year, consumes 210kWh of electricity per annum, 323
hence based on the aforementioned anecdotal evidence, this behaviour may save between
126kWh and 147kWh, based on 52 loads a year. This will reduce an average Townsville
household’s yearly electricity usage by approximately 2 percent, hence the impact of this
behaviour is calculated to be 0.10.
Around 55 percent of Australian households have a clothes dryer, and this behaviour will only be
relevant to those households.324
Likelihood
[4]
Most washing machines now come with a spin cycle, which is an integrated part of the
programmed washing cycles. When they don’t, it is possible to purchase centrifugal dryers (as
mentioned above) which can mechanically extract water before the use of a thermal clothes
dryer.
This behaviour may be influenced by the fact that the spin cycle is a default setting on many
machines, and may make this behaviour redundant. Clothes which have not been spun are also
heavier, and will take longer to dry in a clothes dryer (compared with the time taken to spin dry
and then thermally dry them in a clothes dryer). 325
Based on this information, it is predicted that this behaviour would have a high likelihood.
322
MetaEfficient Reviews (2005) Centrifugal Clothes Dryer: Spin-X. Available at: http://www.metaefficient.com/category/dryers,
accessed 08 December 2008.
323
Qld EPA (2008) Achieving early and affordable greenhouse gas reductions in Queensland - Strategies for voluntary household
and lifestyle changes, Environmental Protection Agency, Queensland Government. Available at:
http://www.climatechange.qld.gov.au/downloads/downloads/working_paper_1.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008
324
Queensland Government (b) (2008) Clothes drying, Climate Smart Living, Queensland. Available at:
http://www.climatesmart.qld.gov.au/your_home/laundry/clothes_drying, accessed 08 December 2008.
325
MetaEfficient Reviews (2005) Centrifugal Clothes Dryer: Spin-X. Available at: http://www.metaefficient.com/category/dryers,
accessed 08 December 2008.
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Townsville CitySolar Community Capacity Building Program
Identification and Assessment of Homeowner Behaviours Related to Reducing Residential Energy Demand
103.
Drying clothes partially on the clothes line before putting them in the dryer [0.08:2]
Impact
[0.08]
This behaviour will save electricity by reducing the length of time for which a load of washing will
need to be in the clothes dryer for. An average clothes dryer, used 52 times a year, consumes
210kWh of electricity per annum.326 This behaviour will save a portion of this electricity. For
instance, assuming that half the water which remains in the clothes following washing them is
removed from hanging them on the line, then this will halve the amount of time for which they
will need to be in the clothes dryer. Based on the assumption of 52 load of drying a year, this
behaviour would save 105kWh a year (it is assumed that a clothes dryer isn’t used every time a
load of washing is done). This would reduce the average Townsville household’s yearly
electricity usage by 1.7 percent, hence the impact of this behaviour has been calculated as 0.08.
Likelihood
[2]
This behaviour may be influenced by the time taken to hang the clothes on the line before
putting them in the clothes dryer. It may be undertaken out of a desire to extend the life of
clothes by reducing their exposure to the heated environment of the clothes dryer. In the
Townsville environment, which has intermittent monsoonal weather throughout the summer
months,327 this behaviour may be undertaken as a compromise, in which the natural drying
processes are partially utilised, however there is a reduced chance that the clothes will get wet
again with the rain. The likelihood of this behaviour is considered to be low to moderate.
326
Qld EPA (2008) Achieving early and affordable greenhouse gas reductions in Queensland - Strategies for voluntary household
and lifestyle changes, Environmental Protection Agency, Queensland Government. Available at:
http://www.climatechange.qld.gov.au/downloads/downloads/working_paper_1.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008
327
BOM (2007) Climate Statistics for Australian Locations, Bureau of Meteorology, Australia. Available at:
http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_032040.shtml, accessed 08 December 2008.
Page 132 of 316
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Townsville CitySolar Community Capacity Building Program
Identification and Assessment of Homeowner Behaviours Related to Reducing Residential Energy Demand
104.
If using the clothes dryer, drying several loads consecutively to use the residual
heat in the machine [0:1]
Impact
[0]
This behaviour will save electricity by capturing the heat which remains in the clothes dryer
following each load. It assumes that the household has several loads of washing which need to
be dried, which may not always be the case. In the Townsville climate, which is relatively hot
(although characterised by intermittent monsoonal weather during the summer months),328 this
behaviour may be less relevant. The warm weather would presumably make clothes drying on
either an inside or outside line feasible (particularly when undercover), with clothes dryers used
only when an item is needed rapidly.
Nonetheless, it may be possible to estimate the impact of this behaviour. An average clothes
dryer, used 52 times a year, consumes 210kWh of electricity per annum.329 As an estimate, this
behaviour may save around two percent of this electricity through reducing the time taken to
heat up the parts within the clothes dryer (it is assumed that most of the residual heat will
escape as heat trapped within the clothes from the previous load, or as air which will be largely
released when the door is opened), hence if rather than using the clothes dryer once a week,
every week, it was used twice a week, once a fortnight, this behaviour would save 2.1kWh a
year (in that two percent of the energy needed for each second load is saved). This is equivalent
to 0.03 percent of the average annual electricity consumption of a Townsville household, hence
the impact of this behaviour has been approximated as zero to reflect this relatively very small
amount of energy this behaviour saves.
Likelihood
[1]
It is assumed that in the Townsville environment, clothes dryers would not be used as the
principle mechanism for drying clothes and would rather be used only on rainy days, or where a
particular clothing item was needed quickly and there was not time to wait for it to sun-dry.
Given this, this behaviour may be unlikely as there may not actually be a second load of
washing to put into the clothes drying following the first. 55 percent of Australian households
have clothes dryers,330 and this behaviour will only be relevant to those households. The
likelihood of this behaviour is assumed to be low.
328
BOM (2007) Climate Statistics for Australian Locations, Bureau of Meteorology, Australia. Available at:
http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_032040.shtml, accessed 08 December 2008.
329
Qld EPA (2008) Achieving early and affordable greenhouse gas reductions in Queensland - Strategies for voluntary household
and lifestyle changes, Environmental Protection Agency, Queensland Government. Available at:
http://www.climatechange.qld.gov.au/downloads/downloads/working_paper_1.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008
330
Queensland Government (2008) Clothes drying, Climate Smart Living, Queensland. Available at:
http://www.climatesmart.qld.gov.au/your_home/laundry/clothes_drying, accessed 08 December 2008.
Page 133 of 316
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Townsville CitySolar Community Capacity Building Program
Identification and Assessment of Homeowner Behaviours Related to Reducing Residential Energy Demand
105.
Cleaning the filters on clothes dryers regularly [0.01:4]
Impact
[0.01]
This behaviour will affect the electricity consumption of a clothes dryer by assisting it to run as
efficiently as possible. Lint which is trapped on the filter impedes the movement of the heated air
through the clothes, reducing its efficiency. This may increase the electricity consumption of the
dryer, or necessitate a longer drying period.
Given Townsville’s tropical climate,331 it is assumed that clothes dryers will not be used as a
principle means of drying clothes. Moreover, only fifty five percent of Australian households own
a clothes dryer332 and this behaviour will only be relevant to those households.
A dirty lint filter can increase the electricity consumption by up to thirty percent.333 An average
clothes dryer, used 52 times a year, consumes 210kWh of electricity per annum.334 This
behaviour would hence save around 6.3kWh per annum. This is equivalent to 0.1 percent of the
average yearly energy usage in Townsville, and the impact of this behaviour is hence calculated
at 0.005 and rounded up to 0.01.
Likelihood
[4]
This is a repetitive behaviour, some sites recommend cleaning this after every load. 335 Lint filters
which have not been cleaned can also present a fire hazard, and this may be an added
incentive to perform this behaviour. Some households may also be encouraged to clean their lint
filters out of a perception of cleanliness and hygiene. The likelihood of this behaviour is
estimated to be moderately high.
331
BOM (2007) Climate Statistics for Australian Locations, Bureau of Meteorology, Australia. Available at:
http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_032040.shtml, accessed 08 December 2008.
332
Queensland Government (2008) Clothes drying, Climate Smart Living, Queensland. Available at:
http://www.climatesmart.qld.gov.au/your_home/laundry/clothes_drying, accessed 08 December 2008.
333
Californian Energy Commission (2008) Clothes Dryers, Consumer Energy Center, USA. Available at:
http://www.consumerenergycenter.org/home/appliances/dryers.html, accessed 05 December 2008.
334
Qld EPA (2008) Achieving early and affordable greenhouse gas reductions in Queensland - Strategies for voluntary household
and lifestyle changes, Environmental Protection Agency, Queensland Government. Available at:
http://www.climatechange.qld.gov.au/downloads/downloads/working_paper_1.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008
335
Californian Energy Commission (2008) Clothes Dryers, Consumer Energy Center, USA. Available at:
http://www.consumerenergycenter.org/home/appliances/dryers.html, accessed 05 December 2008.
Page 134 of 316
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Townsville CitySolar Community Capacity Building Program
Identification and Assessment of Homeowner Behaviours Related to Reducing Residential Energy Demand
106.
Using standard toothbrushes rather than electric ones [0.01:2]
Impact
[0.01]
It is estimated that an electric toothbrush uses 1.6 watts on standby,336 and an unspecified
amount (however presumably more than on standby) when in actual use. As the operational
time would be limited, it will be assumed that the standby electricity usage can give an
approximate value for the yearly electricity consumption of this appliance. Over 365 days, an
electric toothbrush which is permanently plugged in would consume 14kWh. This behaviour
relates to the 16.6 percent of Australian individuals are estimated to have an electric toothbrush,
and would save them 0.2 percent of their yearly household electricity consumption based on the
Townsville average. The impact of this behaviour is calculated to be 0.01.
Likelihood
[2]
Individuals may chose to use an electric toothbrush when they feel it is more effective than a
manual toothbrush. Evidence seems ambivalent over whether this is in fact true, with rotational,
oscillation electric brushes able to remove more plaque and gingivitis in the short and long term,
however other types being no more effective than manual brushing.337 The issue of likelihood,
however, relates more closely to whether individuals are aware of this research, and potentially
whether their dentist is also aware of this, and what recommendations may be made by the
dentist (as presumably the principle authority for most individuals on teeth and gum hygiene).
This behaviour may also be influenced by the upfront cost of purchasing an electric toothbrush,
and the ongoing costs of replacement brush heads, relative to a manual toothbrush. Choice
found that the cost of electric toothbrushes upfront ranged from AUD$20 to AUD$119.95, some
of which were rechargeable and other which required regular batteries. The cost of replacement
brush heads was not given.338
The likelihood of this behaviour is assumed to be strongly governed by personal preferences
and given the low energy consumption of this appliance, the likelihood of this behaviour is
assumed to be relatively low.
336
NAEEEC (2001) Residential Standby Power Consumption in Australia, Prepared for the National Appliance and Equipment
Energy Efficiency Program, Australia. Available at: http://energyrating.gov.au/library/pubs/standby-2001.pdf, accessed 08 December
2008.
337
http://mrw.interscience.wiley.com/cochrane/clsysrev/articles/CD002281/frame.htmlRobinson PG, Deacon SA, Deery C, Heanue
M, Walmsley AD, Worthington HV, Glenny AM, and Shaw WC. (2007) ‘Manual versus powered toothbrushing for oral health’,
Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, Issue 4, and Deery C, Heanue M, Deacon S, Robinson PG, Walmsley AD, Worthington
H, Shaw W, Glenny AM. (2004) ‘The effectiveness of manual versus powered toothbrushes for dental health: a systematic review’.
Journal of Dentistry. Volume 32, Issue 3, March, Pages 197-211
338
Choice (2004) Test: Electric Toothbrushes, Choice Magazine, Australia. Available at:
http://www.choice.com.au/viewArticleAsOnePage.aspx?id=104438, accessed 08 December 2008.
Page 135 of 316
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Townsville CitySolar Community Capacity Building Program
Identification and Assessment of Homeowner Behaviours Related to Reducing Residential Energy Demand
107.
Using regular razors rather than electric shavers [0:1]
Impact
[0]
Electric shavers use, on average, 5.8 watts when in operation and 0.6 watts on standby. In
Australia, 34.2 percent of the population have these already. 339 Assuming that these would be
used for 10 minutes a day, and remaining plugged in (on standby) for the rest of the time, this
would result in approximately 5.6kWh a year. As a portion of the average yearly electricity
consumption of households in Townsville, this represents 0.09 percent. The impact of this
behaviour is consequently calculated as 0.004 and has been rounded down to zero.
The expert review panel commented that the life cycle energy costs of using disposable razors
may outweigh any savings made in the home, which should be considered if recommending this
behaviour.
Likelihood
[1]
The use of electric shavers over regular razors may be determined by the time it takes to shave
using each of the two methods, and the quality of the shave which is achieved using them. The
likelihood of this behaviour is estimated to be governed by personal preferences rather than
energy efficiency, hence has been rated as low.
339
NAEEEC (2001) Residential Standby Power Consumption in Australia, Prepared for the National Appliance and Equipment
Energy Efficiency Program, Australia. Available at: http://energyrating.gov.au/library/pubs/standby-2001.pdf, accessed 08 December
2008.
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Townsville CitySolar Community Capacity Building Program
Identification and Assessment of Homeowner Behaviours Related to Reducing Residential Energy Demand
108.
Drying hair naturally rather than with a hairdryer [0.04:1]
Impact
[0.04]
The US Department of Energy estimates that a hairdryer will use between 1,200 and 1,875
watts,340 which will presumably vary depending on make, model and the settings used.
Assuming that an individual will use a hairdryer three times a week, and that it will take ten
minutes each time, over a year this behaviour would save between 31kWh and 49kWh. This
electricity consumption accounts for between 0.5 and 0.8 percent of the average household in
Townsville’s yearly usage, and thus the impact is calculated as 0.04.
Likelihood
[1]
The use of a hairdryer may be governed by several factors, including the time which an
individual has to dry their hair, the style of their haircut (some hairstyles may require a hairdryer
to achieve the desired effect), the ambient temperature and whether it is comfortable to have
wet hair (in winter, wet hair may be a concern for some individuals who feel that a cold head
may lead them getting sick) as well as habit. Hair dryers can damage hair, through repetitive
application of heat, and this may be an incentive to avoid the use of a hair dryer. The likelihood
of this behaviour, as with many of those concerning personal hygiene, is assumed to be
governed more heavily by factors other than energy efficiency and the likelihood of residents
undertaking this behaviour is estimated as being low.
340
EERE (2005) Estimating Appliance and Home Electronic Energy Use, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, US Department
of Energy, USA. Available at: http://apps1.eere.energy.gov/consumer/your_home/appliances/index.cfm/mytopic=10040, accessed
08 December 2008.
Page 137 of 316
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Townsville CitySolar Community Capacity Building Program
Identification and Assessment of Homeowner Behaviours Related to Reducing Residential Energy Demand
109.
Avoiding using a heated towel rail to dry towels [0.20:4]
Impact
[0.20]
Heated towel rails come with a variety of electricity consumptions, from around 80 watts (a
Kambrook KTR10 (Kambrook, 2008)) to 985 watts (note: output wattage only given,
(Hydrowarm, 2008)) (others may exist outside of this range, this is intended to give an indication
only). Due to Townsville’s tropical climate, it is assumed that if used, these would only be used
for the four coldest months of the year, and then for only a few hours a day. Yearly, this
behaviour would hence save between 28.8kWh and 364.6kWh. This range would represent
between 0.5 and 5.9 percent of the average yearly usage in Townsville households, hence the
impact of this behaviour is calculated as lying between 0.03 and 0.29. It has been stated as 0.05
to take into account that it is unlikely that many households in Townsville use a heated towel rail,
given relatively warm climate all year-round.341
The expert panel provided ratings for this behaviour which suggested that the impact would be
higher than calculated here, hence it has been adjusted upwards to 0.20.
Likelihood
[4]
The use of heated towel rails is likely be influenced by factors such as a desire to have a warm
towel following a bath or a shower, and to assist in drying used towels (this may be relevant
where a bathroom has little ventilation to assist in removing moisture). The warm temperatures
in Townsville would be expected to assist in drying towels relatively quickly, and would reduce
the desire for warm towels. Whilst no statistics have been found, it is likely that there are few
houses in Townsville with an installed heated towel rail. The likelihood of this behaviour is
assumed to be moderate to high.
341
BOM (2007) Climate Statistics for Australian Locations, Bureau of Meteorology, Australia. Available at:
http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_032040.shtml, accessed 08 December 2008.
Page 138 of 316
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Townsville CitySolar Community Capacity Building Program
Identification and Assessment of Homeowner Behaviours Related to Reducing Residential Energy Demand
110.
Using iron on dry setting when possible [0.01:2]
Impact
[0.01]
The steam setting on irons use more energy than the dry settings. Irons can use up to 1,000
watts.342 The additional energy used by the steam setting is presumably to heat and then
evaporate the water which is put inside the iron. Assuming that two hours worth of ironing are
done a week, and that this requires around 500mL of water, the additional electricity used to
provide the steam setting can be calculated. The specific heat capacity of water is 4.18 kJ/kg.K,
and the latent heat capacity is 2,270kJ/kg. Assuming that the 500mL of water is initially 20 oC,
the energy required to raise the temperature to boiling point, and then evaporate it is 167.2kJ (to
raise the temperature) plus 1,135kJ (to evaporate the water), or 1302.2kJ overall (0.36kWh).
Over a year, this will save 18.7kWh (assuming the ironing is done once a week, for two hours
each time, for 52 weeks). This would account for 0.3 percent of the yearly electricity
consumption of an average Townsville household, hence the impact of this behaviour has been
calculated to be 0.01.
It may be useful to note that these calculations might exaggerate the impact of this behaviour,
as instead of using the steam setting on the iron, households may spray water directly onto their
clothes, and the energy from the iron would in this case be needed to also evaporate this water,
potentially using the same or possibly even more energy that this behaviour would seem to
save.
Likelihood
[2]
The steam settings on irons are used to help remove the creases in clothes, which occurs by
partially wetting the fabric and allowing the fibres to redry rapidly in a smooth line. The same can
be achieved by spraying a film of water onto the clothes, however it is assumed that this will not
save any energy, as the water on the clothes will also need to be heated, and evaporated, so
that the garment is dry again. This behaviour implies that the creases will need to be removed
by the action of the hot iron itself. This behaviour may be more likely through the addition of
other behaviours, such as hanging clothes in such a fashion that deep set creases do not occur
following washing, or purchasing garments which do not require heavy ironing. The likelihood of
this behaviour is estimated to be relatively low.
Andrejč, G. (2008) Saving energy with (or without) ironing, Eco-friendly lifestyle. Available at: http://eco-friendlylifestyle.blogspot.com/2008/09/ironing-saving-energy-with-or-without.html, accessed 05 December 2008.
342
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Townsville CitySolar Community Capacity Building Program
Identification and Assessment of Homeowner Behaviours Related to Reducing Residential Energy Demand
111.
Ironing in larger batches to reduce heating up periods [0.01:1]
Impact
[0.01]
Irons can use up to 1,000 watts. 343 From experience, an iron will take around two minutes to heat
up. Hence, assuming that this behaviour may reduce the frequency of ironing from five times a
week (assuming that an individual will iron an outfit before work each day, and that the individual
will work five days a week) to once a week, when the week’s worth of garments are ironed
consecutively. This will hence save eight minutes of warming up time, will equates to 0.13kWh a
week, or 6.93kWh a year. As a percentage of the average yearly electricity consumption of
households in Townsville, this behaviour would save 0.1 percent, hence the impact has been
calculated as 0.0055, rounded up to 0.01.
Likelihood
[1]
This behaviour is likely to be governed by other factors, such as whether the individual in
question can allocate a larger amount of time in their week to ironing in one large batch, whether
the individual is organised enough to know what they would like to wear for the week ahead (or
whether they will iron clothes before putting them into the cupboard, after they have been
washed), whether the house has somewhere that clothes which have been ironed in advance
can be stored so that they do not crease again, the mode of transport and daily routine (for
instance, if the individual cycles to work, it makes no sense to iron clothes in advance which will
then become creased in transit) and whether it is preferable to the individual to doing ironing in
one large batch rather than shorter hits throughout the week. The likelihood is rated as low,
given these considerations.
Andrejč, G. (2008) Saving energy with (or without) ironing, Eco-friendly lifestyle. Available at: http://eco-friendlylifestyle.blogspot.com/2008/09/ironing-saving-energy-with-or-without.html, accessed 05 December 2008.
343
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Townsville CitySolar Community Capacity Building Program
Identification and Assessment of Homeowner Behaviours Related to Reducing Residential Energy Demand
112.
Ironing delicate garments first while iron is heating up [0.01:3]
Impact
[0.01]
Irons can use up to 1000 watts. 344 From experience, an iron will take around two minutes to heat
up. This behaviour assumes that the iron can be in use for this period, however it is also
assumed that there will be some time when the iron is still too cold to be used even on delicate
garments. It is estimated that on average, this behaviour will save eight minutes of warming up
time a week (assuming that ironing is done daily, for five days of the week), which will equates
to 0.13kWh a week, or 6.93kWh a year. This would reduce the average yearly electricity
consumption of a Townsville household by 0.1 percent, and this behaviour has been calculated
as having an impact of 0.056 percent, rounded to 0.01.
It is noted that this may be an over estimate, as when ironing delicate garments, the heat setting
on the iron will be lower than for other garments, hence there may be another period of time
when, having finished ironing delicate garments, the iron must be left to heat up again to a
higher setting. This calculation also assumes that there are delicate garments to be ironed every
time that ironing is done, which may be an overestimate.
Likelihood
[3]
There may be other factors which contribute to the likelihood of this behaviour, however it is
assumed that some common sense and a desire to save time will encourage households to
perform this behaviour. The time and electricity saved is not large, however the temperature of
the iron would be evident to the individual who is ironing and it would make sense to iron
garments which require a cooler setting first in this case. The likelihood of this behaviour is
estimated as being moderate.
Andrejč, G. (2008) Saving energy with (or without) ironing, Eco-friendly lifestyle. Available at: http://eco-friendlylifestyle.blogspot.com/2008/09/ironing-saving-energy-with-or-without.html, accessed 05 December 2008.
344
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Townsville CitySolar Community Capacity Building Program
Identification and Assessment of Homeowner Behaviours Related to Reducing Residential Energy Demand
113.
Not ironing clothes, or other items [0.10:1]
Impact
[0.10]
Irons can use up to 1000 watts.345 Hence for the two hours of ironing a week this will be 2kWh,
giving a total yearly electricity consumption of 110kWh.
Over a year, by not ironing any clothes, this behaviour will save 110kWh (assuming the ironing
is done once a week, for two hours each time, for 52 weeks). This would reduce the yearly
electricity consumption of an average Townsville household by close to 2 percent, hence the
impact of this behaviour has been calculated as 0.10.
Likelihood
[1]
It is possible to purchase clothing which have inbuilt ‘wrinkle-free’ characteristics. Since the early
1990s, chemical finishes for fabrics have been available which act as a catalyst to cross-link
polymer chains in cotton weavings which give the material some degree of elasticity and
resilience, which are the basis of the ‘wrinkle-free’ claims of many fabric manufacturers.346
Alternatively, by hanging clothes up carefully following washing, it may be possible to reduce the
amount of ironing necessary.
This behaviour is likely to be governed by a desire to save time, however also out of an
expectation to have unwrinkled clothing for work or in the community. It may be more likely that
households will refrain from ironing items such as sheets and underwear as there may be less
external expectation for these items, however given that ironing takes time it is likely that the
decision to iron such items has been made based on personal motives which may be difficult to
change.
The likelihood of this behaviour, given these considerations, is estimated as being low.
Andrejč, G. (2008) Saving energy with (or without) ironing, Eco-friendly lifestyle. Available at: http://eco-friendlylifestyle.blogspot.com/2008/09/ironing-saving-energy-with-or-without.html, accessed 05 December 2008.
346
Indiamart (2008) Wrinkle free finish on garments, Indian Apparel Portal, Intermesh Ltd. Available at:
http://apparel.indiamart.com/lib/manufacturing/wrinkle11021998.html, accessed 05 December 2008.
345
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Townsville CitySolar Community Capacity Building Program
Identification and Assessment of Homeowner Behaviours Related to Reducing Residential Energy Demand
114.
Emptying and replacing vacuum cleaner filter bags regularly for greater efficiency
[0.01:4]
Impact
[0.01]
There are two main types of upright vacuum cleaners, those which use vacuum cleaner filter
bags, and those which don’t (cyclonic and bag-less vacuum cleaners). In both systems, the
vacuum cleaner works on a principle of suction, in which air is sucked with force through the
vacuum cleaner, along with any debris, from the ‘foot’, and through the filtration core. Debris is
trapped within this filtration core, and the air passes through the other side. When the filtration
core is full of debris, it can come considerably harder for the air to pass though, and the motor
may have to work harder to provide the same amount of suction. If the amount of suction
provided decreases, then the vacuum cleaner may additionally be used for a longer period of
time to provide the same amount of cleaning.347
To provide an example, the Kleenmaid VC700 uses 175 watts to operate.348 It is assumed that a
household will vacuum their house once a week, and that this may take on average half an hour.
This will result in a yearly consumption of around 32kWh. No metrics have been found, however,
to suggest the degree to which this behaviour will effect this electricity consumption. It is
therefore assumed that a full filter bag might increase the energy consumption by twenty
percent, hence increasing the annual electricity consumption by 6.4kWh, of 0.1 percent of the
average annual electricity usage of a Townsville household. The impact of this behaviour has
been calculated to be 0.005, and rounded to 0.01.
Likelihood
[4]
A vacuum cleaner in which the filter bag is full will not clean properly, and this is often evident
when the cleaner is in use. It is assumed that households will want their time spent vacuuming
to be of maximum benefit, and will hence have a strong imperative to change the filter bag. The
point at which this is done may vary between households, as there may be a range of
acceptable efficiencies. Anecdotally (from experience), changing vacuum cleaner filter bags is
not complicated and is assumed to be within the capabilities of most households.
A disincentive to changing the filter bag may the price of buying replacements, which (from
Ebay349) sell for approximately AUD$12 to AUD$13 for a pack of five.
The likelihood of this behaviour is estimated to be moderately high, given these considerations.
347
Harris, L. (2007), Vacuum Cleaners, Article Dashboard, Available at: http://www.articledashboard.com/Article/Filter-Bag-VacuumCleaners--Bag-Less-Vacuum-Cleaners--HEPA-Vacuum-Cleaners---A-Vacuum-Cleaner-Guide/67751, accessed05 December 2008.
348
Kleenmaid (nd) VC700 flyer, Available at: http://www.kleenmaid.com/product-specifications#Vacuums, accessed 05 December
2005.
349
Ebay (undated) Online auctions, Australia. Available at: http://www.ebay.com.au/, accessed 17 November 2008.
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Identification and Assessment of Homeowner Behaviours Related to Reducing Residential Energy Demand
115.
Insulating the bathtub during construction [0.04:1]
Impact
[0.04]
The European Environment Agency estimates that a bathtub will hold between 150 and 200
litres of water.350 Assuming that most baths will use hot water also, this may require (as an
estimate) between 85 and 120 litres of hot water, with the remainder being cold water. An
uninsulated bathtub will lose more heat, and should an individual wish to remain in the bathtub
for a longer period of time, they will be required to continually add more hot water, thereby
increasing the electricity usage (assuming that the hot water service is an electrical system, as
are 90 percent of the systems in Townsville351 The Australian Conservation Foundation estimates
that heating 15 litres of hot water in an electric storage system is responsible for 1 kilogram of
greenhouse gas emissions,352 which would result in just over 1 kWh of electricity use.353 Thus,
heating the 85 to 120 litres of hot water for a bathtub would require between 5.6 and 8kWh of
electricity. Assuming that for a half an hour bath, an additional thirty litres of hot water (more
than what would have been added to an uninsulated bath) have been added, this will consume
an extra 2kWh of electricity.
Baths, and particularly hot baths, may be more likely in the wintertime. It is assumed that this is
not a daily activity, but may be undertaken once a week, during four months for which the
weather is cooler, resulting in 16 such baths. This behaviour would hence decrease the yearly
electricity consumption of a household by 48kWh. This behaviour could hence decrease the
yearly electricity consumption of a Townsville household by 0.77 percent, and the impact of this
behaviour has been calculated as 0.04.
Likelihood
[1]
Insulating the bathtub is an ‘out of sequence’ step in housing construction, as the bathtub area
must be insulated before the walls can be insulated.354 It will thus need to be considered and
planned for, as it may be outside of usual practices. Some research conducted on the internet
revealed little information about this behaviour. For the reason of its apparent obscurity, it is
presumed that it might not be standard practice.
The likelihood of this behaviour is hence considered to be relatively low.
The expert panel noted that in order for this behaviour to become more common practice, a
change in building codes is likely to be necessary.
European Environment Agency (2001) Indicator Fact Sheet Signals 2001 – Chapter Households. Available at:
http://themes.eea.europa.eu/Sectors_and_activities/households/indicators/energy/hh06households.pdf, accessed 17 November
2008.
351
TCC (2008) Hot Water Heating, Sustainable Housing for the Tropics, Townsville City Council. Available at:
http://www.townsville.qld.gov.au/resources/1987.pdf, accessed 18 June 2009.
352
ACF (2008) 4. Take a short, efficient shower, Australian Conservation Foundation, Australia. Available at:
http://www.acfonline.org.au/articles/news.asp?news_id=151&c=141244, accessed 14 November 2008.
353
Based on information supplied by SEDO in Western Australia: SEDO (b) (2008), Running Costs and Greenhouse Gas Emissions,
Sustainable Energy development Office, Government of Western Australia. Available at:
http://www.sedo.energy.wa.gov.au/pages/emissions.asp, accessed 27 October 2008
354
CERM (nd) Energy Efficiency Guidelines, Centre for Environmental Resource Management, Texas USA. Available at:
http://research.utep.edu/Default.aspx?tabid=23161, accessed 05 December 2008.
350
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116.
Insulating the bathtub as a retrofit [0.04:0.05]
Impact
[0.04]
The European Environment Agency estimates that a bathtub will hold between 150 and 200
litres of water.355 Assuming that most baths will use hot water also, this may require (as an
estimate, no references have been found) between 85 and 120 litres of hot water, with the
remainder being cold water. An uninsulated bathtub will lose more heat, and should an
individual wish to remain in the bathtub for a longer period of time, they will be required to
continually add more hot water, thereby increasing the electricity usage (assuming that the hot
water service is an electrical system, as are 90 percent of the systems in Townsville. 356 The
Australian Conservation Foundation estimates that heating 15 litres of hot water in an electric
storage system is responsible for 1 kilogram of greenhouse gas emissions,357 which would result
in just over 1 kWh of electricity use.358 Thus, heating the 85 to 120 litres of hot water for a bathtub
would require between 5.6 and 8kWh of electricity. Assuming that for a half an hour bath, an
additional thirty litres of hot water (more than what would have been added to an uninsulated
bath) have been added, this will consume an extra 2kWh of electricity.
Baths, and particularly hot baths, may be more likely in the wintertime. It is assumed that this is
not a daily activity, but may be undertaken once a week, during four months for which the
weather is cooler, resulting in 16 such baths. This behaviour would hence decrease the yearly
electricity consumption of a household by 48kWh. This behaviour could hence decrease the
yearly electricity consumption of a Townsville household by 0.77 percent, and the impact of this
behaviour has been calculated as 0.04.
Likelihood
[0.5]
One site notes that to insulate a bathtub properly, the tub will have to be removed and insulation
added. This is apparently a ‘very expensive’ exercise.359 The savings which will be made from
the aforementioned reduction in hot water usage would equate to $8.22 under Tariff 11 pricing,
$3.35 under Tariff 31 and $4.93 under Tariff 33 (from July 2009 prices,360). The likelihood of this
behaviour is considered to be very low.
European Environment Agency (2001) Indicator Fact Sheet Signals 2001 – Chapter Households. Available at:
http://themes.eea.europa.eu/Sectors_and_activities/households/indicators/energy/hh06households.pdf, accessed 17 November
2008.
356
European Environment Agency (2001) Indicator Fact Sheet Signals 2001 – Chapter Households. Available at:
http://themes.eea.europa.eu/Sectors_and_activities/households/indicators/energy/hh06households.pdf, accessed 17 November
2008.
357
ACF (2008) 4. Take a short, efficient shower, Australian Conservation Foundation, Australia. Available at:
http://www.acfonline.org.au/articles/news.asp?news_id=151&c=141244, accessed 14 November 2008.
358
Based on information supplied by SEDO in Western Australia: SEDO (b) (2008), Running Costs and Greenhouse Gas Emissions,
Sustainable Energy development Office, Government of Western Australia. Available at:
http://www.sedo.energy.wa.gov.au/pages/emissions.asp, accessed 27 October 2008
359
My Home Improvement (2008) Bathtub Insulation, Ask the Pros Inc., Milwaukee USA. Available at:
http://www.myhomeimprovement.com/?page=prev_ques&qid=8667&m=47, accessed 05 December 2008.
360
DME (2009) Retail electricity prices for non-market customers, Queensland Government Gazette, Department of Mines and
Energy. Vol. 351 No. 41. Available at: http://www.dme.qld.gov.au/zone_files/Electricity/09.06.09_-_%5B41%5D__extra_gazette.pdf,
accessed 18 June 2009.
355
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117.
Taking a shower rather than a bath [0.050:2]
Impact
[0.50]
A typical shower rose will use 25 litres a minutes, and a AAA rated shower head can reduce this
amount of water to around 9 litres.361 Even under the strictest water restrictions, shower lengths
are recommended to be around 4 minutes each,362 which would result in a minimum of 36 litres
of water (Townsville is only on level 2 restrictions as of December 2008, and it is likely that
shower lengths will be longer than this, however a four minute shower had been used in this
example). Of this, it is estimated that around 25 litres is hot water. The European Environment
Agency estimates that a bathtub will hold between 150 and 200 litres of water.363 Assuming that
most baths will use hot water also, this may require (as an estimate, no references have been
found) between 85 and 120 litres of hot water, with the remainder being cold water.
As a result, it is estimated that a shower will use between 20 and 30 percent of the hot water of
a bath. Assuming that an individual is more likely to take a bath in the wintertime, and that this
may be a behaviour which is undertaken once per week (16 such baths a year), the hot water
savings which will be derived from replacing this weekly bath with a shower will be between 960
and 1,520 litres. The Australian Conservation Foundation quotes figures which suggest that
heating 15 litres of hot water in an electric storage system is responsible for 1 kilogram of
greenhouse gas emissions,364 which according to SEDO in Western Australia, would result in just
over 1 kWh of electricity use.365 Thus, the savings made by this behaviour equate to 64 and
101kWh a year, or between 1 and 1.6 percent of the yearly electricity consumption of the
average Townsville household. Hence, the impact of this behaviour is estimated to be between
0.05 and 0.08, rounded to 0.07.
The expert review panel considered that this behaviour would have a larger impact than this
suggests, hence the estimate has been adjusted upwards.
Likelihood
[2]
There are other factors which may influence this behaviour, such as the psychological benefits
obtained from taking a bath,366 and water saving campaigns throughout Queensland. The
likelihood of this behaviour is estimated to be low to moderate.
The expert review panel noted that this behaviour is already taking place, and that it is of greater
importance to consider how long people are showering for. Furthermore, when advocating this
behaviour it needs to be considered what size bathtub is being filled, relative to the length of
shower taken and the flow through the showerhead.
361
Toowoomba City Council (nd), Saving Precious Water, Sustainable Housing Project, Australia. Available at:
http://www.toowoomba.qld.gov.au/index.php?option=com_docman&task=doc_view&gid=903&Itemid=107, accessed 05 December
2008.
362
QWC (2008) Turning on the savings with a four minute shower, Queensland Water Commission, Queensland Government.
Available at: http://www.qwc.qld.gov.au/4+minute+shower+timer, accessed 05 December 2008.
363
EEA (2008) Take a shower rather than a bath! European Environment Agency, European Union. Available at:
http://www.eea.europa.eu/green-tips/take-a-shower-rather-than-a-bath, accessed 05 December 2008.
364
ACF (2008) 4. Take a short, efficient shower, Australian Conservation Foundation, Australia. Available at:
http://www.acfonline.org.au/articles/news.asp?news_id=151&c=141244, accessed 14 November 2008.
365
SEDO (b) (2008), Running Costs and Greenhouse Gas Emissions, Sustainable Energy development Office, Government of
Western Australia. Available at: http://www.sedo.energy.wa.gov.au/pages/emissions.asp, accessed 27 October 2008
366
Saving Water Tips (nd) Saving Water Bath Vs Shower, Australia. Available at: http://www.savingwatertips.com.au/saving-waterbath-vs-shower/, accessed 05 December 2008.
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118.
“Bucket bathing” rather than showering [0.65:1]
Impact
[0.65]
Showers and baths use around half a household’s hot water, and the hot water service
(assuming it is electric as 90 percent of such residential systems are in Townsville 367) will be
responsible for approximately 28 percent of the household’s electricity consumption (this
assumes that the percentage of electricity consumption by various household uses can be
inferred from literature which notes the emissions for which each of these same uses is
responsible),368 which would suggest that showers and baths are responsible for 14 percent of
household electricity consumption.
A typical shower rose will use 25 litres a minutes, and a AAA rated shower head can reduce this
amount of water to around 9 litres.369 Even under the strictest water restrictions, shower lengths
are recommended to be around 4 minutes each,370 which would result in a minimum of 36 litres
of water (Townsville is only on level 2 restrictions as of December 2008, and it is likely that
shower lengths will be longer than this). A bucket may hold around three litres of water, a
reduction of around 92 percent. If showers and baths account for 14 percent of a household’s
electricity consumption, then this behaviour could save close to 13 percent of the yearly usage,
hence the impact of this behaviour is estimated at 0.65.
Additionally, if this behaviour is considered in context of hot water usage in the house in general,
bucket bathing may allow the hot water system to be switched off permanently, as water for
doing the dishes and bucket bathing can be heated in the kettle and so long as the washing
machine and dishwasher operate on cold water, it may be feasible to operate without the hot
water system. This could potentially save 28 percent of the household’s electricity.
Likelihood
[1]
Showers may typically not only be used for hygiene, but also for the psychological benefit
(waking up in the morning, cleansing the body at the end of the day, warming up during winter or
cooling down in summer).371 In Australia, using a shower is a culturally ingrained activity, which
can be evidenced by the fact that virtually all (if not all) houses and apartments are built with a
shower, or as a minimum, where a shower can be accessed (for example, in camping grounds
with permanent trailer sites, a shower facility is usually provided). Whilst water saving
campaigns may advance the likelihood of this behaviour, the level 2 restrictions in Townsville
may be unlikely to catalyse such a behaviour, and shorter showers may be a preferred
behaviour. The likelihood of this behaviour is considered to be low.
367
TCC (2008) Hot Water Heating, Sustainable Housing for the Tropics, Townsville City Council. Available at:
http://www.townsville.qld.gov.au/resources/1987.pdf, accessed 18 June 2009.
368
TRANSPAC CONSULTING PTY LTD (2006) A Review of Recent Research and Literature on Energy Usage and Energy
Efficiency Behaviour. Confidential unpublished report, Version 1.1, prepared for the Townsville City Council CitiSolar Program.
369
Toowoomba City Council (nd), Saving Precious Water, Sustainable Housing Project, Australia. Available at:
http://www.toowoomba.qld.gov.au/index.php?option=com_docman&task=doc_view&gid=903&Itemid=107, accessed 05 December
2008.
370
QWC (2008) Turning on the savings with a four minute shower, Queensland Water Commission, Queensland Government.
Available at: http://www.qwc.qld.gov.au/4+minute+shower+timer, accessed 05 December 2008
371
Saving Water Tips (nd) Saving Water Bath Vs Shower, Australia. Available at: http://www.savingwatertips.com.au/saving-waterbath-vs-shower/, accessed 05 December 2008.
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119.
Washing clothes by hand [0.08:1]
Impact
[0.08]
Between 70 and 90 percent of the total electricity used by washing machines is used to heat the
water for warm wash settings.372 Economy settings on washing machines can reduce the
average water consumption from 100 litres a wash, to 75 litres,373 and hence the total electricity
usage (assuming that the clothes are being washed in warm water and the water heater is an
electric one). Washing clothes by hand may use less water than this, however the amount would
be quite variable and would depend on the manner in which each individual hand washed
clothing. It is likely that this behaviour may not save a lot of water compared with currently
available, highly water efficient washing machines as even when washing by hand, the water
must be changed several times (to rinse out dirt and detergents), and assuming that a standard
laundry tub would hold around 20 litres of water, this may result in close to 60 litres of water.
This says nothing of the electricity consumed by washing machines, however, which will account
for the remaining 10 to 30 percent of the electricity used by washing machines.
Currently available models of washing machines use between around 0.42kWh for a warm
water wash (a Kleenmaid KFL1600 model, 6.5kg front loading machine with a 5 star rating) and
3.29kWh for a warm water wash in a one star rated Heller top loading machine (AWM700
model, note that this same machine will use only 0.24kWh for a cold water wash). 374 This would
represent electricity savings of around 0.084kWh (taking 20 percent as the amount of electricity
used to run the machine, excluding hot water usage, as an average) for the most efficient
machine, and 0.25kWh in the least (this is the cold water wash electricity consumption). Over a
year, if it’s assumed that a household would need to put a load of washing on once per day, this
behaviour could save between 31kWh and 91kWh, or between 0.5 and 1.5 percent of the
average yearly electricity consumption of the household.
The impact of this behaviour has been calculated to be between 0.03 and 0.08, and has been
rounded up to 0.08 to reflect that the stock of washing machines in use in most households
might be less energy and water efficient than those currently on the market.
Likelihood
[1]
Washing clothes by hand may be a time consuming process. One blog author noted that from
soaking the laundry, to actually washing and rinsing it and then allowing it to air dry (which took
longer than air drying clothes from a washing machine and the spin cycle mechanically removes
a lot of the moisture), it was two days before her clothes were clean and ready to wear. 375 This
time frame also involves a lot more ‘engaged’ time, in which the individual will need to be
actually washing the clothes themselves, as opposed to time waiting for the washing machine
cycle to end. Some clothes, such as lingerie, are delicate and are often less heavily soiled.
ACEEE (2007) Clothes Washers – Consumer Guide to Home Energy Savings, American Council for an Energy Efficient
Economy, United States of America. Available at: http://www.aceee.org/consumerguide/laundry.htm, accessed 04 December 2008.
373
QWC (nd) How to cut water consumption to 140 litres per person a day, Queensland Water Commission, Queensland
Government. Available at: http://www.target140.com.au/myfiles/uploads/Target%20140%20documents/TARGET140_CUTS.pdf,
accessed 04 December 2008.
374
DEWHA (nd) Search and compare appliances, Energy Rating, Department of Water, Heritage and the Arts, Australian
Government. Available at: http://www.energyrating.gov.au/appsearch/default.asp, accessed 17 November 2008.
375
Savery, C. (2008) Another Green Living Option, Hand Wash Your Clothes, sustainablog, Green Options Media. Available at:
http://sustainablog.org/2008/11/29/another-green-living-option-hand-wash-your-clothes/, accessed 05 December 2008.
372
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These items may be more likely to be hand-washed, particularly given that washing machines
can damage such items, and as they are less likely to constitute a full load in themselves and
due to their specific washing requirements may be unsuitable to include with other loads. Based
on these considerations, it is assumed that the likelihood of this behaviour would be low.
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Using economy settings on washing machines [0.13:3]
Impact
[0.13]
An economy setting on the washing machine can reduce the average water consumption from
100 litres a wash, to 75 litres.376 If the load is being washed in cold water this fact won’t save
electricity. As between 70 and 90 percent of the electricity used by a washing machine is for
heating the water, any change in the water temperature will have the largest impact. 377 Economy
settings may reduce other aspects of electricity consumption in the washing machine, such as
the length of the cycles, the spin speeds and so on.
Currently available models of washing machines use between around 0.42kWh for a warm
water wash (a Kleenmaid KFL1600 model, 6.5kg front loading machine with a 5 star rating) and
3.29kWh for a warm water wash in a one star rated Heller top loading machine (AWM700
model, note that this same machine will use only 0.24kWh for a cold water wash).378 If an
economy setting is assumed to reduce the water consumption by on average 25 percent, and it
will be assumed may also save 15 percent of the remaining electricity demands, the this
behaviour could save (assuming one load of washing per day per household) between 34kWh
per year (0.09kWh per wash) and 288kWh per year (0.79kWh per wash), accounting for
between 0.5 percent and 4.6 percent of the annual electricity consumption. Hence, the impact of
this behaviour has been rated as being between 0.03 and 0.23, averaged at 0.13.
Likelihood
[3]
Many models of washing machines will remember the previously selected setting, so if the
economy setting has already been selected once then it may be more likely that it will continue
to be used. Currently available washing machines are already considerably more efficient than
older models, and as such the regular settings may be about as economical as possible. The
aforementioned Kleenmaid washing machine has 19 different settings, and as each is selected
the water and energy which will be used is displayed on the screen. A sales assistant from
RetraVision in Fortitude Valley (Brisbane) was unsure if the machine actually has economy
settings as each of the available settings already uses the minimum water and energy.379 It would
be possible to select a cycle which uses the least water and energy of all those available,
however this may be influenced by other factors such as the type of load being washed (how
heavily soiled, whether the load is ‘delicates’, towels, whites, colours et cetera) and perceptions
of how clean the clothes will be following each of the cycles. Based on these considerations, it is
assumed that the likelihood of this behaviour would be moderate.
376
QWC (nd) How to cut water consumption to 140 litres per person a day, Queensland Water Commission, Queensland
Government. Available at: http://www.target140.com.au/myfiles/uploads/Target%20140%20documents/TARGET140_CUTS.pdf,
accessed 04 December 2008.
377
ACEEE (2007) Clothes Washers – Consumer Guide to Home Energy Savings, American Council for an Energy Efficient
Economy, United States of America. Available at: http://www.aceee.org/consumerguide/laundry.htm, accessed 04 December 2008
378
DEWHA (nd) Search and compare appliances, Energy Rating, Department of Water, Heritage and the Arts, Australian
Government. Available at: http://www.energyrating.gov.au/appsearch/default.asp, accessed 17 November 2008.
379
personal communications, December 2008
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120.
Buying the most energy efficient clothes dryer possible [0.09:1]
Impact
[0.09]
The energy consumption of clothes dryers varies depending on the load it is capable of taking.
For instance, the most energy efficient (3 ½ star rated) 2.5 kilogram clothes dryer (MIELE,
WT2670) uses 84kWh for 52 loads, whereas a 6 kilogram, also 3 ½ star (LG Mayflower WD1227RD) model uses 203kWh for the same number of loads. This is compared with the least
energy efficient models currently available (1 star), which use 315kWh for 52 loads for a 6
kilogram machine (several models available) and 207kWh for a 3.5 kilogram model (Fisher and
Paykel, AD39).380 The difference between these models can provide an indication of the energy
savings which will be achieved through the purchase of an energy efficient dryer (for example,
for the six kilogram models, 112kWh a year, based on one load per week). This would reduce
the yearly electricity consumption of the average Townsville household by 1.8 percent, hence
the impact of this behaviour has been calculated to be 0.09.
The expert review panel commented that there isn’t a lot of variation in the energy consumption
of clothes dryers at present, however the development of heat pump and microwave
technologies for dryers may change this in the future.
Likelihood
[1]
According to the Australian Government’s Energy Rating website,381 there are only two models
currently available in Australia which have been scored with a 3 ½ star rating (the highest rating
given to any clothes dryer). There are eight models available rated at 3 star, out of the 227
models which are available in Australia and New Zealand (some are available in New Zealand
only, however almost all are available in Australia). This may restrict the ability of consumers to
purchase the most energy efficient models currently available. For instance, Clive Peters (there
is presently no Clive Peters store in Townsville, however an internet search was not able to
access catalogues of stores which stock dryers in Townsville) stock only models which are 1 ½
and 2 star, and the additional energy efficiency is reflected in the price, with the cheapest model
($379, a 4kg Simpsons model) being 1 ½ star, with gradual increases in both price and the star
rating, to the cheapest 2 star model ($529, 4.5kg Fisher and Paykel model) and the most
expensive being a 6kg Electrolux ‘iron aid’ model, which is priced at $1,999.382
Based on these considerations, the likelihood of this behaviour is considered to be low.
380
DEWHA (nd) Search and compare appliances, Energy Rating, Department of Water, Heritage and the Arts, Australian
Government. Available at: http://www.energyrating.gov.au/appsearch/default.asp, accessed 17 November 2008.
381
DEWHA (nd) Search and compare appliances, Energy Rating, Department of Water, Heritage and the Arts, Australian
Government. Available at: http://www.energyrating.gov.au/appsearch/default.asp, accessed 17 November 2008.
382
Clive Peters (2008) Product search, Australia. Available at: http://www.clivepeeters.com.au/modules/products/search, accessed
17 November 2008.
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121.
Buying the most energy efficient washing machine possible [0.76:3]
Impact
[0.76]
The only five star rated washing machine available in Australia uses 152kWh per 365 warm
water washes, whereas the least efficient (1 star, by Mistral) uses 1095kWh (943kWh difference
each year, based on 365 warm water washes a year).383 The difference between these two
would reduce the average yearly electricity usage of a household in Townsville by 15 percent,
hence the impact of this behaviour is calculated to be 0.76.
In keeping with these findings, the expert review panel commented that there is a large range of
efficiencies in washing machines currently available.
Likelihood
[3]
Since 1986, many appliances in Australia have had to carry a label stating how energy efficiency
it is. The label also provides estimated annual electricity consumption in kWh/year. The labels
are now mandatory for clothes washers. The Australian Government’s Energy Rating website
states that some 25 percent of consumers say that energy efficiency is the most important factor
governing appliance selection. On average, energy efficiency ranks as the fourth most important
attribute in appliance selection (this is lower when there are no prompts present, such as energy
efficiency labels). 14 percent of consumers stated that energy efficiency was ‘not particularly’ or
‘not at all’ important to them when they buy a new appliance. 40 to 50 percent of surveyed
individuals who had recently bought, or were intending to buy, an appliance said that they had or
were intending to use the information which the energy labels provide when making a decision.384
Anecdotally, an assistant from the sales department of Harvey Norman in Brisbane City noted
that the energy efficiency ratings had very little influence. Even where prices did not vary
significantly (for instance, a $650 washing machine with 3 stars, compared with a $700 5 star
machine), the majority of customers would chose immediate savings over long term savings.385
Anderson and Claxton (1982) point out some shortcomings of energy labelling and barriers to
purchasing efficient appliances. Firstly, consumers’ cognitive abilities to calculate energy
savings, and associated cost savings, are often limited. They suggest that consumers engage in
limited pre-purchase research (please note that this article was written before the more recent
and widespread uptake of the internet, which may have greatly facilitated the research
capabilities of potential buyers), and simplify their choices, which are often numerous, by a
variety of mechanisms. For instance, there may be a preference for the store in which to
purchase the appliance, the colour of the appliance, size, brand, price and so on. These may
influence the decision, and the range of appliances from which the chosen one is selected. The
ability of energy labels to influence purchasing decisions may be dependent upon a consumer’s
previous experience in making such purchases, and how ingrained these decision making
mechanisms are. It was also noted that sales staff can have a significant impact on purchasing
decisions, in fact in a 1980 survey, 29 percent of consumers stated that their decisions were
dominated by the influence of the sales person, and 27 percent felt their decision was aided by
383
DEWHA (nd) Search and compare appliances, Energy Rating, Department of Water, Heritage and the Arts, Australian
Government. Available at: http://www.energyrating.gov.au/appsearch/default.asp, accessed 17 November 2008.
384
Energy Rating (2007) The Energy Label, Australian Government. Available at: http://www.energyrating.gov.au/con3.html,
accessed 10 November 2008.
385
Harvey Norman, Brisbane City. Personal communications, 17 November 2008. Contact details available at:
http://harveynorman.findnearest.com.au/findnearest.asp?OriginSuburbPostcode=HIGHGATE+HILL+QLD+4101&groupid=2017&ima
ge.x=9&image.y=6&EnvironmentID=655&submittopage=locatorresult.asp&Log=1&sessionid=&originlocalityid=
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this influence. Where sales staff are paid by commission, this may lead to an encouragement of
the purchase of larger appliances, which while not necessarily less energy efficient are likely to
consume more energy overall.386
In the USA, where the Energy Star rating system applies to many appliances including washing
machines, an EcoPinion survey found that the label is “extremely important” to 31 percent of
consumers, “very important” to another 37 percent, providing a total of 68 percent who state that
they place significance on this (note that this survey question was used also to determine the
importance of the actual brand of “Energy Star” as opposed to any other, similar energy rating
label).387 These results may be representative of similar sentiments in Australian consumers and
provide an indication of their use of the Australian Energy Rating system.
Appliances are becoming increasingly energy efficient388 and hence it is likely that any washing
machine bought will be more energy efficient than the one which it is replacing.
Based on these considerations, it is presumed that the likelihood of this behaviour is moderate.
Anderson, C.D. and Claxton, J.D. (1982), ‘Barriers to Consumer Choice of Energy Efficient Products’, The Journal of Consumer
Research, Vol. 9, No. 2 Sep., pp. 163-170.
387
Wimberly, J. (a) (2008) Banking the Green: Incentives for EE and renewable, EcoPinion, Issue 4, August, EcoAlign.
388
Nance, A. (2002) A culture of efficiency, The National Framework for Energy Efficiency, Government of Australia. Available at:
www.nfee.gov.au/public/download.jsp?id=217, accessed 10 November 2008.
386
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122.
Buying a washing machine which is sized to the household needs [0.09:4]
Impact
[0.09]
This may reduce the number of loads (if the machine is large enough), or reduce the amount of
loads which are not full (if the machine is too large).
In the case buying a washing machine which is not oversized, most washing machines can vary
the amount of water which is needed, and have various cycle options depending on the nature
of the load being washed. As between 70 and 90 percent of the electricity used by a washing
machine is for heating the water,389 reducing the water level will have the greatest impact on the
amount of electricity used. The remaining 10 to 30 percent of the electricity is assumed to be
used for agitation, pumping, timing and other functions. A larger machine might require slightly
more electricity for these functions, as the parts being moved may be larger. It is estimated that
this would be marginal (estimated to be around 25 percent more) increasing the overall
electricity consumption of the washing machine by between 2.5 and 7.5 percent, assuming that
the water level has been adjusted to match the size of the load. The only five star rated washing
machine available in Australia uses 152kWh per 365 warm water washes, whereas the least
efficient (1 star, by Mistral) uses 1095kWh,390 hence based on the assumptions listed, this
behaviour would save between 82kWh and 3.8kWh of electricity each year (1.3 to 0.06 percent
of the average yearly electricity consumption).
In the case of washing machines not being undersized and being able to handle larger loads, it
is assumed that a comparable amount of water would be used whether two smaller loads are
run, or one larger load (it is noted that this might not be completely accurate but it assumed to
be appropriate for the purposes of making these estimations). Thus, the energy savings would
be derived from the remaining 10 to 30 percent of the electricity which is not related to water
heating. As a larger machine might use slightly more electricity per cycle to move the larger
parts (30 percent has been estimated), then not under-sizing a machine could save between 7
and 21 percent of the electricity needed for clothes washing. Assuming this behaviour would
result in only one load of washing being done each day rather than two, this behaviour could
reduce the yearly electricity consumption of the household by between 11kWh (0.2 percent) and
230kWh (3.7 percent).
Based on this information, the impact of this behaviour has been estimated to lie between 0.008
and 0.19. It has been rated as 0.09 as an average.
Likelihood
[4]
This behaviour is a one off purchasing decision, assumed to be made either for a first-time
purchase or to replace an existing machine. Homeowners should be able to estimate the
number of loads they perform each week (assumption), and estimates can be made from the
previous machine, if there was one. If the new machine is not to replace an existing one, it may
be more difficult to gauge the correct size. It is also noted that this decision may be influenced
by other factors, such as the size of the laundry. Based on these considerations, the likelihood
of this behaviour is estimated to be moderate to high.
ACEEE (2007) Clothes Washers – Consumer Guide to Home Energy Savings, American Council for an Energy Efficient
Economy, United States of America. Available at: http://www.aceee.org/consumerguide/laundry.htm, accessed 04 December 2008.
390
DEWHA (nd) Search and compare appliances, Energy Rating, Department of Water, Heritage and the Arts, Australian
Government. Available at: http://www.energyrating.gov.au/appsearch/default.asp, accessed 17 November 2008.
389
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123.
Purchasing a gas clothes dryer rather than electric [0.20:1]
Impact
[0.20]
Gas clothes dryers use half the energy of electric ones and dry clothes three times as quickly.
They also cool faster and hence reduce wrinkles, which minimizes ironing.391 An average clothes
dryer, used 52 times a year, consumes 210kWh of electricity per annum (or, drying one load of
washing naturally each week will save this much electricity).392 This behaviour could hence save
105kWh each year, or 1.7 percent of the average yearly electricity consumption of a Townsville
household. Hence the impact of this behaviour has been calculated to be 0.08.
The expert review panel provided ratings which would suggest that this behaviour might have a
higher impact than estimated here, hence the rating has been adjusted upwards.
Likelihood
[1]
Gas dryers are reported to be more expensive to purchase and install, however rebates are
available. They also have lower running costs.393 Gas must be installed, or potentially access to
bottled gas must be available. Townsville does not have reticulated natural gas, however bottled
gas is available for gas hot water heating. New developments have large tanks with locally
reticulated gas.394
The likelihood of this behaviour, based on these considerations, is estimated to be low to
moderate.
The expert review panel considered this behaviour to be less likely than suggested here, and
the estimate has as a result been adjusted downwards.
391
DME (2007) Gas clothes dryers, Department of Mines and Energy, Queensland Government. Available at:
http://www.dme.qld.gov.au/Energy/gas_clothes_dryers.cfm, accessed 05 June 2009.
392
Qld EPA (2008) Achieving early and affordable greenhouse gas reductions in Queensland - Strategies for voluntary household
and lifestyle changes, Environmental Protection Agency, Queensland Government. Available at:
http://www.climatechange.qld.gov.au/downloads/downloads/working_paper_1.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008
393
DME (2007) Gas clothes dryers, Department of Mines and Energy, Queensland Government. Available at:
http://www.dme.qld.gov.au/Energy/gas_clothes_dryers.cfm, accessed 05 June 2009.
394
From personal communications with Envestra and Origin Energy (November 2008). There is not natural gas distribution in
Townsville (Department of Employment, Economic Development and Innovation, Mines and Energy (2009) Gas Transmission and
Distribution, Queensland Government. Available at: http://www.dme.qld.gov.au/Energy/gas_transmission_and_distribution.cfm,
accessed 23 June 2009).
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Identification and Assessment of Homeowner Behaviours Related to Reducing Residential Energy Demand
124. Avoiding using a clothes dryer when it is possible to dry clothes naturally instead
[0.17:3]
Impacts
[0.17]
An average clothes dryer, used 52 times a year, consumes 210kWh of electricity per annum,
whereas drying clothes on the line will use none (or, drying one load of washing naturally each
week will save this much electricity).395 This would reduce the yearly electricity consumption of
the average Townsville household by 3.4 percent, hence the impact of this behaviour is rated as
0.17.
It is noted that the rating of this behaviour assumes that only one load of washing is currently
dried in a clothes dryer, whilst it is assumed in other behaviours that one load of washing is
done each day. Given the climate in Townsville,396 this is considered to be an appropriate
assumption however it should be kept in mind that this may underestimate the impact of this
behaviour, and all of those which relate to clothes dryers.
Likelihood
[3]
This is a repetitive task, which requires having a clothes line or a clothes horse to dry clothes.
Townsville has warm, clear days during winter which would be ideal for clothes drying,397
however intermittent monsoonal weather from December to April may make this less likely.
Indoor clothes horses may be applicable, or using heat from (for example) the hot water system.
Sun rooms can be installed.
This behaviour may be influenced by the amount of time it takes to hang clothes on the line, by
a fear that clothing may get wet again should it rain, by the schedule of the household and how
this facilitates (or not) this behaviour, as well as potentially a desire to extend the life of clothes
by avoiding clothes dryers.
The likelihood of this behaviour, given these considerations, is estimated to be moderate.
395
Qld EPA (2008) Achieving early and affordable greenhouse gas reductions in Queensland - Strategies for voluntary household
and lifestyle changes, Environmental Protection Agency, Queensland Government. Available at:
http://www.climatechange.qld.gov.au/downloads/downloads/working_paper_1.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008
396
BOM (2007) Climate Statistics for Australian Locations, Bureau of Meteorology, Australia. Available at:
http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_032040.shtml, accessed 08 December 2008.
397
BOM (2007) Climate Statistics for Australian Locations, Bureau of Meteorology, Australia. Available at:
http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_032040.shtml, accessed 08 December 2008.
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Identification and Assessment of Homeowner Behaviours Related to Reducing Residential Energy Demand
125.
Using the heat from the hot water system for clothes drying [0.12:1]
Impact
[0.12]
This behaviour may reduce the electricity consumption of a household by displacing the need
for, or use of, clothes dryer.
The electricity consumed by a clothes dryer depends on its efficiency, make and model and the
size. The most efficient models shown on the Australian Government’s Energy Rating website
(models currently available in Australian and New Zealand) are three and half star, with a 2.5kg
Miele (WT2670) model using 84kWh to dry 52 loads, and a 6kg three and half star rated LG
model (Mayflower –WD 1227RD) using 203kWh, also to dry 52 loads. It can be assumed that,
as these are the most efficient currently available and that the existing models in use in
households may use more electricity than is suggested here, this will be the least electricity
saved by replacing 52 loads of drying in a clothes dryer with alternative measures. 398 This would
reduce the yearly electricity consumption by between 1.4 percent and 3.3 percent. The impact of
this behaviour has been calculated as being between 0.07 and 0.16.
It is noted that this behaviour has an inherent suggestion that a significant amount of dry heat is
available from the hot water system. This in itself may indicate that the hot water system is
poorly insulated, which given that over ninety percent of households in Townsville use electric
storage hot water systems,399 may account for a significant electricity consumption in itself. The
recommendation of this behaviour should potentially be considered within the context of whether
it would be preferable to advocate the insulation of the hot water system (please see the
behaviour ‘Insulate the hot water system using a thermal blanket’ for more information regarding
this).
Likelihood
[1]
Such a system would be more likely where the hot water system is located inside the house,
and potentially where it is poorly insulated. It would require the installation of some apparatus for
drying the clothes in the proximity of the water heater, such as a clothes horse or clothes lines.
Internally installed HWS are often located in inconspicuous places, such as in cupboards under
the stairs, which would make putting a line or clothes horse nearby difficult.
Given that Townsville has over 300 days of sunshine400 and a warm, tropical climate,401 this
behaviour may be unlikely due to a preference for clothes lines. The likelihood of this behaviour
has been estimated to be low, given these considerations.
398
DEWHA (nd) Search and compare appliances, Energy Rating, Department of Water, Heritage and the Arts, Australian
Government. Available at: http://www.energyrating.gov.au/appsearch/default.asp, accessed 17 November 2008.
399
TCC (2008) Hot Water Heating, Sustainable Housing for the Tropics, Townsville City Council. Available at:
http://www.townsville.qld.gov.au/resources/1987.pdf, accessed 18 June 2009.
400
TCC (2008) Hot Water Heating, Sustainable Housing for the Tropics, Townsville City Council. Available at:
http://www.townsville.qld.gov.au/resources/1987.pdf, accessed 18 June 2009.
401
BOM (2007) Climate Statistics for Australian Locations, Bureau of Meteorology, Australia. Available at:
http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_032040.shtml, accessed 08 December 2008.
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Identification and Assessment of Homeowner Behaviours Related to Reducing Residential Energy Demand
126.
Using a broom rather than a vacuum cleaner [0.03:2]
Impact
[0.03]
Vacuum cleaners will use electricity to operate, where as a broom will use none. For example,
the Kleenmaid VC700 uses 175 watts to operate.402 It is assumed that a household will vacuum
their house once a week, and that this may take half an hour on average to do. This will result in
a yearly consumption of around 32kWh. This behaviour could reduce the yearly electricity bill of
the average Townsville household by 0.5 percent, hence its impact has been calculated to be
0.03.
Likelihood
[2]
In 2005, 95.2 percent of Australian households had a vacuum cleaner, a figure which had
remained steady since 1999.403 Vacuum cleaners may be preferable where a household has
carpet or rugs, as the suction from the vacuum cleaner can remove dust and dirt particles from
within the fibres, which a broom cannot do (note that the warm climate of Townsville may make
carpet and rugs less common). The choice of a vacuum cleaner over a broom may be
influenced by factors such as a perception that it produces a cleaner surface as a result, as
some brooms can simply move dust and dirt around and even cause particles to become
airborne rather than actually removing them. The decision may also be influenced by the fact
that vacuum cleaners need to be plugged in, and in the event of an individual wanting to clean a
smaller area more quickly, they may prefer to use a broom. Also, where there are large particles
needing to be collected and removed, a broom may be preferred as such large particles may
tend to clog the vacuum cleaner. Conversely, the time taken to clean the house using a broom
and a vacuum cleaner may not be equal, and the household may preference which ever is
faster, which is likely to be the vacuum cleaner as it can generally clean a surface in a single
pass, where as brooms can require repetitive sweeps and will the accumulated debris will then
need to be collected by another means, such as a dust pan and brush.
The likelihood of this behaviour, given these considerations, is estimated to be moderate to low.
402
Kleenmaid (nd) VC700 flyer, Available at: http://www.kleenmaid.com/product-specifications#Vacuums, accessed 05 December
2005.
403
ABS (2007) Environmental Impact of household energy use, Australian Bureau of Statistics, Australian Government. Available at:
http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/bb8db737e2af84b8ca2571780015701e/a300c2a2b4e0b91fca2571b000197552!Open
Document, accessed 03 December 2008.
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2.5
Reducing Electricity Consumption – Pools, Hot Tubs and Saunas
127.
Avoiding the use of the heating function on a water bed [0.50:3]
Impact
[0.50]
A water bed, with no cover, is estimated to use on average between 120 and 380 watts (to heat
the water).404 Assuming that in Townsville, this water bed would be heated for only the four
coldest months of the year, for eight hours a night, this would equate to an electricity
consumption (and hence this behaviour would save) of between 115.2kWh and 364.8kWh a
year. This behaviour could hence reduce the yearly electricity bill of the average household in
Townsville by between 1.9 percent and 5.9 percent (for those households which currently have
a water bed which they heat), thus the impact of this behaviour is calculated to be between 0.10
and 0.29, and has been averaged at 0.19.
It is assumed, as noted by the expert review panels, that water beds are not commonly used
these days. The panel suggested, however, that this behaviour might have a higher impact than
the rating estimated here, so it has been adjusted upwards.
Likelihood
[3]
Townsville has a tropical climate, with relatively warm winters with cool nights. In July, the
minimum temperature is around 13.6 degrees Celsius.405 Hence, it may be likely that there is not
a great need for a heated water bed. Other factors which may contribute to the likelihood of this
behaviour include concern over the impact of a waterbed on one’s back and posture, and the
availability of water beds. This behaviour actually relates to whether or not an individual heats
their water bed, not if they purchase one. The likelihood of this behaviour, in terms of whether
someone who owns a water bed will refrain from heating it, is estimated to be moderate.
404
US Department of Energy (2009) Estimating Appliance and Home Electronic Energy Use, Energy Efficiency and Renewable
Energy, US Government. Available at: http://www.energysavers.gov/your_home/appliances/index.cfm/mytopic=10040, accessed 23
June 2009.
405
BOM (2007) Climate Statistics for Australian Locations, Bureau of Meteorology, Australia. Available at:
http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_032040.shtml, accessed 08 December 2008.
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Identification and Assessment of Homeowner Behaviours Related to Reducing Residential Energy Demand
128.
Replacing existing swimming pool pumps, chlorinators and heaters [0.50:3]
Impact
[0.50]
There is an estimated scope for 10 – 15 percent efficiencies in pumps and heaters (the most
energy intensive components) through measures such as Minimum Energy Performance
Standards and effective labelling. Pool pump efficiency could be improved through changes to
the motor, and the entire pool could be more efficient through better design.406
Swimming pools are energy intensive, and can increase a household’s electricity consumption
by 50 percent due to pumping and (increasingly) salt water chlorinators. Nationwide, swimming
pools and spa pools account for 3.3 percent of Australian residential electricity use and 0.9
percent of residential natural gas consumption. Around 76 percent of this electricity feeds the
pump, 6 percent chlorination cells, 14 percent electric heaters (these are mainly resistance
heaters, however some electric heat pumps are also in use), and 4 percent for timer controls.407
About 17 percent of households in Townsville have swimming pool pumps, which consume on
average 600 watts for three hours a day. These pumps were generally turned on during the
peak evening period.408
There is a variety of information from which the impact of this behaviour can be assessed. If a
pool is assumed to be in use throughout the year in Townsville (given the temperate climate),
then the pump alone could account for 657kWh of electricity. It is suggested that swimming
pools can increase a household’s electricity consumption by up to 50 percent, which would
translate to a yearly electricity consumption of 3100kWh. This is likely to be an upper limit and
includes pool heaters, which may be less commonly found in Townsville. Hence, it will be
estimated that the pool pump and chlorinator will require 850kWh yearly. This behaviour has the
potential to save between 85kWh and 128kWh each year, assuming 10 to 15 percent
efficiencies are also possible for chlorinators. This would reduce the yearly electricity
consumption of such a household by 1.4 and 2 percent. The impact for this behaviour is
calculated to be 0.10.
The expert panel suggested that this behaviour could have a higher impact than these estimates
imply, hence the rating has been adjusted.
Likelihood
[3]
The Energy Australia site claims that the costs involved investing in a more efficient, newer
pump and filter can be repaid through lower running costs.409 Additionally, noise restrictions may
necessitate a more efficient pump, particularly when run off peak as this may be during the
night. Based on this information, the likelihood of this behaviour is assumed to be moderate.
NAEEEC (2004) Minimum Energy Performance Standards – Swimming Pools and Spa Equipment, Prepared for the National
Appliance and Equipment Energy Efficiency Program by George Wilkenfeld and Associates, Australia. Available at:
http://www.energyrating.gov.au/library/pubs/200412-mepspools.pdf, accessed 27 October 2008.
407
NAEEEC (2004) Minimum Energy Performance Standards – Swimming Pools and Spa Equipment, Prepared for the National
Appliance and Equipment Energy Efficiency Program by George Wilkenfeld and Associates, Australia. Available at:
http://www.energyrating.gov.au/library/pubs/200412-mepspools.pdf, accessed 27 October 2008.
408
Goudie, D. (1995) Sustainable Domestic Energy Use in North Queensland, James Cook University, Australia.
409
Energy Australia (2007) Swimming Pools – Save Energy and Money, Energy Australia. Available at:
http://www.energyaustralia.com.au/energy/ea.nsf/Content/Ways+Swimming+Pools+Save+Energy, accessed 02 December, 2008.
406
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Identification and Assessment of Homeowner Behaviours Related to Reducing Residential Energy Demand
129.
Installing the smallest pump possible for the swimming pool [0.21:1]
Impact
[0.21]
Swimming pools are energy intensive, and can increase a household’s electricity consumption
by 50 percent due to pumping and (increasingly) salt water chlorinators. Swimming pools and
spa pools account for 3.3 percent of Australian residential electricity use and 0.9 percent of
residential natural gas consumption. Around 76 percent of this electricity feeds the pump, 6
percent chlorination cells, 14 percent electric heaters (these are mainly resistance heaters,
however some electric heat pumps are also in use), and 4 percent for timer controls.410
About 17 percent of households in Townsville have swimming pool pumps, which consume on
average 600 watts for three hours a day (please note that this information differs to other
sources which suggest pumps are run for around six hours a day411). These pumps are generally
turned on during the peak evening period. 412
Large pumps will require more energy. A pump can be made to work up to 40 percent more
efficiently by installing a filter which is at least 50 percent larger than the pool’s design flow rate,
by increasing the diameter of the pipes, and by decreasing the amount of curvature in the pipes
or their length. Also, investing in a two speed motor with an automatic controller will enable
tasks such as vacuuming or automatic pool sweeping to be done on high speed, whilst general
filtering can be done on low speed to save electricity.413
The impact of this behaviour, assuming a 40 percent increase in energy efficiency, would be to
decrease the yearly electricity consumption by 263kWh or 4.2 percent. The impact of this
behaviour has been calculated to be 0.21.
Likelihood
[1]
A smaller pump will consume less electricity to run, and may be cheaper to buy. It will require,
as noted above, larger filters and it is assumed a non-standardised set up for the pool
equipment. The likelihood is estimated to be moderate to low.
The expert panel provided a low likelihood for this behaviour, and commented that most pool
owners take advice from the salespersons in pool shops who tend to recommend larger pumps,
and can worry about lack of capacity with smaller pumps. The likelihood has been adjusted
downwards.
NAEEEC (2004) Minimum Energy Performance Standards – Swimming Pools and Spa Equipment, Prepared for the National
Appliance and Equipment Energy Efficiency Program by George Wilkenfeld and Associates, Australia. Available at:
http://www.energyrating.gov.au/library/pubs/200412-mepspools.pdf, accessed 27 October 2008.
411
Energy Australia (2007) Swimming Pools – Save Energy and Money, Energy Australia. Available at:
http://www.energyaustralia.com.au/energy/ea.nsf/Content/Ways+Swimming+Pools+Save+Energy, accessed 02 December, 2008.
412
Goudie, D. (1995) Sustainable Domestic Energy Use in North Queensland, James Cook University, Australia.
413
Energy Australia (2007) Swimming Pools – Save Energy and Money, Energy Australia. Available at:
http://www.energyaustralia.com.au/energy/ea.nsf/Content/Ways+Swimming+Pools+Save+Energy, accessed 02 December, 2008.
410
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130.
Using solar heaters and/or solar blankets in heated pools [0.50:1]
Impact
[0.050]
It is estimated that few pools in Townsville would be heated due to the generally warm weather
and mild winters, however if they are then a solar blankets can increase the water temperature
by 10 degrees Celsius. This can increase the swimming period by 3 months, while also reducing
water evaporation and keeping the pool cleaner.414 A cleaner pool will additionally require less
filtration and vacuuming, which can consume considerable electricity. About 76 percent of the
electricity used by pools and spa pools is consumed by the pump. Australia-wide, about 5
percent of pools are heated. 415
Pool covers can help keep the heat in and reduce evaporation, which will reduce water losses. It
is assumed that solar heaters will not save much energy in Townsville as it is unlikely that there
would be electrically heated pools. By helping to keep the pool cleaner, it is estimated that this
behaviour might reduce pumping and filtration energy consumption by 10 percent. As
determined in previous behaviours, where it was assumed the pumping, filtration and
chlorination used 850kWh annually, this might save 85kWh. This is equivalent to 1.4 percent of
the total electricity usage of an average household, hence the impact of this behaviour is
calculated to be 0.07.
The expert review panel provided estimates of the impact of this behaviour as being relatively
high, depending on the climate and swimming habits of the pool owners. The impact estimate
has been shifted upwards accordingly.
Likelihood
[1]
A pool cover may be installed to conserve water by reducing evaporation, however the likelihood
of this behaviour is estimated to be low.
414
BASIX (2008), Basix Certificate for Swimming Pools and Outdoor Spas, Basix Certificate Centre, NSW Australia. Available at:
http://www.basixcertificatecentre.com.au/Basix-swimming-pools-spas.htm, accessed 27 October 2008
415
NAEEEC (2004) Minimum Energy Performance Standards – Swimming Pools and Spa Equipment, Prepared for the National
Appliance and Equipment Energy Efficiency Program by George Wilkenfeld and Associates, Australia. Available at:
http://www.energyrating.gov.au/library/pubs/200412-mepspools.pdf, accessed 27 October 2008.
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Identification and Assessment of Homeowner Behaviours Related to Reducing Residential Energy Demand
131.
Maintaining the pool to keep it free of debris to enhance pump efficiency [0.13:3]
Impact
[0.13]
If the intake grates into the pool filter become clogged with debris, then the pump will have to
work harder to keep the pool clean.416 No metrics have been found that suggest the increase in
energy consumption that clogged filters would cause, so 25 percent has been estimated in order
to be able to rank this behaviour. About 17 percent of households in Townsville have swimming
pool pumps, which consume on average 600 watts for three hours a day (please note that this
information differs to other sources which suggest pumps are run for around six hours a day417).
These pumps are generally turned on during the peak evening period. 418 In a year, this
behaviour could hence reduce the electricity consumption of the pump by 164kWh, or 2.6
percent of the total yearly electricity consumption of the household. The impact of this behaviour
has hence been calculated at 0.13.
Likelihood
[3]
The pool can be cleaned either using an electric vacuum or automatic pool sweeper (which will
use electricity) or manually using a pool cleaner. 419 Reducing the debris in the pool may make it
more pleasant for swimming, and hence this behaviour may be undertaken for this motivation.
The likelihood of this behaviour is estimated to be moderate.
The expert review panel commented that this behaviour is generally undertaken already as most
pool owners prefer a debris free pool for swimming and aesthetics.
Energy Australia (2007) Swimming Pools – Save Energy and Money, Energy Australia. Available at:
http://www.energyaustralia.com.au/energy/ea.nsf/Content/Ways+Swimming+Pools+Save+Energy, accessed 02 December, 2008.\
417
Energy Australia (2007) Swimming Pools – Save Energy and Money, Energy Australia. Available at:
http://www.energyaustralia.com.au/energy/ea.nsf/Content/Ways+Swimming+Pools+Save+Energy, accessed 02 December, 2008.\
418
Goudie, D. (1995) Sustainable Domestic Energy Use in North Queensland, James Cook University, Australia.
419
Energy Australia (2007) Swimming Pools – Save Energy and Money, Energy Australia. Available at:
http://www.energyaustralia.com.au/energy/ea.nsf/Content/Ways+Swimming+Pools+Save+Energy, accessed 02 December, 2008.
416
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Identification and Assessment of Homeowner Behaviours Related to Reducing Residential Energy Demand
132.
Reducing the use of pool pumps / filters during cooler months [0.45:4]
Impact
[0.45]
Pool filters are needed less in cooler weather due to reduced microbial activity. During summer,
it is recommended that filters be run 6 to 8 hours, and in winter only 2 to 3 hours. 420 A typical
pool pump is 1,000W (please note that various sources quote different wattage, for instance
Goudie (1995) 421 found that the typical pump in Townsville was 600W, whereas Energy Australia
suggest that a 750W pump is sufficient for most residential pools422) – running this for an
additional 4 to 5 hours a day over four months of the year results in between 490 and 615kWh of
electricity each year. This behaviour could hence reduce the total electricity consumption of the
household by between 7.9 and 9.9 percent, and hence the impact of this behaviour is calculated
to be 0.45.
Likelihood
[4]
The household needs to reset the timer on their pump twice a year – at the beginning and end of
winter. Swimming pools may be used less during winter, and this may provide additional
incentive to run the filter for less time. The likelihood of this behaviour is estimated to be
moderate to high.
NAEEEC (2004) Minimum Energy Performance Standards – Swimming Pools and Spa Equipment, Prepared for the National
Appliance and Equipment Energy Efficiency Program by George Wilkenfeld and Associates, Australia. Available at:
http://www.energyrating.gov.au/library/pubs/200412-mepspools.pdf, accessed 27 October 2008.
421
Goudie, D. (1995) Sustainable Domestic Energy Use in North Queensland, James Cook University, Australia.
422
Energy Australia (2007) Swimming Pools – Save Energy and Money, Energy Australia. Available at:
http://www.energyaustralia.com.au/energy/ea.nsf/Content/Ways+Swimming+Pools+Save+Energy, accessed 02 December, 2008.
420
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133.
Avoiding the installation of hot spas [0.50:3]
Impact
[0.50]
Spas are high energy uses, as they require both heating and pumping. They typically require 1.5
to 2.4kW to run, although this consumption is restricted only to periods when the spa is actually
in use. Some spas also use a pump and filtration system for a few hours each day. Industry
estimates that most spas are used for 20 minutes a week, or 17 hours a year. This works out to
be 33kWh of electricity a year.423 Not installing a spa will not save energy, but will avoid the
increase in electricity consumption that would result from the consequential use of one. This
behaviour would prevent the electricity consumption of the average Townsville household from
increasing by 0.5 percent, hence the impact of this behaviour has been calculated to be 0.03.
The expert panel suggested that this behaviour has a higher impact than these estimates found,
as spas can consume vast amounts of energy. The estimate has been adjusted upwards.
Likelihood
[3]
This is a one-off behaviour, and involves residents avoiding the installation of a spa as opposed
to changing an existing behaviour. As Townsville has a year round warm climate, spas may be
less prevalent and desirable than pools (which are also large electricity consumers). A spa could
be considered a luxury item, and the higher than average income of Townsville residents may
increase the likelihood that a spa will be installed. The likelihood of this behaviour is estimated to
be moderate.
NAEEEC (2004) Minimum Energy Performance Standards – Swimming Pools and Spa Equipment, Prepared for the National
Appliance and Equipment Energy Efficiency Program by George Wilkenfeld and Associates, Australia. Available at:
http://www.energyrating.gov.au/library/pubs/200412-mepspools.pdf, accessed 27 October 2008.
423
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134.
Minimising the use of baths and spas [0.03:1]
Impact
[0.03]
Spas are high energy uses, as they require both heating and pumping. They typically require 1.5
to 2.4kW to run, although this consumption is restricted only to periods when the spa is actually
in use. Some spas also use a pump and filtration system for a few hours each day. Industry
estimates that most spas are used for 20 minutes a week, or 17 hours a year. This works out to
be 33kWh of electricity a year.424 A spa bath will heat the water used, and the electricity
consumption may be less when used for longer periods of time less frequently. This behaviour
would prevent the electricity consumption of the average Townsville household from increasing
by 0.5 percent, hence the impact of this behaviour has been calculated to be 0.03.
One member of the expert review panel suggested that this behaviour is of the highest priority.
Likelihood
[1]
This is a repetitive action, which needs to be decided on each time the household wishes to use
the spa. The hot environment may make spas and baths unpopular during summer. The
likelihood of this behaviour, assuming a spa is already installed, is estimated to be low.
NAEEEC (2004) Minimum Energy Performance Standards – Swimming Pools and Spa Equipment, Prepared for the National
Appliance and Equipment Energy Efficiency Program by George Wilkenfeld and Associates, Australia. Available at:
http://www.energyrating.gov.au/library/pubs/200412-mepspools.pdf, accessed 27 October 2008.
424
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2.6
Reducing Electricity Consumption – Heating & Cooling (Cool 14%, Heat 4%)
135.
Buying the most energy efficient air conditioner possible [0.60:4]
Impact
[0.60]
The efficiency of air conditioners, and their electricity consumption, can be ascertained to a
degree from their star rating. For instance, a three and a half star rated air conditioner with a
2.6kW output (NationWide Electric, WL-252DCX) uses 0.95kW of power, whereas a six star
rated air conditioner with the same output (Panasonic) uses 0.69kW, 425 a 27 percent increase in
efficiency. The Queensland EPA estimates that the average home in Queensland uses
2,709kWh a year to run their air conditioners426 (please note that this may underestimate the
amount of electricity consumed by air conditioners in Townsville households, as the climate in
Townsville is warmer than in many Queensland locations). 53 percent of households in
Townsville own an air conditioner. 427 Based on this information, this behaviour would have the
potential to save 741kWh of electricity each year, the equivalent of reducing the total electricity
usage of the average Townsville household by 12 percent. The impact of this behaviour has
hence been rated as 0.60.
The expert review panel noted that the efficiency of the best models is far off the rating scale,
and it may be difficult for consumers to ascertain which is in fact the most efficient. In some
areas, the reviewers noted that it has been preferred to encourage people to use air
conditioners less by fostering the perception that they are for days with extreme temperatures
only (perhaps 3 to 4 days a year) and to use fans for the rest of the year.
Likelihood
[4]
The Australian Government found that the star rating of an air conditioner is the most important
consideration for consumers once the size of the air conditioner has been decided.428
The difference in running costs over ten years of a more efficient air conditioner with 2.6kW
cooling capacity (based on electricity cost of 17c/kWh, and 200 hours/year of cooling) between,
for example, a Panasonic, six star rated, with ten year costs of $234, and a NationWide Electric,
WL-252DCX, 3 ½ star rated, with ten year costs of $321 is $81. 429
The likelihood of this behaviour, based on these considerations, is moderately likely.
The expert reviewers commented that this behaviour has some visibility within the market,
making it more likely.
425
DEWHA (nd) Search and compare appliances, Energy Rating, Department of Water, Heritage and the Arts, Australian
Government. Available at: http://www.energyrating.gov.au/appsearch/default.asp, accessed 17 November 2008.
426
Qld EPA (2008) Achieving early and affordable greenhouse gas reductions in Queensland - Strategies for voluntary household
and lifestyle changes, Environmental Protection Agency, Queensland Government. Available at:
http://www.climatechange.qld.gov.au/downloads/downloads/working_paper_1.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008
427
Goudie, D. (1995) Sustainable Domestic Energy Use in North Queensland, James Cook University, Australia.
428
DEWHA (b) (2007) Tips for choosing an efficient air conditioner, Energy Rating, Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage
and the Arts, Australian Governemnt. Available at: http://www.energyrating.gov.au/acl.html, accessed 25 November 2008.
429
DEWHA (nd) Search and compare appliances, Energy Rating, Department of Water, Heritage and the Arts, Australian
Government. Available at: http://www.energyrating.gov.au/appsearch/default.asp, accessed 17 November 2008.
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136.
Buying an air conditioner which is appropriately sized the area needing cooling
[0.1:2]
Impact
[0.1]
It is suggested that an air conditioner which is oversized for the size and characteristics of the
space which it is cooling will be less efficient as it must cycle on and off repetitively and will not
cool the space uniformly.430 There was limited available information for how much electricity this
behaviour might save, as it will depend on the degree to which an air conditioner is oversized or
even undersized. It is suggested that this saving might be marginal in comparison to the overall
amount of energy needed for cooling, which is estimated by the Queensland EPA to be
2,709kWh a year.431 (please note that this may underestimate the amount of electricity consumed
by air conditioners in Townsville households, as the climate in Townsville is warmer than in
many Queensland locations). The impact of this behaviour has been estimated to be 0.10.
The expert review panel suggested that the energy efficiency of a space is more important than
the size of the area itself when sizing and air conditioner. They noted that some inverter models
work more efficiently when running on part load, whereas standard units are less efficient on
part load. It was suggested as a result that money is better spent on improving the energy
efficiency of the space rather than buying an air conditioner to suit the needs of the existing
space.
Likelihood
[2]
In order to buy the appropriately sized air conditioner, a household will need to estimate the floor
size of the area being cooled as well as its characteristics. While estimates are available for the
kW output required to cool that area, these are dependent upon factors such as climate and the
efficiency of the housing design. An air conditioner mechanic or installer may be required to
provide a heating or cooling load assessment before the purchase of an air conditioner to gain
an accurate idea.432 The likelihood of this behaviour is estimated to be moderately high.
The expert review panel suggested that customers in fact have relatively little choice, and the
sellers limited skills in energy efficiency and sizing. They suggested a lower likelihood than was
given here, hence it has been downscaled.
430
EERE (2009) Room Air Conditioners, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, US Department of Energy, USA. Available at:
http://www.energysavers.gov/your_home/space_heating_cooling/index.cfm/mytopic=12420, accessed 10 June 2009.
431
Qld EPA (2008) Achieving early and affordable greenhouse gas reductions in Queensland - Strategies for voluntary household
and lifestyle changes, Environmental Protection Agency, Queensland Government. Available at:
http://www.climatechange.qld.gov.au/downloads/downloads/working_paper_1.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008
432
DEWHA (b) (2007) Tips for choosing an efficient air conditioner, Energy Rating, Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage
and the Arts, Australian Government. Available at: http://www.energyrating.gov.au/acl.html, accessed 25 November 2008.
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137.
Placing rugs on the floor to reduce winter heating demands [0:3]
Impact
[0]
Placing rugs on the floor can help to insulate this surface. Up to ten percent of a home’s heat
can be lost through an uninsulated floor.433 If it is assumed that this behaviour could reduce such
losses by half, then it would save five percent of the energy required for heating. Given
Townsville’s temperate climate, there is little to no need for heating.434 In terms of cooling, it is a
disadvantage to insulate the floor as it can prevent coolness from underneath the house from
entering. Hence, the impact of this behaviour in Townsville is estimated to be negligible and has
been rated as 0.
Likelihood
[3]
Rugs can be purchased cheaply from importing companies. The decision to use rugs may be
influenced by aesthetic appeal, whether there are indoor animals whose hair may be trapped in
the fibres, by sinus conditions which can be aggravated by dust mites that often live in the fibres
of rugs and whether they can be conveniently placed with furniture and room dimensions. The
mild winters in Townsville may also make residents less likely to use rugs, however in terms of a
means of providing temporary winter warmth without compromising summer cooling, this may
be a preferred behaviour. The likelihood of this behaviour is hence estimated to be moderate.
433
HEAT (2003) Top Tips for Staying Warm, Home Energy Advice Team, ACT Government. Available at:
http://www.heat.net.au/action-advice-page/pdfs/factsheets/old_factsheet_pdfs/top_tips_for_staying_warm_web.pdf, accessed 10
November 2008.
434
Planning Services Special Projects Unit (2009) Guide 5 – Building Materials and Insulation for Townsville Homes, Townsville City
Council. Available at: www.townsville.qld.gov.au/resources/4340.pdf, accessed 05 June 2009.
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138.
Installing and using curtains to provide a thermal layer between the window and
the room [0.66:4]
Impact
[0.66]
This behaviour will reduce electricity consumption in the home by reducing the amount of time
for which mechanical heating and cooling is necessary, and reducing the heating and cooling
load when it is. This behaviour will be mainly relevant to the 53 percent of households in
Townsville who own an air conditioner,435 however other residents may use fans and heaters (it
is assumed that, relative to cooling, household heating will have a small impact due to the
Townsville climate.436
Curtains can reduce the cooling load in two ways – by blocking incoming radiative heat and
partially preventing conductive heat transfer. It is suggested that thick backed curtains can block
up to 30 percent of the incoming heat from windows, which will reduce the load on the air
conditioner.437 This is confirmed by other sources, which suggest that up to 50 percent of
unwanted heat gain in summer comes through the windows, a portion of which may be affected
by curtains (please note that this figure is from a site aimed at business, who may have larger
windows than in residential houses).438 This behaviour does not presume the use of pelmets,
however it is worth noting that to be truly effective, these should also be installed as this will be
the main mechanism by which conductive heat transfer is minimised.
The Queensland EPA estimates that the average home in Queensland uses 2,709kWh a year to
run their air conditioners439 (please note that this may underestimate the amount of electricity
consumed by air conditioners in Townsville households, as the climate in Townsville is warmer
than in many Queensland locations). It will be assumed that curtains can reduce the cooling
needs by 30 percent (author’s estimate, based on information that shading is the most effective
means of reducing heat gain in Townsville homes440), hence this behaviour could reduce the
electricity consumption of a household by 813kWh each year, or 13 percent of the total yearly
consumption of the average Townsville household. The impact of this behaviour has hence
been calculated as 0.66.
The expert review panel commented that whilst this is a top behaviour to promote, its impact will
depend upon the colour of the curtains as well as how well they are sealed (i.e. with pelmets or
some other such structure).
Likelihood
[4]
Curtains may also be installed for aesthetic or privacy reasons. Curtains may, however, be
avoided to allow for unobstructed views, particularly where large windows have been created for
435
Goudie, D. (1995) Sustainable Domestic Energy Use in North Queensland, James Cook University, Australia.
Planning Services Special Projects Unit (2009) Guide 5 – Building Materials and Insulation for Townsville Homes, Townsville City
Council. Available at: www.townsville.qld.gov.au/resources/4340.pdf, accessed 05 June 2009.
437
HEAT (2003) Top Tips for Staying Warm, Home Energy Advice Team, ACT Government. Available at:
http://www.heat.net.au/action-advice-page/pdfs/factsheets/old_factsheet_pdfs/top_tips_for_staying_warm_web.pdf, accessed 10
November 2008.
438
Origin Energy (2008) SME Factsheet, Heating and Air Conditioning, Australia. Available at:
http://www.originenergy.com.au/files/SME_FactSheet_Heating-AirConditioning.pdf, accessed 16 December 2008.
439
Qld EPA (2008) Achieving early and affordable greenhouse gas reductions in Queensland - Strategies for voluntary household
and lifestyle changes, Environmental Protection Agency, Queensland Government. Available at:
http://www.climatechange.qld.gov.au/downloads/downloads/working_paper_1.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008
440
Planning Services Special Projects Unit (2009) Guide 5 – Building Materials and Insulation for Townsville Homes, Townsville City
Council. Available at: www.townsville.qld.gov.au/resources/4340.pdf, accessed 05 June 2009.
436
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this express purpose. Curtains may also reduce the amount of light coming into a room during
the day. Curtains can be purchased cheaply, however thick curtains, or curtains with blockout
(which will provide a more effective thermal layer), will carry a premium. There may be
preferences towards blinds, however these will not be an effective thermal barrier as they allow
air to pass through them.
Australia-wide, the most common measure taken to reduce the amount of heat transfer which
occurs through a window is installing window coverings, such as curtains, with this form of
window protection existing in 47 percent of Australian homes.441
Based on these considerations, the likelihood of this behaviour is assumed to be moderately
high.
ABS (2008) Environmental Issues – Energy Use and Conservation, Australian Bureau of Statistics, Australian Government.
Available at:
http://abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/39433889d406eeb9ca2570610019e9a5/E95A38518401BD24CA25750E00108119?opendocum
ent, accessed 02 December 2008.
441
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139.
In summer, opening windows and louvers during the night (when cooler) and shut
during the day (hot air purging) [1.31:3]
Impact
[1.31]
In summer, open the windows and louvers during the night to allow the cooler air in, and close
them during the day to prevent losses and stop the sun from heating the inside of the house.
This will reduce the need for mechanical cooling, such as an air conditioner. Having windows
open would suggest that the air conditioner is turned off completely during the night. In
Townsville, the difference between the lowest daily temperature and the highest is between 7
and 11 degrees Celsius,442 indicating that there is significant potential within this behaviour to
trap the cooler night time air within the house during the day. The night time temperatures,
however, are above 20 degrees Celsius from October to April and it is suggested that air
conditioners may still be necessary/used to supplement this behaviour.
The Queensland EPA estimates that the average home in Queensland uses 2,709kWh a year to
run their air conditioners443 (please note that this may underestimate the amount of electricity
consumed by air conditioners in Townsville households, as the climate in Townsville is warmer
than in many Queensland locations). It will be assumed that this behaviour can reduce the
cooling needs by 60 percent (based on information that shading is the most effective means of
reducing heat gain in Townsville homes444), hence this behaviour could reduce the electricity
consumption of a household by 1,625kWh each year, or 26 percent of the total yearly
consumption of the average Townsville household. The impact of this behaviour has hence
been calculated as 1.31.
Likelihood
[3]
This will reduce the amount of light coming into the home during the day, which may serve as a
disincentive. It is a repetitive behaviour which needs to be done in the morning, and in the
evening. It may be less likely if the residents are leaving the house to go to work or other
activities in the morning while the house still feels cool and return in the afternoon or evening
(when the house may have heated up). Having windows open at night time may be a security
risk to some households, and having open blinds at night time may raise privacy concerns.
The likelihood of this behaviour is estimated to be moderate.
442
BOM (2009) Climate Statistics for Australian Locations, Bureau of Meteorology, Australian Government. Available at:
http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_032040.shtml, accessed 10 June 2009.
443
Qld EPA (2008) Achieving early and affordable greenhouse gas reductions in Queensland - Strategies for voluntary household
and lifestyle changes, Environmental Protection Agency, Queensland Government. Available at:
http://www.climatechange.qld.gov.au/downloads/downloads/working_paper_1.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008
444
Planning Services Special Projects Unit (2009) Guide 5 – Building Materials and Insulation for Townsville Homes, Townsville City
Council. Available at: www.townsville.qld.gov.au/resources/4340.pdf, accessed 05 June 2009.
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140.
Keeping air conditioning thermostats away from lamps, televisions and computers
[0.22:3]
Impact
[0.22]
Devices such as lamps and televisions emit heat, which if in close proximity to the air
conditioner thermostat will influence the temperature readings, and will cause the air conditioner
to run for longer than is necessary.445 The effect of this is likely to be variable, depending on the
temperature difference between the heat emitting appliance and the room temperature, and the
amount of time for which the air conditioner is operated.
The Queensland EPA estimates that the average home in Queensland uses 2,709kWh a year to
run their air conditioners446 (please note that this may underestimate the amount of electricity
consumed by air conditioners in Townsville households, as the climate in Townsville is warmer
than in many Queensland locations). It will be estimated that this behaviour might prevent an
increase in air conditioner energy consumption by ten percent (author’s estimate). Hence, this
behaviour could reduce the yearly electricity consumption of the average Townsville household
by 270.9kWh, or 4.4 percent. Hence the impact of this behaviour has been calculated to be
0.22.
The expert review panel noted that this can be a significant issue, however they doubted it’s a
common problem. It was also suggested that if the air conditioner is undersized, then this won’t
make much difference (as the air conditioner will be running more frequently already).
Likelihood
[3]
This is a one off behaviour that requires locating such appliances, and the thermostat, in
different parts of the room. Being aware of the impact may assist this behaviour. The likelihood
of this behaviour is estimated to be moderate.
445
US Department of Energy (2009) Room Air Conditioners, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, US Government. Available
at: http://www.energysavers.gov/your_home/space_heating_cooling/index.cfm/mytopic=12420, accessed 23 June 2009.
446
Qld EPA (2008) Achieving early and affordable greenhouse gas reductions in Queensland - Strategies for voluntary household
and lifestyle changes, Environmental Protection Agency, Queensland Government. Available at:
http://www.climatechange.qld.gov.au/downloads/downloads/working_paper_1.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008
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141.
Pointing the louvers of the air conditioner towards the floor [0.10:2]
Impact
[0.10]
Cool air falls, and this behaviour will assist in creating stratified thermal layers and potentially
avoid unnecessary cooling of the area above the householders’ heads.447 It is presumed that the
impact of this behaviour will depend on the location of the thermostat for the air conditioner
relative to the direction of the louvers, as if the thermostat is located with the hot air layer, this
behaviour may increase the electricity consumption of the air conditioner. Given the lack of
information regarding this behaviour, and its potential to increase the electricity consumption,
the impact is has been rated as low, and assigned a value of 0.10.
The expert review panel suggested that if the ceiling is uninsulated, then this may in fact
increase energy consumption.
Likelihood
[2]
This behaviour assumes that the louvers of an air conditioner are manoeuvrable, and that a
household is aware of how to adjust them. Given the lack of consensus over this behaviour and
that not all models of air conditioners have manoeuvrable louvers, the likelihood of this
behaviour is estimated to be moderate to low.
447
DME (e) (2008) Energy Wise Tips, Department of Mines and Energy, Queensland Government. Available at:
http://www.dme.qld.gov.au/Energy/energywise_tips.cfm, accessed 03 November 2008.
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Using a programmable thermostat on air conditioners [0.22:2]
Impact
[0.22]
This behaviour will save electricity in the home by potentially reducing the amount of time for
which air conditioners are left running, and/or by the amount which the temperature setting on
the thermostat is adjusted. There is an inherent assumption in this behaviour that currently
households leave air conditioners to run at times when it isn’t needed, or have the thermostat
set lower than necessary. Programmable thermostats can save electricity by adjusting the
temperature when it is not needed to be as low (in summer, or high in winter), for example once
the household has gone to bed, or when they are out of the house.448 Its impact will depend on
how it is used, for instance whether the temperatures which are programmed in are more
moderate than what was previously being used. Also, if the household did not actually use
mechanical heating or cooling for most of the time and only turned it on as needed, then this
may result in greater electricity consumption. No metrics have been found for the amount by
which this behaviour has been found to reduce air conditioner electricity consumption. However,
the Queensland EPA estimates that the average home in Queensland uses 2,709kWh a year to
run their air conditioners449 (please note that this may underestimate the amount of electricity
consumed by air conditioners in Townsville households, as the climate in Townsville is warmer
than in many Queensland locations). It will be estimated that this behaviour might decrease air
conditioner energy consumption by ten percent (author’s estimate). Hence, this behaviour could
reduce the yearly electricity consumption of the average Townsville household by 270.9kWh, or
4.4 percent. Hence the impact of this behaviour has been calculated to be 0.22. Please note that
these estimates are based on numerous assumptions and may not accurately reflect the
situation in many households. This behaviour will only reduce electricity consumptions in
households whose air conditioning usage is currently more than it would be with a
programmable thermostat. Many households may already be economic in their use of their air
conditioners, or not use these at all.
Likelihood
[2]
Programmable thermostats can cost CA$50, and in Canada, the payback period is typically
within a year. They are easy to install by the resident, and the programmed settings can be
overridden if desired.450 A survey in the USA, conducted by EcoPinion, found that only 4 percent
of respondents would purchase a programmable thermostat if they had an extra $200 (52
percent said they would put this money in the bank, 9 percent said they would purchase energy
efficient appliances, 7 percent would put it towards a family vacation (several more responses,
please see the survey results)).451
The likelihood of this behaviour, given these considerations (which, it is noted, relate to North
America and may not reflect the behaviour of households in Townsville) is assumed to be
moderately low.
448
US Department of Energy (2009) Programmable Thermostats, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, US Government.
Available at: http://www1.eere.energy.gov/consumer/tips/thermostats.html, accessed 26 June 2009.
449
Qld EPA (2008) Achieving early and affordable greenhouse gas reductions in Queensland - Strategies for voluntary household
and lifestyle changes, Environmental Protection Agency, Queensland Government. Available at:
http://www.climatechange.qld.gov.au/downloads/downloads/working_paper_1.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008
450
Energy Solutions Alberta (2009) Programmable Thermostats, Climate Change Central, Canada. Available at:
http://www.climatechangecentral.com/take-action/individual/energy-efficiency/heating/programmable-thermostats, accessed 23 June
2009.
451
Wimberly, J. (a) (2008) Banking the Green: Incentives for EE and renewable, EcoPinion, Issue 4, August, EcoAlign.
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143.
Setting the thermostat to (no lower than) 25oC in summer [0.44:3]
Impact
[0.44]
This behaviour will reduce the electricity consumption of a household relative to the amount by
which the temperature setting on the thermostat is reduced by what it would have otherwise
been set at. For each degree of extra cooling, the electricity consumption of the air conditioner
will increase by 10 percent.452 The Queensland EPA suggests that average air conditioner usage
in the Queensland home equates to around 2,709kWh per year (2008, p21). Hence, for each
degree warmer at which that the thermostat is set, around 271kWh a year would be saved. It is
difficult to determine the amount of electricity this behaviour could save overall, as it depends on
the initial temperature setting, the insulation and other measures in the home to maintain a
cooler temperature inside the home, the efficiency of the home and so on. A 2006 survey found
that 30.1 percent of households set their air conditioner at 24 degrees Celsius, 32 percent had it
lower and 16.2 percent higher.453 Hence, if it is assumed that this behaviour might result in a
household turning up the thermostat on their air conditioner by two degrees, for the sake of
providing some comparable estimate, then this behaviour would save 542kWh or 8.7 percent of
the yearly electricity consumption of the household. The impact of this behaviour has
accordingly been calculated to be 0.44.
Likelihood
[3]
This is an ongoing, repetitive behaviour. However, most air conditioners retain the previous
settings, hence once chosen, it is likely that the household will continue to use a more moderate
temperature setting. Furthermore, the household may become accustomed to a more moderate
temperature and this may encourage the ongoing use of this behaviour to save energy (this
does not suggest that there will be any greater likelihood of the thermostat being changed in the
initial instance).
A 2006 survey found that 30.1 percent of households set their air conditioner at 24 degrees
Celsius, 32 percent had it lower and 16.2 percent higher.454 Thus, on the basis of this
information, it is estimated that the likelihood of this behaviour is moderate.
The expert review panel commented that air conditioner temperatures relate to complex
behaviours. Most people want to ‘feel cold’ when the air conditioner is on. Also, radiant head
loads resulting from uninsulated ceilings, halogen lights, and the sun entering the room through
windows can increase the discomfort of inhabitants even if the temperature remains steady. As
noted, many people set their air conditioners to maximum cold.
Milne, G. (b) (2008) 6.2 Heating and Cooling – Technical Manual, Design for Lifestyle and the Future, Commonwealth of
Australia. Available at: http://www.yourhome.gov.au/technical/fs62.html, accessed 29 September 2008.
453
Qld EPA (2008) Achieving early and affordable greenhouse gas reductions in Queensland - Strategies for voluntary household
and lifestyle changes, Environmental Protection Agency, Queensland Government. Available at:
http://www.climatechange.qld.gov.au/downloads/downloads/working_paper_1.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008
454
Qld EPA (2008) Achieving early and affordable greenhouse gas reductions in Queensland - Strategies for voluntary household
and lifestyle changes, Environmental Protection Agency, Queensland Government. Available at:
http://www.climatechange.qld.gov.au/downloads/downloads/working_paper_1.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008
452
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144.
Replacing old model air conditioners with a more efficient model [0.66:2]
Impact
[0.66]
The Energy Star website notes that if an air conditioner is more than 12 years old, replacing it
with an Energy Star qualified model will reduce the electricity consumed for cooling by up to 30
percent.455 Air conditioners which are qualified under this US rating system are in general 14
percent more efficient than standard models. Energy Star has been adopted by the Australian
Government, however principally to target standby electricity consumption.456 The Energy Rating
scheme also addresses air conditioners. Single phase, non-ducted air conditioners for
residential use are regulated for energy labelling and Minimum Energy Performance Standards
(MEPS) in Australia, and three phase and single phase ducted air conditioners with up to 65kW
cooling capacity are regulated by MEPS, and manufacturers can chose to label their product if
they like. This information is from June 2007, and more stringent regulations are being
considered to ensure even greater efficiencies.457 Hence, it is likely that a new air conditioner will
be significantly more energy efficient, and for the purposes of providing some estimate for the
potential electricity savings, it will be assumed that a new air conditioner will reduce the
electricity used for air conditioning by 30 percent, as is the case in the USA. The Queensland
EPA estimates that the average home in Queensland uses 2,709kWh a year to run their air
conditioners458 (please note that this may underestimate the amount of electricity consumed by
air conditioners in Townsville households, as the climate in Townsville is warmer than in many
Queensland locations). Hence, this behaviour could reduce the yearly electricity consumption of
the average Townsville household by 813kWh, or 13.2 percent. Hence the impact of this
behaviour has been calculated to be 0.66.
The expert review panel noted that the most efficient air conditioners which are currently for sale
are ‘off the scale, with the ranking systems not able to reflect their high levels of efficiency.
Likelihood
[2]
This would be likely if the older model stopped working, as there can be significant costs
involved in the purchase and installation of new air conditioners. It may also be more likely
where the older model did not effectively cool the space. In Western Australia, SEDO calculates
life cycle costs of air conditioners over 12 years as an estimate of how often air conditioners are
replaced.459 It is assumed that this behaviour would be moderately likely.
The expert review panel suggested that this behaviour may have a lower likelihood than it was
given here. Hence, the likelihood has been decreased accordingly.
455
Energy Star (undated) Central Air Conditioners, US EPA and US Department of Energy, USA. Available at:
http://www.energystar.gov/index.cfm?c=cac.pr_central_ac, accessed 23 June 2009.
456
DEWHA (2005) About Energy Star, Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, Australian Government.
Available at: http://www.energystar.gov.au/about/index.html, accessed 23 June 2009.
457
DEWHA (2007) Requirements for Air conditioners - Program Overview and Test Procedures, Energy Rating, Department of the
Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, Australian Government. Available at: http://www.energyrating.gov.au/rac1.html,
accessed 25 November 2008.
458
Qld EPA (2008) Achieving early and affordable greenhouse gas reductions in Queensland - Strategies for voluntary household
and lifestyle changes, Environmental Protection Agency, Queensland Government. Available at:
http://www.climatechange.qld.gov.au/downloads/downloads/working_paper_1.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008
459
SEDO (2004) Your Guide to Energy Smart Air Conditioners, Sustainable Energy Development Office, Government of Western
Australia. Available at: http://www.sedo.energy.wa.gov.au/uploads/Air-Conditioners_65.pdf, accessed 25 November 2008.
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145.
Installing pelmets (or a structure to prevent air flow) above curtains [0.22:4]
Impact
[0.22]
Pelmets are particularly effective in reducing the loss of heated air from inside a room, as hot air
will rise, and if the gap between the curtain and the window isn’t sealed by a curtain, it can pass
over the top and through the window (which typically is able to transfer heat much more
effectively than a wall). This creates a thermal current, where hot air is sucked over the top of
the curtain, and cool air is pushed out the bottom, thereby reducing the effectiveness of the
curtain.460 Thick backed curtains can reduce the heat transmission from the window by thirty
percent,461 and pelmets will assist in ensuring this heat does not then travel into the room via the
gap between the curtain and the window or wall. No estimates were found for the amount by
which this behaviour might reduce the heating and cooling requirements of a house. As this
behaviour will only assist when the curtains are closed, and will prevent some portion of the heat
which enters through the window and hits the curtain from entering the room, it will be estimated
that it could decrease the cooling requirements by ten percent (however this is an estimate,
which will also depend on the number of windows in the house, their facing, external window
shading, window tinting, air conditioner usage and so on). On the basis of such an estimate, this
behaviour has the potential to reduce the yearly air conditioning consumption by 270.9kWh
(based on the Queensland EPA’s estimate that the average house in Queensland uses
2709kWh for cooling each year462). It is assumed that the heating requirements of houses in
Townsville are negligible. Hence, this behaviour could save 4.4 percent of the total yearly
electricity consumption, and the impact of this behaviour has been calculated as 0.22.
Likelihood
[4]
Pelmets are essentially a box around the top of a curtain rod. These can generally be
constructed at home from wood, or even cardboard or by stuffing fabric across the top of the
curtain rail. They can also be purchased, and ready made kits are available that can be
assembled and installed without the use of screws, glue, tools or cutting implements.463
Conversations with an Australian manufacturer of such pelmets suggests prices range from
under $70 to $140 for a pelmet to go across a standard 2 meter window, and these are supplied
with a DVD to be installed by the homeowner464 Australia wide, the most common measure taken
to reduce the amount of heat transfer which occurs through a window is installing window
coverings, such as pelmets and curtains, with this form of window protection existing in 47
percent of Australian homes.465 Curtains and pelmets may be installed for aesthetic purposes, or
to provide greater privacy to the household. Hence, it is estimated that this behaviour is
moderately to highly likely.
460
Your Green Dream (nd) How pelmets drop your heating bills dramatically. Available at:
http://www.yourgreendream.com/articles_pelmets.php, accessed 10 November 2008.
461
HEAT (2003) Top Tips for Staying Warm, Home Energy Advice Team, ACT Government. Available at:
http://www.heat.net.au/action-advice-page/pdfs/factsheets/old_factsheet_pdfs/top_tips_for_staying_warm_web.pdf, accessed 10
November 2008.
462
Qld EPA (2008) Achieving early and affordable greenhouse gas reductions in Queensland - Strategies for voluntary household
and lifestyle changes, Environmental Protection Agency, Queensland Government. Available at:
http://www.climatechange.qld.gov.au/downloads/downloads/working_paper_1.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008
463
Variety Furnishings, (2006) Pelmets, Australia. Available at: http://www.varietyfurnishings.com.au/, accessed 10 November 2008.
464
Personal Communications, Variety Furnishings, Australia. Available at: http://www.varietyfurnishings.com.au/, November 2008.
465
ABS (2008) Environmental Issues – Energy Use and Conservation, Australian Bureau of Statistics, Australian Government.
Available at:
http://abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/39433889d406eeb9ca2570610019e9a5/E95A38518401BD24CA25750E00108119?opendocum
ent, accessed 02 December 2008.
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146.
Using a hot water bottle rather than electric blanket in winter [0.01:2]
Impact
[0.01]
An electric blanket will consume, on average, 60 watts for a single blanket and 100 watts for a
double blanket.466 Townsville has mild winters, with the minimum July temperatures reaching
13.6 degrees Celsius,467 hence it can be assumed that there would be few nights when an
electric blanket would be used. For the purposes of providing some estimate, it will be assumed
that this behaviour will save such a blanket from being used for 20 nights of the year, for eight
hours each night.
A hot water bottle will require around 500mL of water to be boiled. The heat capacity of water is
4.18kJ per kg, per degree of change (4.18kJ∙kg-1K-1). Hence, for each 500mL that a household
boils, (500g of water), assuming the water is originally at around 22oC, this will consume 163kJ
of energy (approximately 0.046kWh) (please note that this calculation assumes perfect
efficiency of whatever appliance is used to heat the water).
This would hence save between 9.6kWh and 16kWh a year, and would reduce the yearly
electricity consumption of the average Townsville household by between 0.15 and 2.5 percent.
Its impact has been calculated to be 0.01.
Likelihood
[2]
Townsville has, as mentioned above, a dry tropical climate with mild winters. It is likely that few
households in Townsville own an electric blanket, which may make this behaviour somewhat
redundant. Nonetheless, the factors which may influence the decision to use an electric blanket,
assuming one is owned by a household, may include the ambient temperature, personal
resilience to that temperature (which may be in turn affected by age, health and personality) and
habit. It is assumed that the likelihood of this behaviour, for those households who own an
electric blanket, would be low to moderate.
466
US Department of Energy (2009) Estimating Appliance and Home Electronic Energy Use, Energy Efficiency and Renewable
Energy, US Government. Available at: http://www.energysavers.gov/your_home/appliances/index.cfm/mytopic=10040, accessed 23
June 2009.
467
BOM (2007) Climate Statistics for Australian Locations, Bureau of Meteorology, Australia. Available at:
http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_032040.shtml, accessed 08 December 2008.
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147.
Cleaning the filters of air conditioners to ensure they are working efficiently
[0.22:4]
Impact
[0.22]
This behaviour will reduce the electricity consumption of a home by helping the air conditioner to
operate more efficiently. Clogged filters can increase the electricity usage of an air conditioner
by 5 to 15 percent.
The Queensland EPA estimates that the average home in Queensland uses 2,709kWh a year to
run their air conditioners468 (please note that this may underestimate the amount of electricity
consumed by air conditioners in Townsville households, as the climate in Townsville is warmer
than in many Queensland locations).
Hence, the electricity savings from this behaviour, given the above assumptions, would sum to
between 135kWh and 406kWh a year, reducing the electricity consumption of the average
Townsville household by between 2 and 6.5 percent. The impact of this behaviour has been
calculated to be between 0.1 and 0.33, and has been averaged at 0.22.
The expert review panel clarified the impact of this behaviour in noting that a clogged filter will
decrease the compressor efficiency and load the fan more heavily, however commented that it
is hard to ascertain how big the effect would be.
Likelihood
[4]
From conversations with a consultant469 from Polar Refrigeration and Air Conditioning, it would
appear that this behaviour is not difficult to undertake as most air conditioning units have easily
removable and cleanable filters. Households may be encouraged to undertake this behaviour
when they notice that they air conditioner is not cooling as effectively as it had previously or
when it is noticed to not be operating as normal. The likelihood of this behaviour is assumed to
be moderate to high.
468
Qld EPA (2008) Achieving early and affordable greenhouse gas reductions in Queensland - Strategies for voluntary household
and lifestyle changes, Environmental Protection Agency, Queensland Government. Available at:
http://www.climatechange.qld.gov.au/downloads/downloads/working_paper_1.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008
469
Polar Refrigeration and Air Conditioning, Sunny (2008) Personal Communications, 17 December, 23 Hilton Way, Mt. Louisa,
Townsville Queensland.
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148.
Regularly servicing air conditioners to maintain optimal efficiency [0.60:2]
Impact
[0.60]
This behaviour will reduce electricity consumption in the home by maximising the efficiency of
air conditioners. An air conditioner which isn’t maintained can use 10 percent more electricity. 470
Another source suggested that the impact can be significantly higher when the cumulative effect
of many potential faults in the air conditioner is taken into effect. For instance, if the refrigerant
needs recharging then doing so can increase the energy efficiency by 20 percent. Also, if the
airflow rate over the indoor cool isn’t properly adjusted, the system can use 5 to 10 percent more
electricity to provide the same cooling effect. Similarly, if the air conditioning system isn’t
properly sealed and insulated, it will use between 10 and 15 percent more electricity.471 If all of
these factors were in need of maintenance, the system efficiency could be improved by around
45 percent through having it serviced.
The Queensland EPA estimates that the average home in Queensland uses 2,709kWh a year to
run their air conditioners472 (please note that this may underestimate the amount of electricity
consumed by air conditioners in Townsville households, as the climate in Townsville is warmer
than in many Queensland locations).
Hence, the electricity savings from this behaviour, given the above assumptions, would sum to
271kWh a year if a ten percent increase in efficiency was achieved, and potentially as high as
1219kWh per year if a 45 percent increase results. This would reduce the average Townsville
household’s yearly electricity usage by between 4.4 and 20 percent, hence the impact of this
behaviour has been calculated to be between 0.22 and 0.99, and has been averaged as 0.60.
The expert review panel commented that besides checking the filter, refrigerant levels and
clearing vegetation there may be little else needing to be done.
Likelihood
[2]
The likelihood of this behaviour may be influenced by several factors, such as the cost of having
a technician service the air conditioner, or a household’s ability to do this themselves. Some
sites recommend that an air conditioner be serviced every two to three years, 473 which requires
households to remember that this might need to be done which may be harder to do across
such a timeframe.
From conversations with a consultant from Polar Refrigeration and Air Conditioning, it appears
that a general service of an air conditioner would cost around $100. Air conditioning mechanics
typically charge by the hour (between $80 and $90 and hour, with a service taking on average
one hour) however during summer they are heavily booked. At the time of calling (17 December
2008), it would have been a month’s wait before a mechanic was free, and they were only able
to service units which they had actually installed due to demand. It was also recommended that
units be serviced on a yearly basis, and from the demand at that time it would appear that this
470
Origin Energy (2008) SME Factsheet, Heating and Air Conditioning, Australia. Available at:
http://www.originenergy.com.au/files/SME_FactSheet_Heating-AirConditioning.pdf, accessed 16 December 2008.
471
Alcoa, (2008) Cooling Energy and Saving Tips, Alcoa Inc. & Pew Center on Climate Change, Available at:
http://www.alcoa.com/makeanimpact/en/tips/tips.asp?cat_id=at_home_cooling, accessed 17 December 2008.
472
Qld EPA (2008) Achieving early and affordable greenhouse gas reductions in Queensland - Strategies for voluntary household
and lifestyle changes, Environmental Protection Agency, Queensland Government. Available at:
http://www.climatechange.qld.gov.au/downloads/downloads/working_paper_1.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008
473
Alcoa, (2008) Cooling Energy and Saving Tips, Alcoa Inc. & Pew Center on Climate Change, Available at:
http://www.alcoa.com/makeanimpact/en/tips/tips.asp?cat_id=at_home_cooling, accessed 17 December 2008.
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behaviour would be quite likely. It was indicated that residents are often aware that their unit
needs a service as it is not cooling effectively or operating as usual. 474
On the basis of this information, the likelihood of this behaviour has been estimated to be
moderate.
The expert review panel suggested that this behaviour was less likely than allowed for here,
hence the rating has been decreased.
474
Polar Refrigeration and Air Conditioning, Sunny (2008) Personal Communications, 17 December, 23 Hilton Way, Mt. Louisa,
Townsville Queensland.
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149.
Switch off the air conditioner in rooms not being used and when you leave the
house [0.42:2]
Impact
[0.42]
This behaviour will reduce electricity consumption in the home by decreasing the amount of time
for which an air conditioner is used. This behaviour has an inherent assumption that households
currently do not switch off the air conditioner every time they leave a room or the house, and the
impact of this behaviour is hence dependent upon the percentage of time for which the air
conditioner is unnecessarily running.
With no information regarding air conditioner usage patterns in Townsville, it is difficult to assess
the impact of this behaviour. If it were assumed that for ten percent of the time for which air
conditioners are used, no one is in that cooled space, then the energy saving would be between
50kWh and 69kWh a year. This is based on assumption that the average home in Queensland
uses 2,709kWh a year to run their air conditioners.475 This behaviour could hence reduce the
electricity consumption of the average Townsville household by between 0.8 and 1.1 percent,
and the impact of this behaviour has been calculated to be an average of 0.05.
The expert review panel noted that this behaviour in fact encompasses two issues: the need for
zoning within a house to enable individual rooms to be air conditioned, and switching air
conditioners off when a room or the whole house is vacated. The panel considered this
behaviour to have a higher impact, hence the rating has been adjusted.
Likelihood
[2]
This behaviour is likely to be influenced by several factors. Whilst turning the air conditioner off
when leaving the room will not affect the ‘service’ provided by the air conditioner (i.e.,
temperature comfort during the heat of summer), it may inconvenience households by having to
switch the appliance on and off repetitively. When the time for which the room will be vacated is
short, this may be a large barrier to this behaviour. Some households may leave the air
conditioner on to ensure that the room is cold when the return to it at a later stage, or there may
be a perception that it is more energy efficient to maintain the temperature of the room than to
allow it to warm, and then cool it again later. The likelihood of this behaviour is estimated to be
low to moderate.
This behaviour is made less likely, according the to expert review panel, by undersized air
conditioners and thermally poor building designs which do not retain the conditioned air
effectively. In such situations households are likely to leave air conditioners operating while
they’re out so that the whole room will be cool upon their return. It was also noted that some
energy retailers also encourage air conditioners to be left on during the middle of the day, as it
can reduce the peak afternoon load while increasing their sales revenue.
475
Qld EPA (2008) Achieving early and affordable greenhouse gas reductions in Queensland - Strategies for voluntary household
and lifestyle changes, Environmental Protection Agency, Queensland Government. Available at:
http://www.climatechange.qld.gov.au/downloads/downloads/working_paper_1.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008
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150.
Dressing appropriately to minimise the need for mechanical cooling [0.22:4.5]
Impact
[0.22]
This behaviour will reduce energy consumption in the home by reducing the need for
mechanical cooling. By dressing appropriately, households may enhance the ability of natural
processes such as evaporation, convection and conduction to remove the heat from their bodies
and reduce the sensation of being too warm. This behaviour has an inherent assumption that
currently, individuals do not dress appropriately in summer and are as a result using mechanical
forms of cooling to achieve comfort during hot weather.
At temperatures of around 25 degrees Celsius, an air movement of between 0.5 and 1.0 meters
per second will have a similar cooling effect to a room-temperature reduction of around 2 to 3
degrees.476 Heavy fabrics will trap body warmth to the body and reduce the effectiveness of the
body’s natural cooling mechanisms.
To assess the impact of this behaviour, several assumptions are necessary. It is assumed that
households will limit the use of mechanical cooling proportional to how comfortable a change in
clothing will make them feel. The Queensland EPA estimates that the average home in
Queensland uses 2,709kWh a year to run their air conditioner.477
It is proposed that this behaviour may reduce the cooling demand (through the amount of time
for which it is needed, and the load when it is) by around 10 percent. This would result in yearly
savings of between 271kWh per year, reducing the electricity consumption of the average
Townsville household by 4.4 percent. Thus, the impact of this behaviour has been calculated to
be 0.22.
Likelihood
[4.5]
This behaviour is likely to be influenced by factors such as societal norms and expectations
which may dictate a certain style of clothing. For instance, the employment or daily activities of
some individuals require suits, long sleeves, long pants or protective clothing. Similarly, cultural
expectations may require some individuals to cover their body or to wear heavier fabrics. This
behaviour may also be influenced by individual preferences for a certain style of dress, and the
type of clothes that they own.
Given the warm, tropical climate in Townsville,478 it would be more likely that places of
employment, as well as societal norms, would favour clothing which is suited to the climate. It is
assumed that, even if households are expected to wear clothing which is inappropriate for the
climate to school, work or other activities, that when in the home they would change into clothing
which is more comfortable. It is proposed that this behaviour is hence highly likely.
476
SEA (nd), Window Protection, Sustainable Energy Authority, Government of Victoria. Available at:
http://www.sustainability.vic.gov.au/resources/documents/Window_protection.pdf, accessed 01 November 2008.
477
Qld EPA (2008) Achieving early and affordable greenhouse gas reductions in Queensland - Strategies for voluntary household
and lifestyle changes, Environmental Protection Agency, Queensland Government. Available at:
http://www.climatechange.qld.gov.au/downloads/downloads/working_paper_1.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008
478
BOM (2007) Climate Statistics for Australian Locations, Bureau of Meteorology, Australia. Available at:
http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_032040.shtml, accessed 08 December 200
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151.
Shutting internal doors to rooms not being used when the air conditioner is being
used [1.09:3]
Impact
[1.09]
This behaviour will reduce the electricity consumption in the home by reducing the load on an air
conditioner. Leaving doors open will allow a constant mixing of the cooled air with the warmer air
from other parts of the house (and potentially outside the house also). As air conditioners
generally have a thermostat which switches the system off when the air temperature reaches
the desired level, not shutting doors will cause the air temperature to remain at a higher level
and may cause the air conditioner to work a lot harder.
No metrics have been found for the increase this may have on air conditioner electricity
consumption. It is likely to be a reflection on the number of factors which would affect the impact
of this behaviour, such as the size and type of air conditioner being used, the insulation in the
house, the difference between the temperature setting on the thermostat and the ambient air
temperature, the size of the doors and the size of the rooms to which they lead.
It is hence difficult to assess the impact of this behaviour, however it is assumed to be quite
large. The following information may provide some background context to this behaviour.
The climate in Townsville is such that the mean temperature at 3pm is over 29 degrees Celsius
from November until March and is just less than 29 degrees Celsius in October and April.479 It
could be assumed that air conditioners could potentially be used for a large portion of this time.
The Queensland EPA estimates that the average home in Queensland uses 2,709kWh a year to
run their air conditioners480 however, this may underestimate the amount of electricity consumed
by air conditioners in Townsville households.
This average would be based on the assumption that the air conditioner is only having to cool
the space for which it was designed, and it could be assumed that not undertaking this
behaviour would result in an electricity consumption which was larger than this. It’s assumed
that this behaviour could prevent an increase in the electricity needed by up to 50 percent,
resulting in yearly savings of 1355kWh or around 21.8 percent of the yearly electricity
consumption of the average household. The impact of this behaviour is calculated to be 1.09.
Likelihood
[3]
Households may be very likely to undertake this behaviour as leaving internal doors open, and
hence allowing cooled air to escape, would result in the air-conditioned room not achieving the
desired temperature. It is anticipated that this would create a strong motivation to individuals to
keep the doors shut as much as possible. This behaviour may be less likely where the
household would like to move between rooms and opening and closing the doors is an
inconvenience. The likelihood of this behaviour, based on these considerations, is estimated to
be moderate.
479
BOM (2007) Climate Statistics for Australian Locations, Bureau of Meteorology, Australia. Available at:
http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_032040.shtml, accessed 08 December 2008
480
Qld EPA (2008) Achieving early and affordable greenhouse gas reductions in Queensland - Strategies for voluntary household
and lifestyle changes, Environmental Protection Agency, Queensland Government. Available at:
http://www.climatechange.qld.gov.au/downloads/downloads/working_paper_1.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008
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152.
The installation of centralised systems (if required) with zone controls and
thermostats [0.01:3]
Impact
[0.01]
This behaviour will reduce electricity consumption in the home relative to the amount by which it
allows a household to control and moderate the temperature and use of air conditioning in
various rooms of the house. The actual temperature is generally set at the air conditioning unit
(however programs can be created to regulate the overall temperature automatically) however
the volume of cooled air which is delivered to various rooms can be controlled using zone
controls. Households can thus select to decrease or increase the amount of cooled air which is
delivered to certain rooms depending on what might be appropriate for the activities in that room
and, if appropriate, to not air condition some rooms at all.481 Zone controls may also reduce the
electricity consumption of an air conditioner by allowing different sections of a house to be
monitored and controlled by separate thermostats. This allows certain rooms, such as those with
a lot of windows or on the western face of the house, which may have a larger cooling load to be
cooled differently to rooms which are well insulated or on the northern face of the house.
It is difficult to assess the impact of this behaviour as it depends entirely on the specific nature of
a house and how it is cooled. The following information may provide some background context
to this behaviour.
The climate in Townsville is such that the mean temperature at 3pm is over 29 degrees Celsius
from November until March and is just less than 29 degrees Celsius in October and April.482 It
could be assumed that air conditioners could potentially be used for a large portion of this time.
The efficiency of air conditioners, and their electricity consumption, can be ascertained to a
degree from their Star Rating. For instance, a three and a half star rated air conditioner with a
2.6kW output (NationWide Electric, WL-252DCX) uses 0.95kW of power, where as a six star
rated air conditioner with the same output (Panasonic) uses 0.69kW.483 The Queensland EPA
estimates that the average home in Queensland uses 2,709kWh a year to run their air
conditioners484 (please note that this may underestimate the amount of electricity consumed by
air conditioners in Townsville households, as the climate in Townsville is warmer than in many
Queensland locations).
For each degree of extra cooling, the air conditioner will use 10 percent more electricity.485
Hence, reducing the temperature of the air conditioner using pre-programmed settings will
reduce the overall electricity consumption of the air conditioner proportionally (for instance, if the
programme reduces the temperature by one degree for twenty percent of the overall air
conditioned time, then it would be assumed that the overall electricity consumption would be
reduced by 2 percent, or 54kWh a year. Similarly, by varying the cooling load to regions of the
481
Polyaire (2007) Zone Master, Polyaire Pty Ltd, Australia. Available at:
http://www.polyaire.com.au/resources/ZmBrochure2007.pdf, accessed 17 December 2008.
482
BOM (2007) Climate Statistics for Australian Locations, Bureau of Meteorology, Australia. Available at:
http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_032040.shtml, accessed 08 December 2008
483
DEWHA (nd) Search and compare appliances, Energy Rating, Department of Water, Heritage and the Arts, Australian
Government. Available at: http://www.energyrating.gov.au/appsearch/default.asp, accessed 17 November 2008.
484
Qld EPA (2008) Achieving early and affordable greenhouse gas reductions in Queensland - Strategies for voluntary household
and lifestyle changes, Environmental Protection Agency, Queensland Government. Available at:
http://www.climatechange.qld.gov.au/downloads/downloads/working_paper_1.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008
485
Milne, G. (b) (2008) 6.2 Heating and Cooling – Technical Manual, Design for Lifestyle and the Future, Commonwealth of
Australia. Available at: http://www.yourhome.gov.au/technical/fs62.html, accessed 29 September 2008.
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Identification and Assessment of Homeowner Behaviours Related to Reducing Residential Energy Demand
house, it may be possible to decrease the overall volume of air which the air conditioner is
required to deliver, however metrics are not available to suggest the amount by which this would
reduce the electricity demand of the air conditioner. It is estimated that the impact of this
behaviour would be highly variable, and has been approximated at 0.01.
It is worth noting that some zone controls and pre-programmed setting may actually use more
electricity, where the thermostat is set at a higher level than the household would have chosen
at that time, and where the zone controls air condition rooms which may have not been
otherwise air conditioned.
Likelihood
[3]
There are a wide variety of zone controls on the market. Some are able to be used with most
models of central air conditioners, however others have specific requirements that make
retrofitting difficult.486 Retrofitting an existing system can require extensive work, as joints, fans
and motors may need to be replaced.487 Hence, this behaviour may be more likely to occur when
new systems are being purchased and installed. The likelihood of this behaviour is estimated to
be moderate.
486
Polyaire (2007) Zone Master, Polyaire Pty Ltd, Australia. Available at:
http://www.polyaire.com.au/resources/ZmBrochure2007.pdf, accessed 17 December 2008.
487
Advantage Air (2008) Personal communications with Siug, December 17.
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153.
Using ceiling fans rather than, or in addition to, an air conditioner [0.06:3]
Impact
[0.06]
This behaviour will reduce electricity consumption by enabling households to feel more
comfortable in the summer heat with minimal air conditioner use. Ceiling fans use significantly
less electricity than air conditions, consuming between 65 and 175 watts.488 The efficiency of air
conditioners, and their electricity consumption, can be ascertained to a degree from their Star
Rating. For instance, a three and a half star rated air conditioner with a 2.6kW output
(NationWide Electric, WL-252DCX) uses 0.95kW of power, where as a six star rated air
conditioner with the same output (Panasonic) uses 0.69kW. 489
At temperatures of around 25 degrees Celsius, an air movement of between 0.5 and 1.0 meters
per second will have a similar cooling effect to a room-temperature reduction of around 2 to 3
degrees.490
Given that from October to April, the mean monthly maximum temperature in Townsville is
above 29 degrees Celsius, it will be assumed that for a large portion of this time, air conditioners
could potentially be used.491 The Queensland EPA estimates that the average home in
Queensland uses 2,709kWh a year to run their air conditioners492 (please note that this may
underestimate the amount of electricity consumed by air conditioners in Townsville households,
as the climate in Townsville is warmer than in many Queensland locations).
If this behaviour was performed for all of this time, and resulted in the temperature setting of the
thermostat being reduced by 2 degrees, then it would save between around 357kWh a year
(taking into account the additional use of the ceiling fan, which has been estimated to run for
approximately 2,800 hours a year. This amount of time has been arrived at by dividing the
average yearly electricity consumption by the wattage of currently available air conditioners
(quoted above) to provide an average running time. It is recognised that this may overestimate
the amount of time for which air conditioners are used, as these quoted wattages are for
currently available models which may be significantly more efficient than those in use in many
homes, however this is intended to give an indication only).
The impact of this behaviour, based on these assumptions, has been calculated to be 0.06.
As noted by the expert review panel, this behaviour could increase the energy consumption of a
house if many fans are run at once to replace one (efficient) air conditioning unit.
Likelihood
[3]
This behaviour assumes that a household has both an air conditioner and a ceiling fan, or that a
home with an air conditioner would be willing to install a ceiling fan. The type of cooling achieved
488
EERE (2005) Estimating Appliance and Home Electronic Energy Use, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, US Department
of Energy, USA. Available at: http://apps1.eere.energy.gov/consumer/your_home/appliances/index.cfm/mytopic=10040, accessed
08 December 2008.
489
DEWHA (nd) Search and compare appliances, Energy Rating, Department of Water, Heritage and the Arts, Australian
Government. Available at: http://www.energyrating.gov.au/appsearch/default.asp, accessed 17 November 2008.
490
SEA (nd) Air Movement, Sustainable Energy Authority, Government of Victoria, Australia, p21. Available at:
http://www.sustainability.vic.gov.au/resources/documents/Air_movement.pdf, accessed 11 December 2008.
491
BOM (2007) Climate Statistics for Australian Locations, Bureau of Meteorology, Australia. Available at:
http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_032040.shtml, accessed 08 December 2008.
492
Qld EPA (2008) Achieving early and affordable greenhouse gas reductions in Queensland - Strategies for voluntary household
and lifestyle changes, Environmental Protection Agency, Queensland Government. Available at:
http://www.climatechange.qld.gov.au/downloads/downloads/working_paper_1.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008
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by these two appliances and a preference for one over the other may influence this decision.
The ‘refrigerative’ cooling achieved by air conditioners works best when the space being cooled
is isolated using doors, curtains and other measures. Given Townsville’s climate,493 it may be
likely that there are a number of open plan, Queenslander style homes, in which ceiling fans
would work more effectively.
This behaviour may be more influenced by other factors, such as the age and health of the
inhabitants (older or less healthy persons may be less resistant to high temperatures) and the
presence of mosquitoes which may lead individuals to prefer shutting windows and night time
and using an air conditioner, rather than leaving them open and using a ceiling fan.
This behaviour may have the potential to save significant amounts of money for the household,
and based on Tariff 11 prices in Queensland (as of July 2009 (17.13 cents per kWh)494), the
above electricity savings would translate to AUD$61 a year.
The likelihood of this behaviour, based on these considerations, is estimated to be moderate.
493
BOM (2007) Climate Statistics for Australian Locations, Bureau of Meteorology, Australia. Available at:
http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_032040.shtml, accessed 08 December 2008.
494
DME (2009) Retail electricity prices for non-market customers, Queensland Government Gazette, Department of Mines and
Energy. Vol. 351 No. 41. Available at: http://www.dme.qld.gov.au/zone_files/Electricity/09.06.09_-_%5B41%5D__extra_gazette.pdf,
accessed 18 June 2009.
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154.
Setting the air conditioner to recirculate cool air from inside rather than cooling
warmer air from outside [0.25:2]
Impact
[0.25]
This behaviour will save electricity by enabling the air conditioner to collect air from inside an air
conditioned room rather than from outside, where the air would presumably be significantly
warmer. This will reduce the cooling load on an air conditioner and reduce its electricity
consumption. Each degree of extra cooling will increase the electricity consumption by 10
percent,495 and it has been assumed (due to lack of literature to suggest specifically the impact of
this behaviour) that this figure will represent also the load that having to cool warmer air will
place on the air conditioner. It is assumed that households set their thermostat to 25 degrees
Celsius in summer, and that the air conditioner is used when the ambient air temperature is
above 29 degrees Celsius. The climate in Townsville is such that the mean temperature at 3pm
is over 29 degrees Celsius from November until March and is just less that 29 degrees Celcius
in October and April.496 It will be assumed that air conditioners could potentially be used, for on
average 4 hours a day from November until March and two hours a day in October and April (a
total of 726 hours, own estimate). Given the mean temperatures at 3pm, the variation between
the outdoor air temperature and the indoor temperature (25 degrees Celsius) are shown in
Table A below
Table A: Approximate additional energy consumption of air conditioners in Townsville
when air is extracted from outside the air conditioned space as opposed to inside
(adapted from BOM, 2007497)
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
Oct
Nov
Dec Total
Ambient air temperature at 3pm (oC)
30
29.8
29.4
28.2
27.9
29.2
30
Indoor
temperature
conditioning (25oC)
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
Temperature difference (oC)
5
4.8
4.4
3.2
2.9
4.2
5
Additional monthly energy usage
(kWh), based on assumed air
conditioner usage
58.9
51.1
51.8
18.2
17.1
47.9
58.9
with
air
303.9
This suggests that this behaviour could save up to 304kWh per year, based on a 0.95kW model
air conditioner and the above assumptions. It is recognised that the indoor air temperature may
not actually be 25 degrees Celsius even if the thermostat is set at this temperature, however this
has been used for the purpose of these calculations and given the many other assumptions is
assumed to not affect the results excessively. This would reduce the average household in
Townsville’s yearly electricity usage by 4.9 percent, hence the impact of this behaviour has been
calculated to be 0.25.
Milne, G. (b) (2008) 6.2 Heating and Cooling – Technical Manual, Design for Lifestyle and the Future, Commonwealth of
Australia. Available at: http://www.yourhome.gov.au/technical/fs62.html, accessed 29 September 2008.
496
BOM (2007) Climate Statistics for Australian Locations, Bureau of Meteorology, Australia. Available at:
http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_032040.shtml, accessed 08 December 2008.
497
BOM (2007) Climate Statistics for Australian Locations, Bureau of Meteorology, Australia. Available at:
http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_032040.shtml, accessed 08 December 2008.
495
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Likelihood
[2]
Some air conditioning systems, such as split systems, are only able to recirculate air, which will
make this behaviour redundant. Others, such as ducted systems or other fixed units tend to
draw fresh air from outside, although some do allow recirculated air to be mixed in or in some
cases used exclusively.498
This behaviour may be less likely where households have a preference, or perception, about
‘fresh’ air. It may also be influenced by the type of air conditioner, as in many cases the
household may not have control over where the air is drawn from. Many air conditioning
systems will remember the previous settings, so it is likely that if chosen once then this
behaviour will continue to be performed. The likelihood of this behaviour is estimated to be low
to moderate.
The expert review panel suggested that this is in fact what most air conditioners do, and that
particularly in humid climates, using outdoor air would then mean the air also needs to be
dehumidified as well as cooled, using considerably more energy.
SEDO (f) (2008) Energy Smart Homes – Home Cooling, Refrigerative Air Conditioners, Sustainable Energy Development Office,
Western Australian Government. Available at: http://www1.sedo.energy.wa.gov.au/uploads/Energy_Eff_hous_8pg_49.pdf, accessed
12 December 2008
498
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155.
Don’t use heating appliances (oven, dryer etc) while air conditioner is in use
[0.22:2]
Impact
[0.22]
This behaviour will reduce the electricity consumption of a house by reducing the load on an air
conditioner. Heating appliances, such as ovens, clothes dryers and irons will release heat which,
if inside the cooled area, will cause the air conditioner to work harder to maintain the desired
temperature. This behaviour will only save electricity when the heating appliances are within the
area being cooled.
The impact of this behaviour will depend on the heat which is released from various appliances.
For instance, ASKO makes ovens with triple glazing, and estimates that when the inside
temperature is 200oC, the outside temperature of the window is 40 oC.499 In a room which is
cooled to 25 oC, this may add to the cooling load. Similarly, irons are often set to temperatures of
between 135 oC and 230 oC, depending on the iron and the setting.500 Other appliances which
may release heat include computers, televisions, clothes dryers, washing machines, hair dryers,
hair irons, electric kettles, and battery chargers. No literature has been found to suggest the
average, cumulative impact of appliances in the home on air conditioner use.
As it is difficult to quantify the impact that this behaviour will have on electricity consumption,
some relevant information will be provided regarding air conditioner use which may, as a
minimum, provide some context for this behaviour. In 1995, 53 percent of Townsville residents
had an air conditioner,501 however since this time air conditioner penetration into the Australian
market has grown considerably, increasing from 34 percent in 1990 to 52 percent in 2004,502
suggesting the same trend may have taken place in Townsville.
The Queensland EPA estimates that the average home in Queensland uses 2,709kWh a year to
run their air conditioners503 (please note that this may underestimate the amount of electricity
consumed by air conditioners in Townsville households, as the climate in Townsville is warmer
than in many Queensland locations). To provide an estimate, it will be assumed that this
behaviour could reduce this electricity consumption by ten percent (or, prevent an increase of
ten percent). This would reduce the yearly electricity consumption of the average Townsville
household by 270.9kWh, or approximately 4.4 percent. The impact of this behaviour has been
calculated to be 0.22.
The expert review panel noted that plasma screen televisions are also heat emitters which
should be considered.
Likelihood
[2]
499
ASKO (2006) ASKO oven range, ASKO appliances, Pty Ltd. Available at: http://www.asko.com.au/our_products/ovens/,
accessed 17 November 2008.
500
HomeABC (2008) What is the temperature of the hottest setting on a clothes iron? Home and Garden Questions and Answers,
Home ABC.net. Available at: http://www.homeabc.net/Cleaning-Laundry/728-1-Cleaning-Laundry.html, accessed 17 December 2008
501
Goudie, D. (1995) Sustainable Domestic Energy Use in North Queensland, James Cook University, Australia.
502
NAEEEC (b) (2004) Air Conditioners – Australia’s standby strategy 2002 - 2012, the National Appliance and Equipment Energy
Efficiency Committee, Australia. Available at: http://www.energyefficient.com.au/reports/sb200406-aircond.pdf, accessed 16
December 2008.
503
Qld EPA (2008) Achieving early and affordable greenhouse gas reductions in Queensland - Strategies for voluntary household
and lifestyle changes, Environmental Protection Agency, Queensland Government. Available at:
http://www.climatechange.qld.gov.au/downloads/downloads/working_paper_1.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008
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The pattern and location of use of appliances in the home is likely to be governed by many
factors, such as the relative location of the heating appliances and air conditioner outlets, time
constraints, and the nature of the activity. In some instances, households may actually prefer to
air condition rooms with heating appliances to counteract the heat put out by these appliances
and make the room more comfortable. For instance, some households may actively choose to
iron clothes in a room with air conditioning to make this task more comfortable during summer.
The likelihood of this behaviour is estimated to be low to moderate.
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156.
Avoiding excessive lighting, especially with incandescent bulbs and halogen
downlights, which add to the heat load of air conditioners [0.01:2]
Impact
[0.01]
This behaviour will reduce the electricity consumption of a household by reducing the load on
the air conditioner, as well as reducing the amount of electricity consumed for lighting within the
home. An incandescent bulb can release as much as 90 percent of its energy used as heat,504
which in the case of a standard 60 watt bulb, is 54 watts of energy as heat. The use of, for
instance, four such bulbs over 10 hours will release 2.16kWh of energy as heat. If an air
conditioner is being used, this will add to the heat energy which it will be required to remove.
The impact of this behaviour may be reduced comparatively when households use windows to
provide light rather than bulbs, as these can transfer a large amount of heat into the home
through both conduction and radiation. Closing thick backed curtains can block up to 30 percent
of the incoming heat from windows.505
It is difficult to determine how much this behaviour will reduce electricity consumption, if it would
at all. There is little literature to suggest some metric for this, and there is a danger that this
behaviour may in fact increase electricity consumption by encouraging households to open their
curtains during the day. It may be preferable to suggest households switch bulbs to fluorescents
as these produce 75 percent less heat for the same amount of light. 506 The impact of this
behaviour has hence been estimated to be 0.01.
Likelihood
[2.5]
This behaviour may be governed strongly by other factors, such as a desire for a certain level of
light within a home, the home layout and orientation (which may influence the amount of natural
light entering the home) and air conditioner use. The heat emanating from some bulbs may be
perceptible to households, and this may increase the likelihood of this behaviour. The likelihood
of this behaviour is estimated to be moderate to high. Upon the suggestion of the expert review
panel, the rating for the likelihood has been decreased.
Energy Star (2007) What’s the difference between an incandescent bulb and a CFL?, US Environmental Protection Agency, USA.
Available at: http://energystar.custhelp.com/cgibin/energystar.cfg/php/enduser/std_adp.php?p_faqid=2558&p_created=1148314428, accessed 16 December 200
505
HEAT (b) (2008) Top Tips for Staying Cool, Home Energy Advice Team, ACT Government. Available at:
http://www.heat.net.au/action-advice-page/pdfs/factsheets/old_factsheet_pdfs/top_tips_for_staying_coo_webl.pdf, accessed 10
November 2008.
506
Energy Star (2007) What’s the difference between an incandescent bulb and a CFL?, US Environmental Protection Agency, USA.
Available at: http://energystar.custhelp.com/cgibin/energystar.cfg/php/enduser/std_adp.php?p_faqid=2558&p_created=1148314428, accessed 16 December 200
504
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157.
Restricting air conditioner usage [0.43:2]
Impact
[0.43]
This behaviour will reduce electricity consumption in the home when it reduces the amount an
air conditioner is used. The development of ‘rules’ which dictate that an air conditioner can only
be used when the ambient temperature exceeds a certain level, such as 29 degrees Celsius for
instance, will encourage the use of other methods of cooling such as the use of ceiling fans
which can be effective in milder conditions.
To assess the impact of this behaviour, several assumptions are necessary. This behaviour has
an inherent assumption that air conditioner usage is currently greater than may be needed. It is
also necessary to assume the efficiency of the air conditioner being used, and the amount of
time for which it is being used. Other factors such as the size of the space being air conditioned,
the heat load in that room, and the quality of insulation and window treatments will affect the
electricity consumption, as will behavioural factors such as whether door and windows are kept
shut, the temperature setting on the thermostat and whether the cooled air is recirculated or
drawn from outside the house.
This large number of assumptions makes quantifying the impact of this behaviour difficult. In
addition to this, air conditioner use at moderate temperatures will use less electricity than at
more extreme temperatures, as for each extra degree of cooling, an air conditioner will use on
average 10 percent more electricity.507 However, some information can be given to provide some
context for the impact of this behaviour.
In 1995, 53 percent of Townsville residents had an air conditioner,508 however since this time air
conditioner penetration into the Australian market has grown considerably, increasing from 34
percent in 1990 to 52 percent in 2004,509 suggesting the same trend may have taken place in
Townsville. In March, 1995, space cooling was estimated to account for 22 percent of the total
domestic energy use in Townsville (note that this figure hence includes the 47 percent of
households who at that time did not own an air conditioner, hence it may be assumed that this
percentage would now be greater). 510
The climate in Townsville is such that the mean temperature at 3pm is over 29 degrees Celsius
from November until March and is just less than 29 degrees Celsius in October and April.511 It
could be assumed that air conditioners could potentially be used for a large portion of this time.
The Queensland EPA estimates that the average home in Queensland uses 2,709kWh a year to
run their air conditioners512 (please note that this may underestimate the amount of electricity
consumed by air conditioners in Townsville households, as the climate in Townsville is warmer
than in many Queensland locations).
Milne, G. (b) (2008) 6.2 Heating and Cooling – Technical Manual, Design for Lifestyle and the Future, Commonwealth of
Australia. Available at: http://www.yourhome.gov.au/technical/fs62.html, accessed 29 September 2008.
508
Goudie, D. (1995) Sustainable Domestic Energy Use in North Queensland, James Cook University, Australia.
509
NAEEEC (2004) Air Conditioners – Australia’s standby strategy 2002 - 2012, the National Appliance and Equipment Energy
Efficiency Committee, Australia. Available at: http://www.energyefficient.com.au/reports/sb200406-aircond.pdf, accessed 16
December 2008.
510
Goudie, D. (1995) Sustainable Domestic Energy Use in North Queensland, James Cook University, Australia.
511
BOM (2007) Climate Statistics for Australian Locations, Bureau of Meteorology, Australia. Available at:
http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_032040.shtml, accessed 08 December 2008.
512
Qld EPA (2008) Achieving early and affordable greenhouse gas reductions in Queensland - Strategies for voluntary household
and lifestyle changes, Environmental Protection Agency, Queensland Government. Available at:
http://www.climatechange.qld.gov.au/downloads/downloads/working_paper_1.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008
507
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It could be assumed that this behaviour would save some percentage of this amount. Given the
difficulty in providing metrics for this behaviour, it will be assumed that it could reduce air
conditioner usage by 20 percent on average, saving 542kWh each year, or 8.7 percent of the
yearly total electricity usage. The impact of this behaviour has hence been calculated to be 0.43.
Likelihood
[2]
The development of ‘rules’ to govern air conditioner use is reliant on several factors, such as an
agreement between all members of a household and the presence of tools such as a thermostat
which can alert the household to the ambient temperature. This behaviour may be more likely
where alternative measures of providing comfort from high temperatures exist, such as fans,
swimming pools and passive solar design. This behaviour may be impacted by the habits and
expectation of residents. It may be less likely where households spend large amounts of time in
air conditioned spaces, such as at work or in shopping centres, and become accustomed to the
lower temperatures. The perception of at what temperature air conditioning is necessary may
vary between individuals depending on their age, comfort levels and perceptions of energy
consumption. The likelihood of this behaviour is estimated to be low to moderate.
As noted by the expert review panel, this behaviour has a ‘negative’ tone, and with better
phrasing may become more attractive to households.
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158.
Avoiding the installation of an air conditioner [2.18:2]
Impact
[2.18]
This behaviour will prevent an increase in household electricity consumption by eliminating the
possibility that an air conditioner can be used, and may necessitate the use of other techniques
such as passive design, windows, blinds and fans to create a living environment which is
pleasant in the Townsville climate. Air conditioners use significant amounts of electricity. The
Queensland EPA estimates that the average home in Queensland uses 2,709kWh a year to run
their air conditioners513 (please note that this may underestimate the amount of electricity
consumed by air conditioners in Townsville households, as the climate in Townsville is warmer
than in many Queensland locations). This behaviour would hence prevent a household from
increasing their electricity consumption by around 2,709kWh a year. This would reduce the
annual electricity consumption of the average Townsville household by 43.7 percent, hence the
impact of this behaviour has been calculated as 2.18.
Please note that this behaviour will not reduce electricity consumption in the home, it will rather
assist in preventing it from increasing. Secondly, the electricity savings quoted above do not
take into account alternative methods of providing cooling or air movement, such as fans, which
also have an associated electricity consumption, and the impact of this behaviour may be the
net difference between the two, assuming that an air conditioner would replace such alternative
appliances.
Likelihood
[2]
This behaviour is likely to be influenced by other factors, such as societal norms in which air
conditioners are becoming increasingly common (Australia wide, air conditioner penetration has
been increasing, from 34 percent in 1990 to 52 percent in 2004514). 53 percent of households in
Townsville owned an air conditioner in 1995, 515 and it is likely that this percentage has since
increased. It is also likely to be influenced by the availability of architects and house designers
with an understanding of passive solar design, community acceptance of the effectiveness of
such design and the costs of air conditioners. The likelihood of this behaviour is hence
estimated to be low to moderate.
The expert review panel suggested firstly that the wording of this behaviour needs to be
designed with some thought to avoid sending negative messages that may be associated with
‘misery’ and ‘cutting back’. It was also noted that the affordability of air conditioners is now such
that it is difficult to persuade homeowners not to install them.
513
Qld EPA (2008) Achieving early and affordable greenhouse gas reductions in Queensland - Strategies for voluntary household
and lifestyle changes, Environmental Protection Agency, Queensland Government. Available at:
http://www.climatechange.qld.gov.au/downloads/downloads/working_paper_1.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008
514
NAEEEC (2004) Air Conditioners – Australia’s standby strategy 2002 - 2012, the National Appliance and Equipment Energy
Efficiency Committee, Australia. Available at: http://www.energyefficient.com.au/reports/sb200406-aircond.pdf, accessed 16
December 2008.
515
Goudie, D. (1995) Sustainable Domestic Energy Use in North Queensland, James Cook University, Australia.
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159.
Dressing in warm clothes in winter rather than turning on a heater [0.19:4]
Impact
[0.19]
This behaviour will reduce electricity by reducing the amount of heating which is required (both
in terms of the amount of time for which it may be required, and the temperature level at which
the thermostat is set). At temperatures of around 25 degrees Celsius, an air movement of
between 0.5 and 1.0 meters per second will have a similar cooling effect to a room-temperature
reduction of around 2 to 3 degrees;516 an effect which would presumably be similar even at lower
temperatures. Clothing can additionally reduce the loss of body heat due to radiation and
conduction.
No figures have been found to suggest the degree to which clothing can reduce the loss of body
heat, however anecdotal experience would suggest that with enough clothing, particularly in a
warm tropical climate such as that of Townsville, 517 it would be possible to eliminate the need
completely for external sources of heat.
Hence, through a series of assumptions an estimate for how much energy this behaviour might
save can be made. A portable heater might use between 750 watts and 2,400 watts,518 whilst a
reverse cycle air conditioning unit might use between 650 watts for a six star rated appliance
(Mitsubishi Electric MSZ-FB25VA-A) or as high as 5,400 watts for an unrated appliance.519
Assuming that the use of this behaviour reduces or even eliminates the need for mechanical
heating, and assuming that any form of heating is required for twenty days/nights during winter
for on average four hours during each of these days (also own estimate) then this behaviour
would save between 52kWh and 432kWh given the range of appliance wattages quoted above
(assuming this behaviour eliminates the need for mechanical heating. If it only reduces the
need, this range would be lower). This is equivalent to between 0.8 and 7 percent of the total
electricity usage of the average Townsville household.
The impact of this behaviour, based on these assumptions, has been calculated to be between
0.04 and 0.35. The average of 0.19 has been used.
Likelihood
[4]
Townsville winters usually consist of warm days and cool nights520 and as such, additional
heating may not be required often and some households may not even own electric (or other)
heaters. This behaviour is likely to be governed also by factors such as cultural attachments to
external sources of heating (this may be more applicable to a fireplace), and the comfort or
potential lack thereof, of wearing additional layers of clothing. The likelihood of this behaviour is
hence estimated to be moderate to high.
516
SEA (nd) Air Movement, Sustainable Energy Authority, Government of Victoria, Australia. Available at:
http://www.sustainability.vic.gov.au/resources/documents/Air_movement.pdf, accessed 11 December 2008.
517
BOM (2007) Climate Statistics for Australian Locations, Bureau of Meteorology, Australia. Available at:
http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_032040.shtml, accessed 08 December 2008.
518
SEA (2004) Portable Heaters, Sustainable Energy Authority, Government of Victoria, Australia. Available at:
http://www.sustainability.vic.gov.au/resources/documents/Portable_heaters.pdf, accessed 11 December 2008; and EERE (2005)
Estimating Appliance and Home Electronic Energy Use, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, US Department of Energy, USA.
Available at: http://apps1.eere.energy.gov/consumer/your_home/appliances/index.cfm/mytopic=10040, accessed 08 December
2008.
519
DEWHA (nd) Search and compare appliances, Energy Rating, Department of Water, Heritage and the Arts, Australian
Government. Available at: http://www.energyrating.gov.au/appsearch/default.asp, accessed 17 November 2008.
520
BOM (2007) Climate Statistics for Australian Locations, Bureau of Meteorology, Australia. Available at:
http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_032040.shtml, accessed 08 December 2008.
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160.
Avoiding the use of portable electric heaters to heat large spaces [0:3]
Impact
[0]
This behaviour will save energy by reducing the use of portable heaters to heat large spaces, as
these are inefficient at doing so and will consume more energy than, for instance, a reverse
cycle air conditioner. Portable heaters can be effective in heating small areas, for short periods
of time, however are not designed to heat a large space and they will consume a
disproportionate amount of electricity if used to do so.521
Portable heaters are inefficient at heating large spaces as they are not designed to be able to
heat such a large air mass. The result is that thermostats may be set higher than is actually
necessary, or that they need to be left running for long periods of time to achieve a comfortable
temperature and to overcome losses through doors, windows, gaps and poorly insulated walls.522
A portable heater might use between 750 watts and 2,400 watts,523 whilst a reverse cycle air
conditioning unit might use between 650 watts for a six star rated appliance (Mitsubishi Electric
MSZ-FB25VA-A) or as high as 5,400 watts for an unrated appliance (Sanyo SPWUR483AHN56/SPW-C483AH8).524
In order to assess the impact of this behaviour, it would be necessary to make an assumption
about the amount of time for which a portable heater would have to run, as opposed to a heater
specifically designed for a larger space, and at what temperature the thermostat of each might
be set at. These factors will depends on individual’s preferences for the temperature, the size of
the space being heated, the quality of insulation, window treatments and draught protection, the
type of portable heater and large space heater being compared (a large range of potential
wattages has been quoted) and how often each would be used. Given the climate in Townsville,
which has warm winter days and cooler nights, 525 it is assumed that heating is not required often
throughout the year. It is assumed that the impact of this behaviour would be negligible, given
that the range of potential energy consumption levels of both portable and larger space heaters
are comparative and that the usage of either would be minimal.
It was noted by the expert review panel that the installation of larger, permanent heating devices
can in fact encourage greater use and may lead to an overall increase in energy consumption. It
is assumed in this behaviour that a large space needs to be heated in some way.
Likelihood
[3]
This behaviour is likely to be strongly influenced by the type of heater which residents own.
Given the tropical climate in Townsville,526 it may be unlikely that residents would invest in a
521
SEA (2004) Portable Heaters, Sustainable Energy Authority, Government of Victoria, Australia. Available at:
http://www.sustainability.vic.gov.au/resources/documents/Portable_heaters.pdf, accessed 11 December 2008
522
UNSM Facilities (2008) Energy at UNSM, University of New South Wales, Australia. Available at:
http://www.energy.unsw.edu.au/HeaterTutorial.shtml, accessed 17 December 2008.
523
SEA (2004) Portable Heaters, Sustainable Energy Authority, Government of Victoria, Australia. Available at:
http://www.sustainability.vic.gov.au/resources/documents/Portable_heaters.pdf, accessed 11 December 2008; and EERE (2005)
Estimating Appliance and Home Electronic Energy Use, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, US Department of Energy, USA.
Available at: http://apps1.eere.energy.gov/consumer/your_home/appliances/index.cfm/mytopic=10040, accessed 08 December
2008.
524
DEWHA (nd) Search and compare appliances, Energy Rating, Department of Water, Heritage and the Arts, Australian
Government. Available at: http://www.energyrating.gov.au/appsearch/default.asp, accessed 17 November 2008.
525
BOM (2007) Climate Statistics for Australian Locations, Bureau of Meteorology, Australia. Available at:
http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_032040.shtml, accessed 08 December 2008.
526
BOM (2007) Climate Statistics for Australian Locations, Bureau of Meteorology, Australia. Available at:
http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_032040.shtml, accessed 08 December 2008.
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heater suitable for heating large spaces, as it is unlikely to be needed often. Where households
have an air conditioner, it may be more likely that they will select a reverse cycle heater which is
capable of heating a large space, and this may enhance the likelihood of this behaviour. This
behaviour may also depend on the heating preferences of individuals, such as for radiative
heating which can provide a greater sensation of warmth against the skin than a conduction or
convection heater.527
The likelihood of this behaviour is estimated to be moderate.
527
UNSM Facilities (2008) Energy at UNSM, University of New South Wales, Australia. Available at:
http://www.energy.unsw.edu.au/HeaterTutorial.shtml, accessed 17 December 2008.
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161.
Pruning trees in winter or using deciduous plants to allow extra sun on the north
and south walls and windows [0.012:3]
Impact
[0.12]
This behaviour will reduce electricity consumption in the home by reducing the amount of
electric heating which is required during winter by allowing solar access to the northern and
southern facades of the house, which will provide natural warmth. The impact of this behaviour
will depend on many factors, such as the amount of shading that these plants currently provide
to a house, the colour of the house and its roof, the amount of window area, the type of window
treatment, the quality of the insulation in the house, whether mechanical heating is used and if
so, the type and efficiency of that heater, the layout and orientation of the house as well as
behavioural factors of the household, such as whether curtains are opened during the day and
shut in the evening, and whether the household is home during the day.
Nonetheless, through a series of assumptions an estimate for how much energy this behaviour
might save can be made. A portable heater might use between 750 watts and 2,400 watts, 528
whilst a reverse cycle air conditioning unit might use between 650 watts for a six star rated
appliance (Mitsubishi Electric MSZ-FB25VA-A) or as high as 5,400 watts for an unrated
appliance (Sanyo SPW-UR483AHN56/SPW-C483AH8).529
Assuming that the use of this behaviour reduces or even eliminates the need for mechanical
heating, and assuming that any form of heating is required for twenty days/nights during winter
for, on average, four hours during each of these days (author’s estimate) then this behaviour
would save between 52kWh and 432kWh given the range of appliance wattages quoted above
(assuming this behaviour eliminates the need for mechanical heating. If it reduces it alone, this
range would be lower). This is equivalent to between 0.8 and 7 percent of the total electricity
usage of the average Townsville household.
The impact of this behaviour, based on these assumptions, has been calculated to be between
0.04 and 0.35. The lower end of this range has been used, given that due to Townsville’s warm
winters, this behaviour may have the unexpected side effect of actually increasing the electricity
consumption where this additional heat actually warrants the use of an air conditioner.
The expert review panel noted that improving solar access is only really effective for high quality
houses, those which aren’t well insulated won’t benefit from this behaviour. Similarly, if a house
is well orientated then this can be effective. However, as noted by the panel, most houses aren’t
properly orientated. The panel suggested a slightly higher impact than was calculated here, so it
has been adjusted.
Likelihood
[3]
In most places residents are able to cut back, or remove their own trees, with limitations if the
tree is a heritage tree, signifying that it is a native tree, and of a significant age, then it is not able
to be removed. If a tree is heritage, it may still be pruned and this may be sufficient to reduce the
528
SEA (2004) Portable Heaters, Sustainable Energy Authority, Government of Victoria, Australia. Available at:
http://www.sustainability.vic.gov.au/resources/documents/Portable_heaters.pdf, accessed 11 December 2008; and EERE (2005)
Estimating Appliance and Home Electronic Energy Use, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, US Department of Energy, USA.
Available at: http://apps1.eere.energy.gov/consumer/your_home/appliances/index.cfm/mytopic=10040, accessed 08 December
2008.
529
DEWHA (nd) Search and compare appliances, Energy Rating, Department of Water, Heritage and the Arts, Australian
Government. Available at: http://www.energyrating.gov.au/appsearch/default.asp, accessed 17 November 2008.
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effect of shading. There are many arborists in Townsville who can be contracted to perform this
service for homeowners if they lack the skills, confidence or necessary tools, however this will
incur a cost.
The likelihood of this behaviour is estimated to be moderate.
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162.
Rolling back awnings in winter to allow more sun through windows [0.04:2]
Impact
[0.04]
This behaviour will reduce electricity consumption in the home by reducing the amount of
electric heating which is required during winter by allowing solar access to the interior of the
house, which will provide natural warmth. Around 93 percent of summer heat gain can be
attributed to radiant heat,530 which is due to direct sunlight coming in through the window, and
from sunlight striking the building facades. There will be less solar radiation in winter, however
this nonetheless provides an indication of the amount by which increasing solar access to rooms
can assist in providing winter warmth.
Townsville has relatively warm winters, with a July minimum of 13.6 degrees Celsius, however
the mean 9am temperature is above 19 degree Celsius, and the mean 3pm temperature is just
below 24 degrees Celsius (in July, the coolest month).531 This information suggests firstly that
heaters may not be used for long periods of time and secondly that the temperature at which
they are already set may not be significantly different to the ambient temperature.
Nonetheless, through a series of assumptions an estimate for how much energy this behaviour
might save can be made. A portable heater might use between 750 watts and 2,400 watts,532
whilst a reverse cycle air conditioning unit might use between 650 watts for a six star rated
appliance (Mitsubishi Electric MSZ-FB25VA-A) or as high as 5,400 watts for an unrated
appliance.533
Assuming that the use of this behaviour reduces or even eliminates the need for mechanical
heating, and assuming that any form of heating is required for twenty days/nights during winter
for on average four hours during each of these days (also own estimate) then this behaviour
would save between 52kWh and 432kWh given the range of appliance wattages quoted above
(assuming this behaviour eliminates the need for mechanical heating. If it reduces it alone, this
range would be lower). This is equivalent to between 0.8 and 7 percent of the total electricity
usage of the average Townsville household.
The impact of this behaviour, based on these assumptions, has been calculated to be between
0.04 and 0.35. The lower end of this range has been used, given that due to Townsville’s warm
winters, this behaviour may have the unexpected side effect of actually increasing the electricity
consumption where this additional heat actually warrants the use of an air conditioner.
Likelihood
[2]
This behaviour assumes that households have awnings which can be rolled back. There are a
large variety of awnings available, and most are retractable.534 The tropical climate in
530
Sunrise Homes (2008) Insulation Answers Part 2, Tasmania. Available at:
http://www.sunrisehomes.net.au/asp/content.asp?articleID=171, accessed 09 December 2008.
531
BOM (2007) Climate Statistics for Australian Locations, Bureau of Meteorology, Australia. Available at:
http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_032040.shtml, accessed 08 December 2008.
532
SEA (2004) Portable Heaters, Sustainable Energy Authority, Government of Victoria, Australia. Available at:
http://www.sustainability.vic.gov.au/resources/documents/Portable_heaters.pdf, accessed 11 December 2008; and EERE (2005)
Estimating Appliance and Home Electronic Energy Use, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, US Department of Energy, USA.
Available at: http://apps1.eere.energy.gov/consumer/your_home/appliances/index.cfm/mytopic=10040, accessed 08 December
2008.
533
DEWHA (nd) Search and compare appliances, Energy Rating, Department of Water, Heritage and the Arts, Australian
Government. Available at: http://www.energyrating.gov.au/appsearch/default.asp, accessed 17 November 2008.
534
OzSun (nd) Traditional Awnings, New South Wales, Australia. Available at: http://www.ozsun.com.au/TraditionalAwnings.asp,
accessed 16 December 2008.
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Townsville535 would make it more likely that homes have awnings for protection from the summer
sun. The likelihood that these are retracted may depend upon the style of awning which is used
and how easily it can be retracted, the physical abilities of the household and whether they are
able to operate the awning, and whether the awnings also provide privacy to the household.
The relatively warm winters experienced in Townsville536 may make households less likely to
perform tasks to make the house warmer. Based on these considerations, the likelihood of this
behaviour is estimated to be low to moderate.
535
BOM (2007) Climate Statistics for Australian Locations, Bureau of Meteorology, Australia. Available at:
http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_032040.shtml, accessed 08 December 2008.
536
BOM (2007) Climate Statistics for Australian Locations, Bureau of Meteorology, Australia. Available at:
http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_032040.shtml, accessed 08 December 2008.
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163.
Removing fly roof in winter to allow greater solar access to the house [0.04:2]
Impact
[0.04]
This behaviour will reduce electricity consumption in the home by reducing the amount of
electric heating which is required during winter by allowing solar access to the house, which will
provide natural warmth.
External shading can reduce the heat gain inside the home by 70 to 85 percent.537 The impact is
hence likely to depend upon whether the house requires mechanical heating in winter, and the
degree to which this behaviour reduces or eliminates that need.
It is worth noting that the ‘Your Home Technical Manual’ recommends installing a fly roof,
however suggests it may actually be appropriate to maintain it for the entire year. 538 The climate
in Townsville consists of warm winter days and cooler nights539 and it may be that winter heating
is not required at all, and even that some cooling may be required during winter. In this case,
this behaviour may actually serve to increase electricity consumption.
Nonetheless, under the assumption that some mechanical heating is used in winter, the impact
of this behaviour can be calculated. Townsville has a minimum temperature in July of 13.6
degrees Celsius, however the mean 9am temperature is above 19 degree Celsius, and the
mean 3pm temperature is barely below 24 degrees Celsius (in July, the coolest month).540 This
information suggests firstly that heaters may not be used for long periods of time and secondly
that the temperature at which they are already set may not be significantly different to the
ambient temperature.
A portable heater might use between 750 watts and 2,400 watts,541 whilst a reverse cycle air
conditioning unit might use between 650 watts for a six star rated appliance (Mitsubishi Electric
MSZ-FB25VA-A) or as high as 5,400 watts for an unrated appliance.542
Assuming that the use of this behaviour reduces or even eliminates the need for mechanical
heating, and assuming that any form of heating is required for twenty days/nights during winter
for on average four hours during each of these days (also own estimate) then this behaviour
would save between 52kWh and 432kWh given the range of appliance wattages quoted above
(assuming this behaviour eliminates the need for mechanical heating. If it reduces it alone, this
range would be lower). This is equivalent to between 0.8 and 7 percent of the total electricity
usage of the average Townsville household.
537
SEA (nd) Air Movement, Sustainable Energy Authority, Government of Victoria, Australia. Available at:
http://www.sustainability.vic.gov.au/resources/documents/Air_movement.pdf, accessed 11 December 2008.
538
McGee, C., (2008) 4.4 Shading – Technical Manual, Design for Lifestyle and the Future, Commonwealth of Australia. Available
at: http://www.yourhome.gov.au/technical/fs44.html, accessed 29 September 2008
539
BOM (2007) Climate Statistics for Australian Locations, Bureau of Meteorology, Australia. Available at:
http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_032040.shtml, accessed 08 December 2008.
540
BOM (2007) Climate Statistics for Australian Locations, Bureau of Meteorology, Australia. Available at:
http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_032040.shtml, accessed 08 December 2008.
541
SEA (2004) Portable Heaters, Sustainable Energy Authority, Government of Victoria, Australia. Available at:
http://www.sustainability.vic.gov.au/resources/documents/Portable_heaters.pdf, accessed 11 December 2008; and EERE (2005)
Estimating Appliance and Home Electronic Energy Use, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, US Department of Energy, USA.
Available at: http://apps1.eere.energy.gov/consumer/your_home/appliances/index.cfm/mytopic=10040, accessed 08 December
2008.
542
DEWHA (nd) Search and compare appliances, Energy Rating, Department of Water, Heritage and the Arts, Australian
Government. Available at: http://www.energyrating.gov.au/appsearch/default.asp, accessed 17 November 2008.
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The impact of this behaviour, based on these assumptions, has been calculated to be between
0.04 and 0.35. The lower end of this range has been used, given that due to Townsville’s warm
winters, this behaviour may have the unexpected side effect of actually increasing the electricity
consumption where this additional heat actually warrants the use of an air conditioner.
The expert panel suggested that if the ceiling is insulated, then this impact would have a minimal
impact, unless it allows solar access to windows.
Likelihood
[2]
This behaviour assumes that households have a fly roof which can be removed. Whilst no
statistics have been found to suggest the percentage of homes in Townsville which might have a
fly roof installed, it is assumed to be relatively low. Additionally, only some fly roofs are
removable. Some are a permanent construction made from roofing materials, and it will not be
possible to remove these easily.
The relatively warm and tropical climate of Townsville 543 may make it less likely that a household
would undertake significant and time consuming tasks to increase the natural warmth of their
home. The likelihood of this behaviour is hence estimated to be low to moderate.
543
BOM (2007) Climate Statistics for Australian Locations, Bureau of Meteorology, Australia. Available at:
http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_032040.shtml, accessed 08 December 2008.
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164.
Planting trees to provide a wind break from prevailing winter winds [0.15:2]
Impact
[0.15]
This behaviour will reduce electricity consumption in the home by reducing the amount of
electric heating which is required during winter by decreasing the impact of winter winds. In
winter, the wind may reduce the temperature of the building shell through convection, in which
the heat provided by the sun and stored in the building mass is removed by the air passing by.
Where these winds have access to the inside of the house, the cooling effect of the wind may be
even greater. At temperatures of around 25 degrees Celsius, an air movement of between 0.5
and 1.0 meters per second will have a similar cooling effect to a room-temperature reduction of
around 2 to 3 degrees,544 an effect which would presumably be similar even at lower
temperatures. The wind can furthermore enhance the effect of any draughts, removing warmer
air from inside and replacing it with cooler air.
It is difficult to state the impact of this behaviour, other than through assuming that this wind
break will reduce or remove the need for mechanical heating within the home. Due to the large
number of factors which affect the amount of heat which is stored within a house, it is assumed
that this behaviour alone will not be sufficient to replace the need for a mechanical heating, if
one is needed. It will be assumed that it will reduce the need by 40 percent (own estimate).
A portable heater might use between 750 watts and 1,000 watts,545 whilst a reverse cycle air
conditioning unit might use between 650 watts for a six star rated appliance (Mitsubishi Electric
MSZ-FB25VA-A) or as high as 5,400 watts for an unrated appliance (Sanyo SPWUR483AHN56/SPW-C483AH8).546 It can be assumed that there would be few nights when a
heater would be used (as the days are warm, it is assumed that heaters will not be required
during the day). For the purposes of providing some estimate, it will be assumed that this
behaviour will save such a heater from being used for 20 nights of the year, for four hours each
night. Given the range above, this behaviour could save between 21kWh and 173kWh a year.
This would reduce the yearly electricity consumption of the average Townsville household by
between 0.3 and 2.8 percent, hence the impact of this behaviour has been calculated to be 0.15.
The expert review panel noted the need for caution as these same trees may block the winter
sun, or a neighbour’s view. Hence the trees should be shorter and appropriately located.
Likelihood
[2]
This behaviour assumes firstly that a house currently receives a significant amount of wind in
the winter time, and that there is space in which to plant such trees. This behaviour may be
influenced by other factors, such as competing uses for that land space (such as for storage of
boats or cars, swimming pools, views, or lawn), the cost of such trees, and the time which trees
would take to grow to a sufficient height to act as a windbreak. The likelihood of this behaviour is
estimated to be low to moderate.
544
SEA (nd) Air Movement, Sustainable Energy Authority, Government of Victoria, Australia. Available at:
http://www.sustainability.vic.gov.au/resources/documents/Air_movement.pdf, accessed 11 December 2008.
545
EERE (2005) Estimating Appliance and Home Electronic Energy Use, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, US Department
of Energy, USA. Available at: http://apps1.eere.energy.gov/consumer/your_home/appliances/index.cfm/mytopic=10040, accessed
08 December 2008.
546
DEWHA (nd) Search and compare appliances, Energy Rating, Department of Water, Heritage and the Arts, Australian
Government. Available at: http://www.energyrating.gov.au/appsearch/default.asp, accessed 17 November 2008.
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165.
In winter, opening curtains during the day in winter to heat the house and closing
during the night to trap the heat in [0.05:4]
Impact
[0.05]
This behaviour will reduce electricity consumption in the home relative to the amount that it
displaces the need for electrical heating. The climate in Townsville is for a relatively warm winter
(warm days with cool nights) and a yearly minimum in July of 13.6 degrees Celsius. 547 In winter,
windows can act like ‘solar collectors’ during the day, however during the night, these same
windows can lose between five and ten times the amount of heat as the walls around them.548
A portable heater might use between 750 watts and 1,000 watts,549 whilst a reverse cycle air
conditioning unit might use between 650 watts for a six star rated appliance (Mitsubishi Electric
MSZ-FB25VA-A) or as high as 5,400 watts for an unrated appliance (Sanyo SPWUR483AHN56/SPW-C483AH8).550 It can be assumed that there would be few nights when
heater would be used (as the days are warm, it is assumed that heaters will not be required
during the day). For the purposes of providing some estimate, it will be assumed that this
behaviour will reduce the time for which a heater might be used by thirty percent. It is estimated
that currently heaters might be used for 20 nights of the year, for four hours each night. Given
the range above, this behaviour could save between 15.6kWh and 129.6kWh a year. This would
reduce the yearly electricity consumption of the average Townsville household by between 0.2
and 2 percent, hence the impact has been calculated as 0.05 (as an average of the range of
estimated savings).
The impact, as noted by the expert review panel, will be determined largely by the size of the
windows, the window treatment and the orientation of the house.
Likelihood
[4]
This behaviour may be influenced by other factors besides a desire to keep the house warm.
For instance, opening the curtains during the day may also allow light to penetrate and can
create feeling of warmth due to solar radiation. At night time, households may seek the privacy
afforded by closing the curtains.
This behaviour assumes that a household has curtains to close, and that the curtains are
appropriate in terms of providing a thermal layer (i.e., they have pelmets, can reach the floor and
are thick enough).
The likelihood of this behaviour is estimated to be moderately high.
547
BOM (2007) Climate Statistics for Australian Locations, Bureau of Meteorology, Australia. Available at:
http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_032040.shtml, accessed 08 December 2008.
548
SEDO (2007) Energy Efficiency Housing, Sustainable Energy Development Office, Western Australian Government. Available at:
http://www.sedo.energy.wa.gov.au/pages/refriger.asp, accessed 12 December 2008
549
EERE (2005) Estimating Appliance and Home Electronic Energy Use, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, US Department
of Energy, USA. Available at: http://apps1.eere.energy.gov/consumer/your_home/appliances/index.cfm/mytopic=10040, accessed
08 December 2008.
550
DEWHA (nd) Search and compare appliances, Energy Rating, Department of Water, Heritage and the Arts, Australian
Government. Available at: http://www.energyrating.gov.au/appsearch/default.asp, accessed 17 November 2008.
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166.
Putting an under-blanket on the bed in winter, and an extra blanket on top [0.05:3]
Impact
[0.05]
This behaviour may reduce the need for electrical heating in the bedroom during winter.
Townsville has a tropical climate, with a minimum temperature of 13.6 degrees in July.551 This
may not create a large need for electrical (or other) heating, however in the event in which it
would, the amount of electricity which could be saved through this behaviour can be calculated.
It will be assumed that this behaviour will displace the need for an electric blanket as an
alternative means of providing winter warmth to a bed.
An electric blanket will consume, on average, 60 watts for a single blanket and 100 watts for a
double blanket.552 It can be assumed that there would be few nights when an electric blanket
would be used. For the purposes of providing some estimate, it will be assumed that this
behaviour will save such a blanket from being used for 20 nights of the year, for eight hours
each night. This would hence save between 9.6kWh and 16kWh a year. This would reduce the
average Townsville household’s electricity usage by between 0.2 and 0.3 percent, hence the
impact of this behaviour has been calculated to be 0.01.
The expert review panel felt that the impact of this behaviour was higher, hence the rating has
been adjusted.
Likelihood
[3]
As the minimum temperature in July is 13.6 degrees Celsius, Townsville residents may not feel
the need for an electric blanket, and may decide against purchasing one at all. The likelihood of
this behaviour is estimated to be moderate.
551
BOM (2007) Climate Statistics for Australian Locations, Bureau of Meteorology, Australia. Available at:
http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_032040.shtml, accessed 08 December 2008.
552
US Department of Energy (2009) Estimating Appliance and Home Electronic Energy Use, Energy Efficiency and Renewable
Energy, US Government. Available at: http://www.energysavers.gov/your_home/appliances/index.cfm/mytopic=10040, accessed 23
June 2009.
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167.
If heating is required in the bedroom, using a timer to turn it off during the night
[0.29:1]
Impact
[0.29]
This behaviour may save electricity relative to the amount by which it reduces the unnecessary
use of a heater. It assumes that a heater used in the bedroom is necessary to increase the room
temperature, however once the room’s inhabitants have fallen asleep, the heater is no longer
necessary and the room can either maintain the warmth, or the use of blankets and other such
mechanisms will suffice. It assumes that such a heater is left on overnight due to the
inconvenience of getting out of bed to turn it off at some point.
It can be assumed that there would be few nights when heater would be used (as the days are
warm, it is assumed that heaters will not be required during the day). For the purposes of
providing some estimate, it will be assumed that this behaviour will save such a heater from
being used for 20 nights of the year, for six hours each night. A portable heater might use
between 750 watts and 1,000 watts,553 whilst a reverse cycle air conditioning unit might use
between 650 watts for a six star rated appliance (Mitsubishi Electric MSZ-FB25VA-A) or as high
as 5,400 watts for an unrated appliance (Sanyo SPW-UR483AHN56/SPW-C483AH8).554 Based
on this information, this behaviour may save between 78kWh and 648kWh a year, reducing the
annual electricity consumption of the average Townsville household by between 1 and 10
percent. Hence, the impact of this behaviour has been calculated to be an average of 0.29.
Likelihood
[1]
This behaviour assumes that a household actually has a timer on their heating appliance, and
are willing to use it. If such a timer does not exist, then this behaviour may be governed by the
cost of purchasing and installing such a timer, or replacing the existing heating appliance with
one that has an integrated timer, relative to the amount of money it may save the household. It
may also be governed by a desire to actually having the heater run all night. The likelihood of
this behaviour is estimated to be moderate to low.
The expert review panel suggested that this behaviour was fairly unlikely, however noted that as
many people want the room to be heated early in the morning for when they get out of bed, a
heater which has the capacity to also turn back on at an appropriate time might increase the
likelihood. The rating has been decreased based on the panel’s suggested likelihood.
553
EERE (2005) Estimating Appliance and Home Electronic Energy Use, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, US Department
of Energy, USA. Available at: http://apps1.eere.energy.gov/consumer/your_home/appliances/index.cfm/mytopic=10040, accessed
08 December 2008.
554
DEWHA (nd) Search and compare appliances, Energy Rating, Department of Water, Heritage and the Arts, Australian
Government. Available at: http://www.energyrating.gov.au/appsearch/default.asp, accessed 17 November 2008.
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168.
Setting thermostat on heaters as low as is comfortable [0.04:3]
Impact
[0.04]
This behaviour will save electricity through reducing the number of degrees by which an electric
heating appliance has to increase the room temperature, relative to the ambient temperature.
Townsville has relatively warm winters, with a July minimum of 13.6 degrees Celsius, however
the mean 9am temperature is above 19 degree Celsius, and the mean 3pm temperature is
barely below 24 degrees Celsius (in July, the coolest month).555 This information suggests firstly
that heaters may not be used for long periods of time and secondly that the temperature at
which they are already set may not be significantly different to the ambient temperature.
Nonetheless, some estimate for the energy that this behaviour can save can be made.
TruEnergy recommends that the thermostat of a heater be set between 18 and 20 degrees
Celsius, and that for each degree over this, the heater will consume 10 percent more energy.556 It
is assumed that there is a minimum temperature which will ‘trigger’ the need for mechanical
heating, above which the use of appropriate clothing and behavioural changes (sitting in sunlight
or in warmer rooms) will suffice. For this reason, and given the climatic information quoted
above, it is assumed that mechanical heating will be used for 20 days/nights during winter, for
four hours for each on each of those occasions. It is assumed that this would be in the evenings
or mornings, and that the ambient temperature would be below 15 degrees Celsius. This
calculation assumes that the household will save energy by setting the thermostat at 20 degrees
Celsius rather than 22 degrees Celsius.
A portable heater might use between 750 watts and 1,000 watts,557 whilst a reverse cycle air
conditioning unit might use between 650 watts for a six star rated appliance (Mitsubishi Electric
MSZ-FB25VA-A) or as high as 5,400 watts for an unrated appliance (Sanyo SPWUR483AHN56/SPW-C483AH8).558
Based on this information, it is assumed that this behaviour would save twenty percent of the
energy used to heat the room to 22 degrees Celsius for eighty hours a year, which would be
between 10kWh and 86kWh based on the range of available appliances quoted above. This
would reduce the average Townsville household’s annual electricity usage by between 0.2 and
1.4 percent, hence the impact of this behaviour is calculated to be 0.04.
Likelihood
[3]
This behaviour is likely to be governed by numerous factors, including the health and perception
of households towards the cold (for instance, elderly or unwell individuals may feel they need a
higher room temperature during winter, and Townsville residents may be less accustomed to the
cold than those living in more southerly states in Australia and this may contribute to an inability
to withstand the cold), the availability of means of augmenting the room temperature (for
instance, appropriate clothing and solar design).
555
BOM (2007) Climate Statistics for Australian Locations, Bureau of Meteorology, Australia. Available at:
http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_032040.shtml, accessed 08 December 2008.
556
TruEnergy (2007) Energy Efficiency Tips, Australia. Available at: http://www.truenergy.com.au/Energy_Efficiency/tips.xhtml,
accessed 12 December 2008
557
EERE (2005) Estimating Appliance and Home Electronic Energy Use, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, US Department
of Energy, USA. Available at: http://apps1.eere.energy.gov/consumer/your_home/appliances/index.cfm/mytopic=10040, accessed
08 December 2008.
558
DEWHA (nd) Search and compare appliances, Energy Rating, Department of Water, Heritage and the Arts, Australian
Government. Available at: http://www.energyrating.gov.au/appsearch/default.asp, accessed 17 November 2008.
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Identification and Assessment of Homeowner Behaviours Related to Reducing Residential Energy Demand
It is likely that the principal motive governing this behaviour is the comfort obtained from the
heater. Money will be saved, and based on Tariff 11 pricing in Queensland as of July 2009,559
(this behaviour would save households between $1.71 and $14.73 each year.
The likelihood of this behaviour is estimated to be moderate.
The expert panel suggested that most people would say that this is what they already do, or else
the thermostat is set for comfort and is a question of individual preferences, which may be hard
to change.
559
DME (2009) Retail electricity prices for non-market customers, Queensland Government Gazette, Department of Mines and
Energy. Vol. 351 No. 41. Available at: http://www.dme.qld.gov.au/zone_files/Electricity/09.06.09_-_%5B41%5D__extra_gazette.pdf,
accessed 18 June 2009.
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169.
Using a reversible ceiling fan in winter to push warm air downwards [0.02:1]
Impact
[0.02]
This behaviour will reduce electricity consumption in the home relative to the amount that it
displaces, or reduces, the need for mechanical heating in the home during winter. A reversible
ceiling fan can push the warmer air downwards from the ceiling towards where individuals may
be able to benefit from this warmth. As hot air naturally rises, this behaviour can assist in
recirculating the warmer air such that mechanical heaters either have to heat less air, or may not
be necessary if natural processes (passive solar design, solar radiation) are then able to provide
sufficient heat.
The ceiling fan will consume electricity itself (generally between 65 and 175 watts, 560 however
this is less than the average mechanical heating device. A portable heater might use between
750 watts and 1,000 watts,561 whilst a reverse cycle air conditioning unit might use between 650
watts for a six star rated appliance (Mitsubishi Electric MSZ-FB25VA-A) or as high as 5,400
watts for an unrated appliance.562
Townsville has relatively warm winters, with a July minimum of 13.6 degrees Celsius, however
the mean 9am temperature is above 19 degree Celsius, and the mean 3pm temperature is
barely below 24 degrees Celsius (in July, the coolest month).563 This information suggests firstly
that heaters may not be used for long periods of time and secondly that the temperature at
which they are already set may not be significantly different to the ambient temperature.
Nonetheless, through a series of assumptions an estimate for how much energy this behaviour
might save can be made. Assuming that the use of such a ceiling fan reduces both the need for
mechanical heating, and the load on that heater, by a certain amount resulting in a drop of ten
percent in the energy required for heating,564 and assuming that any form of heating is required
for twenty days/nights during winter for on average four hours during each of these days
(author’s estimate) then this behaviour would save between 5.2kWh and 43kWh given the range
of appliance wattages quoted above (the electricity used by the fan has not been subtracted
from the efficiency gains of the heater as it is assumed that the ten percent quoted by Martec is
a net gain). This would reduce the yearly electricity consumption of the average Townsville
household by between 0.08 and 0.7 percent, hence the impact of this behaviour has been
calculated to be 0.02.
Please note that this impact may be less than what is quoted here, as the air movement created
by the reversible ceiling fan can create a cooling effect on individuals, as the air can evaporate
moisture from the skin. This can cause individuals to then turn up the thermostat to compensate.
The savings quoted here assume that this does not happen.
560
EERE (2005) Estimating Appliance and Home Electronic Energy Use, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, US Department
of Energy, USA. Available at: http://apps1.eere.energy.gov/consumer/your_home/appliances/index.cfm/mytopic=10040, accessed
08 December 2008.
561
EERE (2005) Estimating Appliance and Home Electronic Energy Use, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, US Department
of Energy, USA. Available at: http://apps1.eere.energy.gov/consumer/your_home/appliances/index.cfm/mytopic=10040, accessed
08 December 2008.
562
DEWHA (nd) Search and compare appliances, Energy Rating, Department of Water, Heritage and the Arts, Australian
Government. Available at: http://www.energyrating.gov.au/appsearch/default.asp, accessed 17 November 2008.
563
BOM (2007) Climate Statistics for Australian Locations, Bureau of Meteorology, Australia. Available at:
http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_032040.shtml, accessed 08 December 2008.
564
Martec (2008) Saving energy and money, Martec Ceiling Fans, Australia. Available at:
http://www.martecceilingfans.com.au/saving_money_&_energy, accessed 12 December 2008.
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Identification and Assessment of Homeowner Behaviours Related to Reducing Residential Energy Demand
The expert review panel noted that they are unfamiliar with this behaviour, and unsure of
whether reversible fans are widely available. A regular fan on a low setting is thought to be able
to also perform this behaviour, however may add to the ‘wind chill’ effect of moving air.
Likelihood
[1]
This behaviour assumes that households have ceiling fans which are reversible, or are willing to
install one. Ceiling fans can cost less than $100, to over $250 however the costs of installation,
wiring and added extras such as attached lights may increase this cost.565 Installation is likely to
require an electrician, however there are many internet sites which would suggest that this is a
job which a ‘home handyman’ can perform on their own.
This behaviour may be hindered by the fact that it may seem counterintuitive to many to turn a
fan on when using a heater, as there is a general assumption that fans are used to provide a
sensation of coolness, rather than warmth. A reversible ceiling fan is, however, specifically
designed to assist with warming a room, which may assist in overcoming this issue. Some
individuals may find the breeze created by the fan uncomfortable during winter, and this may
additionally hinder this behaviour. Based on these considerations, this behaviour is estimated to
have a low likelihood.
565
Universal Fans (nd) Frequently Asked Questions, Victoria, Australia. Available at:
http://www.universalfans.com.au/pricerange.htm, accessed 12 December 2008
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170.
Only setting the heater thermostat to the ultimately desired temperature and not
higher (avoiding using the thermostat as an ‘accelerator’) [0.05:3]
Impact
[0.05]
This behaviour will save electricity equivalent to the amount by which it reduces the load on a
heater. These appliances won’t heat a room more quickly on a higher setting than if the
temperature is set only to the desired temperature (they don’t work like an accelerator pedal).566
It is estimated that for each extra degree of heating, the appliance will consume ten percent
more electricity.567
Townsville has relatively warm winters, with a July minimum of 13.6 degrees Celsius. The mean
9am temperature is above 19 degree Celsius, and the mean 3pm temperature is barely below
24 degrees Celsius (in July, the coolest month).568 This information suggests firstly that heaters
may not be used for long periods of time and secondly that the temperature at which they are
already set may not be significantly different to the ambient temperature. A portable heater
might use between 750 watts and 1,000 watts,569 whilst a reverse cycle air conditioning unit
might use between 650 watts for a six star rated appliance (Mitsubishi Electric MSZ-FB25VA-A)
or as high as 5,400 watts for an unrated appliance (Sanyo SPW-UR483AHN56/SPWC483AH8).570 It is assumed that mechanical heating will be used for 20 days/nights during winter,
for four hours for each on each of those occasions.
Assuming that this behaviour results in thermostats being set at the desired temperature as
opposed to five degrees more extreme, and that if it weren’t for this behaviour, the thermostat
would remain at the more extreme temperature for 15 percent of the total heating time, then this
behaviour will save between 0.78kWh and 6.48kWh per year. This behaviour has the potential
to reduce yearly electricity usage in the average Townsville household by between 0.01 and 0.1
percent, hence the impact of this behaviour has been calculated as 0.01.
The expert review panel felt the impact of this behaviour was higher, hence the rating has been
adjusted.
Likelihood
[3]
The likelihood of this behaviour may be quite reliant on households appreciating that setting a
thermostat to a more extreme temperature will not cause the temperature within the room to
change more quickly. The desired temperature will be reached in the same amount of time, and
then exceeded if the thermostat is not changed back to the desired temperature. Based on this
information, it seems evident that there is no actual benefit to the household in not performing
this behaviour.
566
Synergy (nd) Air Conditioning, Perth, Australia. Available at:
http://www.synergy.net.au/Residential_Segment/SmartWays_To_Save/Air_Conditioning.html, accessed 17 December 2008
567
NSW Government (2007) Energy Smart – Making your home energy smart, Living Sustainably, Australia. Available at:
http://www.livingthing.net.au/WYKD_h2d.htm, accessed 12 December 2008.
568
BOM (2007) Climate Statistics for Australian Locations, Bureau of Meteorology, Australia. Available at:
http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_032040.shtml, accessed 08 December 2008.
569
EERE (2005) Estimating Appliance and Home Electronic Energy Use, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, US Department
of Energy, USA. Available at: http://apps1.eere.energy.gov/consumer/your_home/appliances/index.cfm/mytopic=10040, accessed
08 December 2008.
570
DEWHA (nd) Search and compare appliances, Energy Rating, Department of Water, Heritage and the Arts, Australian
Government. Available at: http://www.energyrating.gov.au/appsearch/default.asp, accessed 17 November 2008.
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Identification and Assessment of Homeowner Behaviours Related to Reducing Residential Energy Demand
Many air conditioners and heaters retain the settings used the previous time. As such, the
ultimately desired temperature is likely to be the default setting, and this behaviour represents
an inaction rather than an action. This may increase the likelihood of this behaviour.
In terms of cost, this behaviour can reduce heating and cooling costs for the household (based
on Tariff 11 prices for Queensland as of July 2009571 of $0.13 and $1.11. It is not anticipated that
this will provide a significant incentive to adopt this behaviour.
Based on these considerations, the likelihood of this behaviour is estimated to be moderate.
571
DME (2009) Retail electricity prices for non-market customers, Queensland Government Gazette, Department of Mines and
Energy. Vol. 351 No. 41. Available at: http://www.dme.qld.gov.au/zone_files/Electricity/09.06.09_-_%5B41%5D__extra_gazette.pdf,
accessed 18 June 2009.
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171.
Avoiding heating the kitchen, or the room where the refrigerator is located [0:3]
Impact
[0]
This behaviour will save electricity by reducing the strain placed on the refrigerator, which will
assist it in consuming less electricity. A refrigerator needs to maintain a difference between the
ambient air temperature, and the temperature inside the fridge. Setting the fridge thermostat one
degree cooler can increase the energy consumption of the fridge by 5 percent (NSW
Government, 2007). Presumably, increasing the air temperature around the fridge by one
degree would have the same effect. This is also suggested by energy efficiency expert Alan
Pears, who notes that on hot days the refrigerator can use as much as twenty percent more
electricity.572
Assuming that on cold days, the temperature of the kitchen is increased using mechanical
heating by four degrees Celsius, this would increase the electricity consumption of the
refrigerator by around 22 percent (five percent increase for each degree). The most energy
efficient fridge on the market with 100 -200 litre capacity (185kWh/annum for a 123L fridge, a six
star rated fridge made by Fisher and Paykel) and the least efficient available now uses
322kWh/annum for a 188L fridge, a two star rated fridge made by TGA unlimited.573
Townsville has relatively warm winters, with a July minimum of 13.6 degrees Celsius, however
the mean 9am temperature is above 19 degree Celsius, and the mean 3pm temperature is
barely below 24 degrees Celsius (in July, the coolest month).574 This information suggests firstly
that heaters may not be used for long periods of time and secondly that the temperature at
which they are already set may not be significantly different to the ambient temperature. It is
assumed that mechanical heating will be used for 20 days/nights during winter, for four hours for
each on each of those occasions.
This behaviour would hence save between 0.37kWh for the most efficient fridge, and 0.65kWh
for the least efficient model currently available. This would reduce the yearly electricity
consumption of the average Townsville household by between 0.005 and 0.01 percent. The
impact of this behaviour has hence been approximated as zero.
It is recognised that this may underestimate the impact of this behaviour, as there will be many
fridges in current use which consume considerably more electricity than quoted here. It is
anticipated that the stock of refrigerators in use will approach the figures quoted here due to the
natural turnover of appliances in the home.
Likelihood
[3]
This behaviour is likely to be governed by factors such as the living arrangements of a
household, the layout of the house, and in which room(s) the majority of the time is spent during
which heating is required. Time spent in the kitchen is often ‘active’, in that individuals may be
cooking, cleaning or in general moving. This may create body heat and the sensation of warmth
and may reduce the likelihood of the room being heated.
Pears, A. (2004) ‘Energy Efficiency: Long Term Potential and an Approach to Incorporating Consideration of Energy Efficiency
into Economic Modelling’, Greenhouse Challenge for Energy: Appendices – Report to the Victorian Department of Infrastructure and
Department of Sustainability and Environment, The Allen Consulting Group. p139-140.
573
DEWHA (nd) Search and compare appliances, Energy Rating, Department of Water, Heritage and the Arts, Australian
Government. Available at: http://www.energyrating.gov.au/appsearch/default.asp, accessed 17 November 2008.
574
BOM (2007) Climate Statistics for Australian Locations, Bureau of Meteorology, Australia. Available at:
http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_032040.shtml, accessed 08 December 2008.
572
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Identification and Assessment of Homeowner Behaviours Related to Reducing Residential Energy Demand
The behaviour is also likely to be governed by the location of mechanical heaters, particularly
those which are fixed, as this will dictate which room(s) can and are heated.
The likelihood of this behaviour is estimated to be moderate.
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172.
Utilising residual heat by turning off mechanical heating earlier [0.01:1]
Impact
[0.01]
This behaviour will save electricity by reducing the amount of time which the heater is on. It is
assumed that this behaviour would be feasible when households are aware that they will leave
the house at a given time, and can plan ahead to turn the heater off in advance. On other
occasions, however, the household may not be able to anticipate their departure. Hence, it is
anticipated that this behaviour may apply only to around thirty percent of the occasions on which
the heater is used (author’s own estimate). Townsville has relatively warm winters, with a July
minimum of 13.6 degrees Celsius, however the mean 9am temperature is above 19 degree
Celsius, and the mean 3pm temperature is barely below 24 degrees Celsius (in July, the coolest
month).575 This information suggests firstly that heaters may not be used for long periods of time
and secondly that the temperature at which they are already set may not be significantly
different to the ambient temperature. It is assumed that mechanical heating will be used for 20
days during winter, for four hours for each on each of those occasions. A portable heater might
use between 750 watts and 1,000 watts,576 whilst a reverse cycle air conditioning unit might use
between 650 watts for a six star rated appliance (Mitsubishi Electric MSZ-FB25VA-A) or as high
as 5,400 watts for an unrated appliance.577
This behaviour will hence reduce the heating time for (as stated above) thirty percent of the
twenty days in the year for which heating is required, by thirty minutes. This would reduce the
electricity consumption by between 1.95kWh and 32.4kWh a year. This would reduce the yearly
electricity consumption of the average Townsville household by between 0.03 and 0.5 percent,
hence the impact of this behaviour has been calculated to be an average of 0.01.
Likelihood
[1]
This behaviour assumes that the household is aware of the time when they will leave the house,
and are able to plan ahead to turn the heater off. It may be hindered by a perception that the
house will not be able to sustain its warmth for that period, by an inability to plan ahead to the
required degree and know when to turn the heat off. It also may be hindered by the relatively
small amount of money which would be saved in electricity bills from this behaviour, which
based on Tariff 11 pricing as of July 2009578 would be between $0.33 and $5.55 a year. Based
on these considerations, this behaviour is estimated to have a low likelihood.
575
BOM (2007) Climate Statistics for Australian Locations, Bureau of Meteorology, Australia. Available at:
http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_032040.shtml, accessed 08 December 2008.
576
EERE (2005) Estimating Appliance and Home Electronic Energy Use, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, US Department
of Energy, USA. Available at: http://apps1.eere.energy.gov/consumer/your_home/appliances/index.cfm/mytopic=10040, accessed
08 December 2008.
577
DEWHA (nd) Search and compare appliances, Energy Rating, Department of Water, Heritage and the Arts, Australian
Government. Available at: http://www.energyrating.gov.au/appsearch/default.asp, accessed 17 November 2008.
578
DME (2009) Retail electricity prices for non-market customers, Queensland Government Gazette, Department of Mines and
Energy. Vol. 351 No. 41. Available at: http://www.dme.qld.gov.au/zone_files/Electricity/09.06.09_-_%5B41%5D__extra_gazette.pdf,
accessed 18 June 2009.
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Identification and Assessment of Homeowner Behaviours Related to Reducing Residential Energy Demand
173.
Reducing the heating temperature when being more active in the house [0.01:2]
Impact
[0.01]
This behaviour will save electricity through reducing the amount of time for which mechanical
heating is required. When an individual is more active in the home, their body temperature may
rise and offset the need for additional heating.
Townsville has relatively warm winters, with a July minimum of 13.6 degrees Celsius, however
the mean 9am temperature is above 19 degree Celsius, and the mean 3pm temperature is
barely below 24 degrees Celsius (in July, the coolest month).579 This information suggests firstly
that heaters may not be used for long periods of time and secondly that the temperature at
which they are already set may not be significantly different to the ambient temperature. It is
assumed that mechanical heating will be used for 20 days during winter, for four hours for each
on each of those occasions. A portable heater might use between 750 watts and 1,000 watts, 580
whilst a reverse cycle air conditioning unit might use between 650 watts for a six star rated
appliance (Mitsubishi Electric MSZ-FB25VA-A) or as high as 5,400 watts for an unrated
appliance.581
It is assumed that individuals may be active in the home for around thirty percent of the time for
which mechanical heating may be required. It is also assumed that during this period, the
thermostat could be lowered by two degrees relative to what it was before. It is estimated that
for each extra degree of heating, the heating appliance will consume ten percent more
electricity.582 Hence, this behaviour could save between 0.78kWh and 6.48kWh a year. This
would reduce the yearly electricity consumption of the average Townsville household by
between 0.01 and 0.1 percent, hence the impact of this behaviour has been calculated to be an
average of 0.01.
This behaviour is also valid for when there is more sunshine coming into the home.
Likelihood
[2]
This behaviour may be influenced by the possibility that, while physically active, it may be
uncomfortable to have the heater thermostat set as high as it would be if the same individual
was idle. This behaviour may be hindered by the fact that, while active, the individual may pass
in and out of the heated room or zone and in doing so, allow the heated air to mix with the cooler
air of other areas of the house which would also cause the temperature to drop.
The cost savings to the household from undertaking this behaviour would be low, in the order of
$0.33 and $5.55 a year (based on Tariff 11 pricing as of July 2009583). The likelihood of this
behaviour, based on these considerations, is estimated to be low to moderate.
579
BOM (2007) Climate Statistics for Australian Locations, Bureau of Meteorology, Australia. Available at:
http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_032040.shtml, accessed 08 December 2008.
580
EERE (2005) Estimating Appliance and Home Electronic Energy Use, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, US Department
of Energy, USA. Available at: http://apps1.eere.energy.gov/consumer/your_home/appliances/index.cfm/mytopic=10040, accessed
08 December 2008.
581
DEWHA (nd) Search and compare appliances, Energy Rating, Department of Water, Heritage and the Arts, Australian
Government. Available at: http://www.energyrating.gov.au/appsearch/default.asp, accessed 17 November 2008.
582
NSW Government (2007) Energy Smart – Making your home energy smart, Living Sustainably, Australia. Available at:
http://www.livingthing.net.au/WYKD_h2d.htm, accessed 12 December 2008.
583
DME (2009) Retail electricity prices for non-market customers, Queensland Government Gazette, Department of Mines and
Energy. Vol. 351 No. 41. Available at: http://www.dme.qld.gov.au/zone_files/Electricity/09.06.09_-_%5B41%5D__extra_gazette.pdf,
accessed 18 June 2009.
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174.
Heating fewer rooms [0. 55:3]
Impact
[0.55]
This behaviour will save electricity through reducing the area which is required to be heated
during winter. It relies on the assumption that a house has the ability to be zoned. It is assumed
that heating a communal room (living room) rather than several bedrooms or studies will reduce
the area needing to be heated to a third.
Townsville has relatively warm winters, with a July minimum of 13.6 degrees Celsius, however
the mean 9am temperature is above 19 degree Celsius, and the mean 3pm temperature is
barely below 24 degrees Celsius (in July, the coolest month).584 This information suggests firstly
that heaters may not be used for long periods of time and secondly that the temperature at
which they are already set may not be significantly different to the ambient temperature. It is
assumed that mechanical heating will be used for 20 days during winter, for four hours for each
on each of those occasions. A portable heater might use between 750 watts and 1,000 watts, 585
whilst a reverse cycle air conditioning unit might use between 650 watts for a six star rated
appliance (Mitsubishi Electric MSZ-FB25VA-A) or as high as 5,400 watts for an unrated
appliance.586
Online calculators designed to size the air conditioning needs of a house suggest that to cool an
area which is three times the size, an air conditioner which has three times the capacity is
required. The exact size and capacity depends on many factors, such as the amount of
windows, the direction in which each of the rooms face, the type of insulation which is installed
in the roof, walls and ceilings, whether there are curtains and pelmets and whether these are
used effectively. Hence, based on the above calculations and assumptions (assuming that these
provide the size and capacity to heat the entire house, and that this behaviour will save a third of
that quoted), this behaviour will save between 34kWh and 285kWh a year. This would reduce
the average Townsville household’s yearly electricity consumption by between 0.5 and 4.6
percent, hence the impact of this behaviour is calculated to be an average of 0.13.
Please note that there are many assumptions in arriving at these figures, most significantly the
size of the heater required to heat the area before and after undertaking this behaviour. When
considering this behaviour, the focus for the impact of this behaviour should be on the process
of obtaining this figure rather than this figure itself.
The expert review panel suggested that the impact of this behaviour is higher than was found
here, and the impact has been adjusted as a result.
Likelihood
[3]
This behaviour is likely to be affected by many factors, such as the layout of the house, the
behaviours of the individuals who live there (such as, for instance, whether it is appropriate and
desirable to spend time in a communal room together, or whether the activities dictate the use of
separate rooms), the ability to create ‘zones’ in the house (through the use of doors, for
584
BOM (2007) Climate Statistics for Australian Locations, Bureau of Meteorology, Australia. Available at:
http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_032040.shtml, accessed 08 December 2008.
585
EERE (2005) Estimating Appliance and Home Electronic Energy Use, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, US Department
of Energy, USA. Available at: http://apps1.eere.energy.gov/consumer/your_home/appliances/index.cfm/mytopic=10040, accessed
08 December 2008.
586
DEWHA (nd) Search and compare appliances, Energy Rating, Department of Water, Heritage and the Arts, Australian
Government. Available at: http://www.energyrating.gov.au/appsearch/default.asp, accessed 17 November 2008.
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instance), the positioning of heaters and whether individuals will remain in the same place for
the period which the heater is on.
The ability to heat additional rooms may be limited by the availability of heaters and this
behaviour may become redundant where households only own one heater. This may be
common in Townsville where the warm climate may reduce the need for extensive heating.
The likelihood of this behaviour is estimated to be moderate.
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175.
Using electric blankets rather than heating the entire bedroom [0. 40:1]
Impact
[0.40]
This behaviour will reduce electricity consumption where individuals require electric heating in
the bedroom during winter. Heating the room using an electric heater will consume more energy
than to heat the bed alone.
An electric blanket will consume, on average, 60 watts for a single blanket and 100 watts for a
double blanket.587 A portable heater might use between 750 watts and 1,000 watts,588 whilst a
reverse cycle air conditioning unit might use between 650 watts for a six star rated appliance
(Mitsubishi Electric MSZ-FB25VA-A) or as high as 5,400 watts for an unrated appliance.589 It is
assumed that portable heaters would be more common in bedrooms.
Townsville has mild winters, with the minimum July temperatures reaching 13.6 degrees
Celsius,590 hence it can be assumed that there would be few nights when an electric blanket
would be used. For the purposes of providing some estimate, it will be assumed that this
behaviour will apply for 20 nights of the year, for four hours each night.
Hence this behaviour will save the difference between the amount of electricity that a portable
heater and an electric blanket would use, which would equate to between 52kWh and 75kWh as
an upper and lower estimate. This would reduce the yearly electricity usage of the average
Townsville household by between 0.8 and 1.2 percent, thus the impact of this behaviour has
been calculated as 0.01.
The expert review panel suggested that the impact of this behaviour may be higher, hence the
rating has been adjusted.
Likelihood
[1]
This behaviour assumes that a household has both a portable heater and an electric blanket. It
may be hindered where the ‘service’ provided by the electric blanket and portable heater differ in
some respects and an individual has a preference for one over the other. There may not be a
strong feeling that using one heating appliance rather than another is an efficient or
environmental activity, as both consume electricity. The impact of this behaviour is considered to
be low based on these considerations.
587
US Department of Energy (2009) Estimating Appliance and Home Electronic Energy Use, Energy Efficiency and Renewable
Energy, US Government. Available at: http://www.energysavers.gov/your_home/appliances/index.cfm/mytopic=10040, accessed 23
June 2009.
588
EERE (2005) Estimating Appliance and Home Electronic Energy Use, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, US Department
of Energy, USA. Available at: http://apps1.eere.energy.gov/consumer/your_home/appliances/index.cfm/mytopic=10040, accessed
08 December 2008.
589
DEWHA (nd) Search and compare appliances, Energy Rating, Department of Water, Heritage and the Arts, Australian
Government. Available at: http://www.energyrating.gov.au/appsearch/default.asp, accessed 17 November 2008.
590
BOM (2007) Climate Statistics for Australian Locations, Bureau of Meteorology, Australia. Available at:
http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_032040.shtml, accessed 08 December 2008.
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Reducing Electricity Consumption – Lighting (8%)
176.
Using natural light rather than electric lights during the day [0.08:1]
Impact
[0.08]
This behaviour will save electricity relative to the amount of electricity that electric bulbs in the
house would consume during the day, and the amount which natural light could displace this.
Natural light can be produced inside the house through the use of windows, skylights or doors
and maximised through the use of mirrors and light coloured paint. The available natural light
may achieve maximum benefit through the positioning of furniture or through the choice of
where individuals undertake activities (for instance, the use of a table on the verandah where
there may be ample light during the day as opposed to an indoor room which receives minimal
natural light).
The impact which this behaviour will have will depend on the type of lighting used, and the
number of lights which are not needed as a result. As under Australian legislation, consumers
will not be able to purchase incandescent bulbs after 2010,591 these calculations will be
performed on compact fluorescent bulbs (CFL) which are already in common use. An 11 watt
compact fluorescent produces the same amount of light as what was a fairly standard 60 watt
incandescent.592 It will be assumed that this behaviour will replace the need for three such bulbs,
for eight hours a day (outside of this time, lighting will be needed to compensate for reduced
sunlight).
This behaviour would hence save 96kWh a year. This would reduce the annual electricity usage
of an average Townsville household by 1.5 percent, hence the impact of this behaviour has
been calculated to be 0.08.
Likelihood
[1]
This behaviour would assume that natural light which was not available before the behaviour
was undertaken is now available. This may be due to repositioning furniture in the house,
changing behaviours (for instance, sitting at a different table), opening curtains, or the
installation of windows or skylights. In the case of the latter reasons, this may involve
considerable amounts of money depending on many factors (the building materials, whether this
is done as a part of other renovations, the location of the house and so on). The other way in
which this behaviour could be undertaken is if the household becomes accustomed to natural
light, particularly at the level of luminescence inside the house. The use of high level
luminescence in workplaces, shopping centres and other communal areas may contribute to a
desire for higher levels of light than may have been required in previous years.
This behaviour may be enhanced through a desire for the quality of light which sun light can
provide (artificial light can often be perceived as harsh or an unattractive colour). It is unlikely
that the cost of lighting will contribute greatly to this behaviour, as the above mentioned
DEWHA (2008) Energy Use in the Australian residential sector 1986 – 2020, Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage
and the Arts, Australian Government. Available at:
http://www.environment.gov.au/settlements/energyefficiency/buildings/publications/energyuse.html
592
PowerCor (nd) The Compact Fluoro Light, Fact Sheet, Australia. Available at:
http://www.powercor.com.au/docs/pdf/Community%20and%20Environment/Fact%20Sheet%20%20The%20compact%20fluoro%20light.pdf, accessed 12 December 2008.
591
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electricity reduction would save the household on average $16.44 a year (based on Tariff 11
pricing in Queensland as of July 2009. 593
The likelihood of this behaviour, on the basis of these considerations, is estimated to be low.
The expert panel noted that people tend to have a preference for natural light, when available,
and also that there are a variety of ways (as suggested above) in which natural light might be
utilised.
593
DME (2009) Retail electricity prices for non-market customers, Queensland Government Gazette, Department of Mines and
Energy. Vol. 351 No. 41. Available at: http://www.dme.qld.gov.au/zone_files/Electricity/09.06.09_-_%5B41%5D__extra_gazette.pdf,
accessed 18 June 2009.
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177.
Using candles rather than electric lights [0.35:1]
Impact
[0.35]
This behaviour would save electricity in the home through replacing electric lights with the use of
candles, which use no electricity at the point at which they are used (assuming that a match or
cigarette lighter is used to light them rather than the electric ignition on the stove, for instance).
Lighting in Townsville is estimated to use 7 percent of household electricity.594 Based on average
household electricity usage in Townsville (6,200kWh per year), lighting would then use 434 kWh
of electricity a year. The impact of this behaviour has been calculated to be 0.35.
Likelihood
[1]
This behaviour would be expected to be affected by many factors. The quality of light obtained
from a candle differs from a light bulb in its intensity, luminescence and ‘steadiness’ (a candle
will often flicker, although the use of an enclosure for the candle can provide a more steady
light), and this may not be suitable for all purposes within the house. There is additionally a risk
of fire from candles. Virtually all houses in existence will have light fittings, and as bulbs are
relatively inexpensive it would be expected that the provision and availability of these would not
affect this behaviour.
Using candles to light a house requires the regular purchase of candles, and a more tangible
awareness of the cost of providing the light, as each candle burns and runs out and requires
replacement. This is compared with the cost of turning on a light, where the electricity consumed
can not be ‘seen’ as such, and the cost of which is integrated into an electricity bill and may not
be able to be perceived independently by the household. Hence, the purchase and use of
candles may provide a financial disincentive.
The likelihood of this behaviour is estimated to be low.
As noted by the expert review panel, the embodied energy of candles should also be
considered.
594
Goudie, D. (1995) Sustainable Domestic Energy Use in North Queensland, James Cook University, Australia.
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178.
Switching lights off when not in use [0.23:4.5]
Impact
[0.23]
Lighting in Townsville is estimated to use 7 percent of household electricity.595 Based on the
average household electricity usage in Townsville (6200kWh per year), lighting would then use
434 kWh of electricity a year. Assuming that lights are left on unnecessarily for twenty percent of
the time (author’s estimate) this may result in reduced electricity consumption by the same
amount, providing yearly electricity savings of 86.8kWh. This behaviour could hence reduce the
yearly electricity consumption of the average Townsville household by 1.4 percent and the
impact of this behaviour has been calculated as 0.07.
The expert review panel suggested a higher impact, hence it has been adjusted.
Likelihood
[4.5]
About ninety percent of respondents to a survey conducted in Townsville reported turning off
unwanted lights,596 suggesting that this behaviour may in fact be relatively redundant.
The decision to undertake this behaviour may be influenced by many factors, including an
misperception that CFL and fluorescent bulbs use more energy being switched on and off than
left on all of the time, by the frequency with which a room is entered and exited (and hence the
level of inconvenience incurred by switching the light on and off), and the placement of light
switches (for instance if light switches are only at one end of a hallway, then it is unlikely that
households will switch this off as they exit from the other end of the hallway).
The cost savings uncured from this behaviour, would be around $14.80 a year (based on Tariff
11 pricing for Queensland, as of July 2009597 and may not be large enough to provide a true
incentive to households.
The likelihood of this behaviour is estimated to be high.
595
Goudie, D. (1995) Sustainable Domestic Energy Use in North Queensland, James Cook University, Australia.
Goudie, D. (1995) Sustainable Domestic Energy Use in North Queensland, James Cook University, Australia.
597
DME (2009) Retail electricity prices for non-market customers, Queensland Government Gazette, Department of Mines and
Energy. Vol. 351 No. 41. Available at: http://www.dme.qld.gov.au/zone_files/Electricity/09.06.09_-_%5B41%5D__extra_gazette.pdf,
accessed 18 June 2009.
596
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179.
Replacing incandescent bulbs with fluorescents [0.19:4.5]
Impact
[0.19]
Fluorescents can use 75 percent less electricity and come in range of shapes and sizes, and as
compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs). They also last 8 times longer.598 Lighting accounts for 7
percent of the average household’s electricity consumption, hence based on average household
electricity usage (6200kWh per year), lighting uses 434 kWh of electricity a year. The average
Queensland house currently uses 12 incandescent lights,599 which is assumed to not be the total
number of lights in the house. It is difficult to gauge what portion of existing lights might still be
using incandescent bulbs, hence it will be assumed that these 12 lights represent half the total
number of lights in the house. Based on this estimation, this behaviour could save 242kWh each
year, or about 3.9 percent of the household’s yearly electricity consumption. The impact of this
behaviour has hence been calculated to be 0.19.
Likelihood
[4.5]
The use of CFLs and low energy bulbs is expected to increase significantly over the coming
years due to incandescent bulbs being phased out – by 2015 it is expected that there will be
virtually no incandescents left in use.600
In Australia, in 2008, 58 percent of households reported using fluorescent bulbs (or other energy
savings lights, 59 percent) in at least one room. In Queensland, this figure for fluorescent bulbs
is 72 percent. Around the country, 22 percent of houses reported using compact fluorescent
bulbs (CFL) in every room. The use of CFLs in Australia was fairly steady between 2005 and
2008, however the use of other energy saving bulbs also grew during this time (this grew from
33 percent to 59 percent, and excludes fluorescent bulbs).601
The likelihood of this behaviour is estimated to be high to very high (depending on the time
period in question – by 2015 the likelihood would be 5).
ABC (2007) ‘The Barries’ Carbon Cops, ABC Television. Available at:
http://www.abc.net.au/tv/carboncops/factsheets/cc_barries.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008
599
Qld EPA (2008) Achieving early and affordable greenhouse gas reductions in Queensland - Strategies for voluntary household
and lifestyle changes, Environmental Protection Agency, Queensland Government. Available at:
http://www.climatechange.qld.gov.au/downloads/downloads/working_paper_1.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008
600
DEWHA (2008) Energy Use in the Australian residential sector 1986 – 2020, Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage
and the Arts, Australian Government. Available at:
http://www.environment.gov.au/settlements/energyefficiency/buildings/publications/energyuse.html
601
ABS (2008) Environmental Issues – Energy Use and Conservation, Australian Bureau of Statistics, Australian Government.
Available at:
http://abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/39433889d406eeb9ca2570610019e9a5/E95A38518401BD24CA25750E00108119?opendocum
ent, accessed 02 December 2008.
598
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180.
Avoiding halogen downlights for room lighting [0.41:1.15]
Impact
[0.41]
Halogen downlights use a lot more electricity, and more are needed to provide equivalent
lighting to other bulb types as the light is directed downwards. Transformers are also needed for
each bulb, hence:
6 x 50W halogen bulbs, plus a 10W transformer = 360W
1 x 13W compact fluorescent bulb = 13W
Halogens also produce considerable heat, thus adding to the cooling electricity demands in
summer, and as insulation can’t be installed around the fittings, this can cause holes in the
ceiling insulation (this is more important during winter, where the downlights cause ‘thermal
chimneys’ for hot air to escape through). A 5% loss in insulation can reduce the overall
insulation effectiveness by half.602 If halogen downlights are used to light three rooms in a house,
assuming that six halogen bulbs are used in each room where one compact fluorescent would
suffice, this behaviour could save 507kWh each year, based on the lights being used for four
hours a night. This would equate to 8 percent of the yearly electricity usage of the average
household in Townsville, hence the impact of this behaviour has been calculated to be 0.41.
Please note that this calculation assumes that a household will replace a set of halogen
downlights which are potentially distributed throughout a room, with one CFL light. If a
household is replacing existing halogen downlights, it would be logical to assume that the
existing fittings would be used, requiring six CFL lights, providing smaller energy savings than
quoted here.
Likelihood
[1.15]
Alternative bulbs which would provide similar lighting to halogens are expensive, however new
ones are coming onto the market. Hotbeam is a Victorian company which produces alternative
bulbs – each one costs $86, and replaces a 50W bulb while itself using 6.5W. However, it
produces light equivalent to only a 20W halogen light. They are currently developing an
alternative bulb which would produce the same amount of light as a 50W halogen, however this
won’t be on the market for another 12-18 months at least, and each bulb will cost over $100 (this
may come down with economies of scale). These bulbs will consume around 15W each.603
The installation of halogen bulbs, due to the required installation density, larger floor areas and
trends in lighting, are expected to drive increases in lighting electricity consumption over the
next 10 years.604 This suggests a trend, in which halogen downlighting is increasingly likely. The
likelihood of existing halogen downlights being replaced with alternative bulbs is considered to
be low considering the costs involved. The likelihood of them being avoided is estimated to be
moderate, and depends upon household’s preference for lighting quality and style. Overall, the
likelihood of this behaviour is estimated to be low to moderate.
The expert review panel noted that this behaviour will also decrease the risk of a house fire, and
suggested that this behaviour has a lower likelihood, hence it has been adjusted.
602
Moreland Energy Foundation (b) (2008) What to do if you have a house full of halogen downlights, Moreland City Council.
Available at: http://www.mefl.com.au/household/resources/tip/63/, accessed 20 October 2008\
603
From personal communications with sales assistance from Hotbeam.
604
DEWHA (2008) Energy Use in the Australian residential sector 1986 – 2020, Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage
and the Arts, Australian Government. Available at:
http://www.environment.gov.au/settlements/energyefficiency/buildings/publications/energyuse.html
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181.
Change incandescent bulbs to halogen bulbs (same fitting) [0.02:2]
Impact
[0.02]
Halogen bulbs are a variation of the traditional incandescent bulb and can be slightly more
efficient than regular incandescent bulbs of the same voltage (some types can use thirty percent
less energy605), however these require transformers which can consume between 10 and 30
percent of the bulb energy, reducing these efficiency gains.606 Lighting accounts for 7 percent of
the average household’s electricity consumption in Townsville, 607 hence based on average
household electricity usage (6200kWh per year), lighting uses 434 kWh of electricity a year. The
average Queensland house currently uses 12 incandescent lights.608 If these twelve were
replaced with halogen bulbs, assuming an overall efficiency gain of ten percent, this might save
five percent of the overall amount of electricity used for lighting in the house (assuming that
these twelve incandescent bulbs represent only a portion of the lighting of the household). This
would save 0.35 percent of the household’s total electricity consumption, or 21.7kWh per year.
The impact of this behaviour has been calculated to be 0.02.
Likelihood
[2]
Halogen bulbs are reported to last longer than incandescent bulbs (two times longer) and do not
contain mercury, unlike CFL bulbs. They aren’t as efficient as CFLs however, which may be
installed in preference to these.609 The quality of the light produced by halogens may cause them
to be chosen in preference to CFLs. The likelihood of this behaviour is considered to be low to
moderate.
605
Erini, A. (undated), Light bulbs: energy saving halogens, Realestate.com.au, Australia. Available at:
http://www.realestate.com.au/renovate/focus/green-living/articles/light-bulbs-energy-saving-halogens.htm, accessed 10 june 2009.
606
Milne, G. & Riedy, C. (2008) 6.3 Lighting – Technical Manual, Design for Lifestyle and the Future, Commonwealth of Australia.
Available at: http://www.yourhome.gov.au/technical/fs63.html, accessed 29 September 2008.
607
Goudie, D. (1995) Sustainable Domestic Energy Use in North Queensland, James Cook University, Australia.
608
Qld EPA (2008) Achieving early and affordable greenhouse gas reductions in Queensland - Strategies for voluntary household
and lifestyle changes, Environmental Protection Agency, Queensland Government. Available at:
http://www.climatechange.qld.gov.au/downloads/downloads/working_paper_1.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008
609
Milne, G. & Riedy, C. (2008) 6.3 Lighting – Technical Manual, Design for Lifestyle and the Future, Commonwealth of Australia.
Available at: http://www.yourhome.gov.au/technical/fs63.html, accessed 29 September 2008.
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182.
Only installing the required wattage for the use: use lower wattage light bulbs
where possible [0.10:4]
Impact
[0.10]
The impact of this behaviour depends upon the number of bulbs which are changed, and the
amount that the lights are used. This behaviour assumes that some rooms are lit with higher
wattage bulbs than are necessary for the tasks performed, however it is difficult to estimate the
extent of this in the average household, and hence the impact of this behaviour. It is presumed,
however, that where a lower light intensity is sufficient, such as perhaps in the bedroom or living
room, it would also be desirable to provide ‘mood’ lighting, as opposed to the higher
luminescence typically required in, for example, the kitchen. It is hence suggested that there
would be few rooms which are too brightly lit, and the impact of this behaviour is assumed to be
relatively low. The impact has been estimated at 0.10.
Likelihood
[4]
This is a one off purchasing decision that can have a significant impact over the life of a bulb.
The likelihood of this behaviour being adopted depends upon consumers being aware that lower
wattage bulbs will reduce electricity consumption but provide sufficient light, and these bulbs
being stocked in stores where light bulbs are purchased. Given that lower intensity lights can
provide a different ‘mood’ of lighting, it is assumed that this may be a desired feature of lights in
certain rooms. Thus, the likelihood of this behaviour is assumed to be moderate to high.
Members of the expert review panel commented alternatively that people do not know how
much light they need, and that most people probably do this behaviour already.
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183.
Using reflectors to direct the light where it is needed to minimize additional
wattage [0.24:2]
Impact
[0.24]
Reflectors can reduce the electricity consumption of a household’s lighting by enabling the use
of lower wattage bulbs to provide equivalent luminescence. This is particularly relevant for high
energy consuming bulbs such as halogen lights. 30W and 35W halogen bulbs can replace 50W
ones, and with reflectors the light received can be equivalent.610 On a set of six halogen bulbs,
this behaviour would save between 60W and 90W.611 The impact overall will depend on how
many lights are replaced with lower wattage bulbs, and the amount which these are used. If a
house is assumed to have twenty downlights, which are used four hours each day, then this
behaviour would reduce the yearly electricity consumption of the household by between 292kWh
and 438kWh each year, or by between 4.7 and 7 percent. The impact of this behaviour has
been calculated to be, based on these assumptions, between 0.24 and 0.35 and has been taken
as 0.24 to reflect the uncertainty of the assumptions made.
Likelihood
[2]
This behaviour is a one off purchasing decision when bulbs are being replaced. It would require
the purchase of reflectors, which are not available at general hardware stores. It is a relatively
complex process, as the reflector needs to be fitted into the recess where the bulb normally sits,
and has to be held there while the light is installed. It is likely that by having the bulb sit less
snugly in the recess, dust will accumulate on the reflector and actually reduce the luminescence.
Halogen lights already have a reflective coating inside the bulb, and whilst reflectors can direct
light at 30 or 60 degree angles, this might not be a lot more specific than the halogen light
originally was. A consultant at Home Hardware estimates that this process may achieve an
equivalent luminescence to a 45W bulb. The reflectors would generally cost more than the bulbs
themselves (halogen bulbs cost around $2.95 for a 50W bulb, not significantly less for a 30W or
35W bulb).612
The likelihood of this behaviour, based on these considerations, is estimated to be moderately
low.
The expert review panel noted that there isn’t a large residential market for these products,
which can make it harder to source the reflectors.
610
Moreland Energy Foundation (2008) What to do if you have a house full of halogen downlights, Moreland City Council. Available
at: http://www.mefl.com.au/household/resources/tip/63/, accessed 20 October 2008
611
Australian Greenhouse Office (2007) Global Warming Cool It - Lights, Department of Environment and Natural Resources,
Australian Government. Available at: http://www.environment.gov.au/settlements/gwci/lights.html, accessed 29 September 2008.
612
From personal communications, November 2008.
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184.
Avoiding coloured glass bulbs [0.01:4.5]
Impact
[0.01]
The use of coloured glass bulbs can halve the light output of a bulb, thus requiring a higher
wattage bulb than would otherwise be necessary.613 In determining the impact of this behaviour,
it is assumed that there would be few places within the house where coloured bulbs would be
desired. It is difficult to provide metrics for the impact of this behaviour, as it will depend on the
type of bulb, the number which are used within the house, the amount of time for which they’re
used, and the bulb wattage. Given the impending Federal restrictions on the sale of low
efficiency bulbs, 614 it is unlikely that this behaviour will be of great relevance. The impact, of this
behaviour is estimated to be low, and has been approximated as 0.01.
Likelihood
[4.5]
This decision may be more likely to be made for aesthetic reasons rather than energy saving
ones. The majority of light bulbs sold in supermarkets and hardware stores are clear glass, or
matt glass finish. As the Federal restrictions concern the efficiency of bulbs and will prevent the
sale of bulbs which fall short of the required 15 lumens per watt, it is unlikely that coloured glass
bulbs which provide little light output will be for sale. Hence, the likelihood of this behaviour is
estimated to be very high.
The expert review panel noted that LED lights can provide decorative colour well, and are an
energy efficient alternative.
613
Australian Greenhouse Office (2007) Global Warming Cool It - Lights, Department of Environment and Natural Resources,
Australian Government. Available at: http://www.environment.gov.au/settlements/gwci/lights.html, accessed 29 September 2008.
614
DEWHA (2009) Phase out of incandescent bulbs – Frequently asked questions, Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage
and the Arts, Australian Government. Available at: http://www.environment.gov.au/settlements/energyefficiency/lighting/faqphaseout.html, accessed 10 June 2009.
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185.
Switching incandescent bulbs to LED light bulbs [0.13:2]
Impact
[0.13]
LED light bulbs are very efficient (recent developments have produced bulbs which provide
equivalent light to a 60 watt incandescent bulb while using only 5.8 watts615) and have a long life
(60,000 hours compared with CFLs which last 10,000 and incandescent, 1,500). Currently, they
are more suited to special applications such as outdoor lights and night lights, given their high
price. The technology is developing rapidly however and these costs are expected to
decrease.616 A LED usually has lower wattage to provide similar lumens than CFL bulbs or
incandescent. With an estimated daily usage of 5 hours, an LED will use 329kWh per year
compared with 767kWh for a 14 Watt CFL and 3,285kWh for a 60 Watt incandescent.617 If it
assumed that only special lighting needs will be met by LED bulbs, the impact is likely to be low.
If two bulbs are replaced with LEDs, then this behaviour would save up to 158kWh each year,
based on four hours of use each night. This is equivalent to 2.6 percent of the total yearly
consumption of the average Townsville household, hence the impact of this behaviour has been
calculated to be 0.13.
Likelihood
[2]
LED bulbs cost considerably more than CFL ($54.95, compared with $2.98), although taking into
consideration their average 60,000 hour life span, they cost less over time ($131 compared with
$210 for CFL and $875 for incandescent, including replacement and running costs for electricity
metered at 0.23c per kWh).618 It is estimated that this behaviour has a low to moderate likelihood,
assuming that only special purpose bulbs will be replaced with LEDs.
The expert review panel noted that technology improvements are needed for LEDs to become a
competitive alternative to incandescent bulbs. They are not able to be dimmed, often don’t
produce the same quality light, and are prohibitively expensive for most applications.
Howard, B.C. (2007) ‘Breakthrough on World’s Most Efficient LEDs’, The Daily Green, USA. Available at:
http://www.thedailygreen.com/green-homes/eco-friendly/led-efficient-lighting-461128, accessed 10 June 2009.
616
Milne, G. & Riedy, C. (2008) 6.3 Lighting – Technical Manual, Design for Lifestyle and the Future, Commonwealth of Australia.
Available at: http://www.yourhome.gov.au/technical/fs63.html, accessed 29 September 2008.
617
O’Neill, R. (2006) Energy Savings Calculator for Replacing Light Bulbs, ProductDose.com. Available at:
http://www.productdose.com/article.php?article_id=1142, accessed 27 October 2008
618
O’Neill, R. (2006) Energy Savings Calculator for Replacing Light Bulbs, ProductDose.com. Available at:
http://www.productdose.com/article.php?article_id=1142, accessed 27 October 2008
615
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186.
Install solar powered garden lights rather than mains powered electric lights
[0.10:4]
Impact
[0.20]
These lights would not consume any mains electricity, being powered entirely through solar
panels. They only illuminate in the darkness. Given that solar lighting doesn’t require wiring or
power points, which may be a considerable barrier to households installing garden lighting, it is
estimated that these may be installed in preference to no lights in the garden, in which case this
behaviour won’t reduce the electricity consumption of the household. Nonetheless, on the
assumption that these are used in preference to mains powered lights, this behaviour could
save up to 526kWh a year, based on six incandescent bulbs being used for four hours a night in
the garden. This would be equivalent to 8 percent of the total yearly electricity consumption of a
Townsville household, hence the impact of this behaviour would be calculated to be 0.40. This
has been downscaled to 0.20 however, to reflect the assumption earlier mentioned that this
behaviour may not actually reduce mains electricity consumption.
It was noted by the expert panel that there is a wide variation in the quality of solar powered
garden lights, and some guidance may be necessary to assist consumers in making a selection.
Likelihood
[4]
This is a one off purchasing decision. To install these instead of wired lighting requires
consideration of options at the point of construction, renovation or installation. These can
replace lights such as security lights – A Solar Centurion Motion Sensor Light costs $99 online
from Solarshop Australia, another version costs $54.95 and a pack of 4 Japanese garden lights
costs $49 (there are many other options, this gives an idea of costs).619 The higher than average
earnings in Townsville may make this more likely. Renters may also be more likely to use solar
powered external lighting, as these can be easily moved to another house. This behaviour may
be less likely where a household relies on the garden lights for security or safety and feels that
solar powered lights are unreliable. The likelihood of this behaviour is estimated to be moderate
to high.
619
Solarshop Australia (2008) Garden and Outdoor Lighting, Australia. Available at:
http://www.solarshop.com.au/main/category25_1.htm, accessed 28 October 2008
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187.
Using a desk lamp for task lighting rather than overhead lighting [0:2]
Impact
[0]
This behaviour assumes that by directing light onto a surface rather than lighting an entire room,
a lower wattage bulb can be used and shadows can be avoided. It also assumes that while
using this task lighting, the overhead lighting will remain off. This may not be a valid assumption
as it would leave the room in relative darkness which could be impractical and aesthetically
undesirable. This behaviour may hence increase the electricity consumption by encouraging the
use of an additional light. For this reason, and as the increasing use of CFL lights is likely to
make overhead lighting relatively efficient, the impact for this behaviour has been rated as 0.
Likelihood
[2]
Desk lamps are likely to be used to provide greater illumination, however this may often be in
addition to overhead lighting rather than as a replacement. The likelihood of this behaviour
(which includes that the overhead light be turned off) is estimated to be low to moderate.
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188.
Connecting fewer lights to each switch to reduce unnecessary lighting [0.02:1.6]
Impact
[0.02]
This behaviour allows for greater control over the amount of lighting used at any one time. It will
allow each light, or a smaller groups of lights, to be turned on and off independently. In order to
reduce the electricity consumption of the household, it is assumed that this behaviour will result
in fewer lights being used at once. It may, however, also result in more lights being left on if
households are not in the habit of switching off unused lights. The impact will vary depending on
the type of light bulb used, and with the phasing out of incandescent light bulbs this will likely be
CFL or LED bulbs. Halogen lights are often wired together, however their low light output means
that all are actually needed to provide the desired level of light in the room.
The impact of this behaviour is difficult to gauge, given these considerations. It will also depend
upon the degree difference between the current situation and status quo in terms of wiring lights,
and the situation which is proposed by this behaviour. Lighting accounts for 7 percent of the
average household’s electricity consumption in Townsville,620 hence based on average
household electricity usage (6200kWh per year), lighting uses 434 kWh of electricity a year.
Logic and experience would suggest that the impact of this behaviour would be marginal on the
use of lighting in a house. Hence, if it were to be estimated that this behaviour might reduce the
use of lights within a house by five percent, then overall this behaviour would reduce the yearly
electricity consumption of the average Townsville household by 21.7kWh a year, or 0.3 percent.
Hence, the impact of this behaviour has been calculated as 0.02.
The expert review panel noted that whilst this behaviour has the potential to be effective, many
people tend to turn on all lights regardless, diminishing the impact of the behaviour.
Likelihood
[1.6]
This is a one off decision, made when the house is being constructed (this behaviour could be
undertaken as a retrofit but this is presumed to be a highly unlikely scenario unless as part of
other renovations). It would be more likely to happen with informed architects and as part of
overall lighting decisions. This behaviour may provide other benefits to households, such as
being able to control the lighting aesthetic of a room. The likelihood is estimated to be moderate.
The expert review panel noted that this behaviour is very difficult as a retrofit, and more likely in
new houses. They suggested a lower rating for the behaviour, and it has been adjusted
accordingly.
620
Goudie, D. (1995) Sustainable Domestic Energy Use in North Queensland, James Cook University, Australia.
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189.
Installing light switches at either end of halls and rooms with multiple exits [0.02:3]
Impact
[0.02]
This behaviour will reduce electricity to the extent by which it allows households to turn lights off
as they exit a room or hallway. It is presumed to facilitate this behaviour by also allowing the
light to switched back on if they re-enter a room, thereby minimising the disincentive to leave the
light on. The impact will depend entirely on the behavioural choices of the household, namely
that they reduce the amount of time for which they unnecessarily leave lights on. It is dependent
upon the degree of change between the current situation, and the ideal in which lights are
turned off when not in use.
It is difficult to gauge the impact of this behaviour, given the number of assumptions involved.
Experience and logic might dictate that the impact of this behaviour would be marginal, hence it
will be assumed that it may reduce the lighting usage of a household by five percent. Lighting
accounts for 7 percent of the average household’s electricity consumption in Townsville, 621 hence
based on average household electricity usage (6200kWh per year), lighting uses 434 kWh of
electricity a year. This behaviour would reduce the yearly electricity consumption of the average
Townsville household by 21.7kWh a year, or 0.4 percent. Hence, the impact of this behaviour
has been calculated as 0.02.
Lighting
[3]
This is a one off decision made when the house is being constructed. It will add some cost, but
this may be marginal compared with the overall costs of wiring and construction. It may provide
additional benefits to the household by allowing them greater control and convenience with their
lighting. The likelihood is assumed to be moderate.
621
Goudie, D. (1995) Sustainable Domestic Energy Use in North Queensland, James Cook University, Australia.
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190.
Using sensors or timers on outdoor lights [0.31:3]
Impact
[0.31]
It has been estimated by some sources (these sources are unverified, it is likely this is an upper
estimate) that leaving outdoor lights on all night can double the household electricity usage for
lighting.622 Household lighting accounts for on average 7 percent of household electricity use in
Townsville,623 hence based on average household electricity usage (6200kWh per year), lighting
uses 434 kWh of electricity a year. Some sensors may use 5 to 10 watts continuously, however,
potentially negating any positive gains from this behaviour, especially given the advent of high
efficiency bulbs such as CFLs. Sensors with daylight sensors can ensure the lights aren’t
activated during the day.624 Assuming a 5 watt sensor is used, it will consume 44kWh in a year,
while potentially reducing up to 434kWh of lighting electricity usage, providing net savings of
390kWh, or 6 percent of average yearly total electricity consumption in Townsville. The impact
of this behaviour has hence been calculated to be 0.31, however it should be noted that this is
an upper estimate, using an efficient sensor and based on average figures found in the literature
which may include the use of incandescent bulbs.
Likelihood
[3]
Households may be more likely to install sensors where the illumination from an outside light
penetrates a bedroom or other areas of the house where it isn’t desired. Sensors may be
perceived as providing a security feature through being activated by motion, as they can alert
the household when someone is approaching the house. The likelihood of this behaviour is
estimated to be moderate.
The expert review panel noted that this behaviour is becoming standard practice.
622
Savings Guide (2007) Save Money on Electricity and Lighting, 30 October. Available at: http://www.savingsguide.com.au/savemoney-on-electricity-and-lighting/, accessed 26 June 2009.
623
Goudie, D. (1995) Sustainable Domestic Energy Use in North Queensland, James Cook University, Australia.
624
Milne, G. & Riedy, C. (2008) 6.3 Lighting – Technical Manual, Design for Lifestyle and the Future, Commonwealth of Australia.
Available at: http://www.yourhome.gov.au/technical/fs63.html, accessed 29 September 2008.
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191.
Installing and using dimmer controls on lights [0.02:3]
Impact
[0.02]
This behaviour can reduce the electricity consumption of a household by allowing lights to be
dimmed, which reduces the wattage consumed by the light for that period. For example a 50
watt bulb providing high lumens may only be needed to provide 30 watts’ worth of light at some
times. The impact of this behaviour hence depends on how the dimmer switch is used and
which bulbs are installed. It is noted that many dimmer switches control halogen downlights,
which can consume significantly more energy than a CFL or other type of bulb. It is also noted
that this behaviour will increase the electricity consumption of a household who, previous to
installing dimmer switches, would have turned the lights off rather than reduce their light output.
Given these considerations, it is difficult to calculate the impact of this behaviour. However, logic
and experience would suggest that the impact of this behaviour would be marginal on the use of
lighting in a house. Lighting accounts for 7 percent of the average household’s electricity
consumption in Townsville,625 hence based on average household electricity usage (6200kWh
per year), lighting uses 434 kWh of electricity a year. Hence, if it were to be estimated that this
behaviour might reduce the electricity consumption of lights within a house by five percent, then
overall this behaviour would reduce the yearly electricity consumption of the average Townsville
household by 21.7kWh a year, or 0.3 percent. Hence, the impact of this behaviour has been
calculated as 0.02.
The expert review panel noted that in terms of efficiency, it’s likely to be better to install a nondimmable CFL than a dimmer control on other types of bulbs.
Likelihood
[3]
This is a one off behaviour to have dimmer switches installed, however implies a repetitive
action to use them. Dimmers can now be used with some CFLs, but not all. This behaviour may
be undertaken for other reasons, such as to enable ‘mood lighting’ in certain rooms, to allow for
backlighting while watching television, or as an alternative to night lights for children. The
likelihood of this behaviour is estimated to be moderate.
625
Goudie, D. (1995) Sustainable Domestic Energy Use in North Queensland, James Cook University, Australia.
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192.
Using lighter coloured paints to reduce lighting requirements [0.10:3]
Impact
[0.10]
This behaviour may reduce the electricity consumption of a household by reducing the need for
electric lighting. Lighter coloured paints can increase the reflection of natural (or artificial) light
within a room, making it brighter.626 It is worth noting that the colour of the walls will only reduce
electricity consumption when this behaviour is accompanied by an ongoing behavioural change
of switching on fewer lights.
While no statistics have been found for the degree to which this may occur (it is presumed this
effect depends on numerous factors, such as the colour of the paint before and after, the
amount of other light in the room, the smoothness of the surfaces and so on), some estimate
can be provided.
Lighting in Townsville is estimated to use 7 percent of household electricity.627 Based on average
Queensland household electricity usage (10,887kWh per year),628 lighting would then use 762
kWh of electricity a year. Assuming that lighter coloured paint can increase the reflection of light
by 20 percent (author’s estimate), this may result in reduced electricity consumption by the
same amount, providing yearly electricity savings of 152kWh. This assumption relies entirely,
however, on the presumption that given the higher reflectiveness of the paint, the household
commeasurably reduces the wattage of their lights. As this may not be the case, the impact for
this behaviour has been downscaled from the calculated figure of 0.12 to 0.10.
Likelihood
[3]
The use of lighter coloured paint may be influenced by many factors, such as preference for a
certain aesthetic, the potential for various colours to show marks and dirt, the colour scheme of
the house, and indeed the amount of light it provides. Houses which have an existing colour
scheme may need to be repainted in order to achieve this behaviour, and this is likely to entail
significant cost. The cost savings of this behaviour (assuming the above mentioned assumptions
hold) would be around $26 a year (based on Tariff 11 pricing for Queensland, as of July 2009629),
a saving which would be well in excess of the cost of repainting the house.
It is thus assumed that this behaviour would only be relevant to those households considering
repainting their house anyway. The likelihood of this behaviour is estimated to be moderate.
626
DEUS (2006) Saving Energy, Department of Energy, Utilities and Sustainability, NSW Government. Available at:
http://www.deus.nsw.gov.au/energy/Information%20for%20Consumers/Saving%20Energy.asp, accessed 12 December 2008.
627
Goudie, D. (1995) Sustainable Domestic Energy Use in North Queensland, James Cook University, Australia.
628
Qld EPA (2008) Achieving early and affordable greenhouse gas reductions in Queensland - Strategies for voluntary household
and lifestyle changes, Environmental Protection Agency, Queensland Government. Available at:
http://www.climatechange.qld.gov.au/downloads/downloads/working_paper_1.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008
629
DME (2009) Retail electricity prices for non-market customers, Queensland Government Gazette, Department of Mines and
Energy. Vol. 351 No. 41. Available at: http://www.dme.qld.gov.au/zone_files/Electricity/09.06.09_-_%5B41%5D__extra_gazette.pdf,
accessed 18 June 2009.
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193.
Cleaning lights and light fittings to remove dust and make them more effective
[0.04:2]
Impact
[0.04]
This behaviour will save electricity by enabling households to use bulbs with a lower wattage. In
fact, it will only save electricity if the household accompanies this behaviour by doing so (and in
this respect, this behaviour may in fact be a strategy for the behaviour “Only install the required
wattage for the use: Use lower wattage light bulbs where possible”). As under Australian
legislation, consumers will not be able to purchase incandescent bulbs after 2010,630 these
calculations will be performed on compact fluorescent bulbs (CFL) which are already in common
use.
Commonly available CFL bulbs come as 11 watts, 15 watts and 20 watts.631 Assuming that this
behaviour enables a household to replace 8 bulbs in the house (the average house uses 12
incandescent lights,632 and potentially others which are CFL or another type) with a lower
wattage than would have otherwise been necessary (and assuming that this is done), which
would save on average 4.5 watts per bulb (based on half being reduced from 20 watts to 15
watts, and the other half from 15 watts to 11 watts), then this would reduce the overall wattage
by 36 watts. Assuming that these lights are on for four hours a day on average (own estimate),
this would save approximately 53kWh per year. This would reduce the yearly electricity
consumption of the average Townsville household by 0.9 percent, hence the impact of this
behaviour has been calculated to be 0.04.
Likelihood
[2]
This behaviour may be undertaken for a variety of purposes, such as to provide the appearance
of cleanliness in the home where the dirt and dust are visible. It may be hindered by the fact that
many light fittings are located in the ceiling and may be difficult to reach, and may also be
looked at less often, reducing what would otherwise be a good reminder to undertake this
behaviour. The likelihood of this behaviour is estimated to be low to moderate.
DEWHA (2008) Energy Use in the Australian residential sector 1986 – 2020, Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage
and the Arts, Australian Government. Available at:
http://www.environment.gov.au/settlements/energyefficiency/buildings/publications/energyuse.html
631
PowerCor (nd) The Compact Fluoro Light, Fact Sheet, Australia. Available at:
http://www.powercor.com.au/docs/pdf/Community%20and%20Environment/Fact%20Sheet%20%20The%20compact%20fluoro%20light.pdf, accessed 12 December 2008.
632
Qld EPA (2008) Achieving early and affordable greenhouse gas reductions in Queensland - Strategies for voluntary household
and lifestyle changes, Environmental Protection Agency, Queensland Government. Available at:
http://www.climatechange.qld.gov.au/downloads/downloads/working_paper_1.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008
630
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2.7
194.
Complimenting Energy Efficiency Behaviours with Onsite Generation
Installing solar photovoltaic panels [1.63:1.5]
Impact
[1.63]
This behaviour will reduce the mains electricity consumption of households by enabling them to
generate their own electricity through the use of solar panels. Townsville receives between 5
and 7.2 peak sun hours a day (variations are seasonal),633 and the Townsville City Council
estimates that there are more than 300 days of sunshine in Townsville (please note that BOM
data suggests that there are 122.9 clear days a year in Townsville, 634 the difference is presumed
to reflect a difference in qualification. As the TCC figure was used in the context of solar hot
water heaters, however, it is assumed that these 300 days refer to days which are sufficiently
clear to provide adequate solar irradiation for solar hot water heating, or indeed solar PV
panels). Assuming a household installs a 1kW system, and that on cloudy days half the solar
irradiation is available, they would have the potential to generate 2,025kWh each year. This
would reduce the household’s mains electricity consumption by 33 percent, hence the impact of
this behaviour has been rated at 1.63.
Likelihood
[1.5]
The Federal Government has recently ended their rebate offer for Solar PV panels (June 2009),
and this has been replaced by the Solar Credits Scheme. This forms part of the Government’s
Renewable Energy Target, and allows homeowners to claim Renewable Energy Certificates
(RECs) to the value of 15 years’ worth of electricity generation. This is intended to provide a
more immediate subsidy to homeowners to offset the initial costs. It is suggested that a 1kW
system installed in Brisbane (an example is not provided by the Government for Townsville)
would attract a $5,150 credit and $7,750 for a 1.5kWh system.635
Given that this is a decrease from the previous rebate offer, which provided up to $8,000 for the
installation of a new 1kW system636 as well as RECs,637 households may be less likely than they
previously were to install a solar PV system. The Queensland Government also provides
incentives for solar panels through their Solar Bonus scheme, which pays residents 44 cents per
kWh for surplus electricity which is sent to the grid.638
The expert review panel suggested that this behaviour was less likely than was given here, and
highly dependent upon incentives such as rebates. The rating has been decreased accordingly.
BW Solar (undated) Solar information – solar irradiation, Western Australia. Available at:
http://www.bwsolar.com.au/solar_solar.htm, accessed 23 June 2009.
634
BOM (2007) Climate Statistics for Australian Locations, Bureau of Meteorology, Australia. Available at:
http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_032040.shtml, accessed 08 December 2008.
635
Department of Climate Change (2009) Supporting Small Generation Systems under the Renewable Energy Target (RET)
Scheme, Australian Government, June 2009. Available at:
http://www.climatechange.gov.au/renewabletarget/publications/pubs/solar_credits-fs.pdf, accessed 23 June 2009.
636
DEWHA (2009) Solar Homes and Communities Plan, Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, Australian
Government. Available at: http://www.environment.gov.au/settlements/renewable/pv/index.html, accessed 23 June 2009.
637
ORER (2007) Renewable Energy Certificates, Officie of the Renewable Energy Regulator, Australian Government. Available at:
http://www.orer.gov.au/recs/index.html, accessed 28 October 2008.
638
Office of Clean Energy (2009), Solar Bonus Scheme, Queensland Government. Available at:
http://www.cleanenergy.qld.gov.au/solar_bonus_scheme.cfm, accessed 23 June 2009.
633
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Solar technology is being developed that can be integrated into and replace existing household
structures, such as roof tiles, windows, skylights and walls. This will reduce the effective cost of
installation.639
In the Townsville Have Your Say questionnaire,640 86.1 percent of respondents stated that they
were aware of renewable energy a sustainable application, and 3.8 percent said that they
already were doing this (note that this question did not specify solar panels, and may include
wind power or other generation techniques). The likelihood of this behaviour is estimated to be
low to moderate.
Stapelton, G. et al, (2008) 6.7 Photovoltaic systemss – Technical Manual, Design for Lifestyle and the Future, Commonwealth of
Australia. Available at: http://www.yourhome.gov.au/technical/fs67.html, accessed 29 September 2008.
640
TCC (2006) Townsville, Have Your Say – Sustainability and Sustainable Cities Questionnaire: Report on Results, Townsville City
Council, Australia.
639
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195.
Cleaning solar panels regularly [0.08:2]
Impact
[0.08]
It is estimated that dust can reduce the power output of solar panels by 5 percent (however rain
generally keeps them clean due to the slope of the roof and panels).641 Townsville receives
between 5 and 7.2 peak sun hours a day (variations are seasonal), 642 and the Townsville City
Council estimates that there are more than 300 days of sunshine in Townsville (please note that
BOM data suggests that there are 122.9 clear days a year in Townsville, 643 the difference is
presumed to reflect a different in qualification. As the TCC figure was used in the context of
solar hot water heaters, however, it is assumed that these 300 days refer to days which are
sufficiently clear to provide adequate solar irradiation for solar hot water heating, or indeed solar
PV panels). Assuming a household installs a 1kW system, and that on cloudy days half the solar
irradiation is available, they would have the potential to generate 2,025kWh each year. This
behaviour would prevent this amount from decreasing by five percent, assuming it was dirty for
the entire year. Hence, this behaviour could prevent an increase in mains electricity
consumption by 101kWh, or 1.6 percent of the yearly consumption of an average Townsville
household. The impact of this behaviour has been rated as 0.08, however it should be taken
within the context noted above that rain tends to keep panels relatively clean.
The expert review panel noted that from their experience this behaviour should produce a 15 to
20 per cent improvement in panel performance.
Likelihood
[2]
Rainfall can be sufficient to keep panels clean, or in the event of little rain then hosing them from
the ground. If birds have dirtied the panels, then it may be necessary to clean them physically
with a cloth, which would involve climbing on the roof.644 Some installation companies offer
cleaning with installation. The likelihood of this behaviour is assumed to be moderate to high.
The expert review panel considered this behaviour less likely, hence the rating has been
adjusted downwards. They commented that this risk of falls may be a significant deterrent.
641
SEDA (2004) Solar Power FAQ, NSW Sustainable Energy Development Authority, NSW Government. Available at:
http://www.deus.nsw.gov.au/Publications/Solar%20Power%20FAQ%20-%20April%202004.pdf, accessed 28 October 2008.
642
BW Solar (undated) Solar information – solar irradiation, Western Australia. Available at:
http://www.bwsolar.com.au/solar_solar.htm, accessed 23 June 2009.
643
BOM (2007) Climate Statistics for Australian Locations, Bureau of Meteorology, Australia. Available at:
http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_032040.shtml, accessed 08 December 2008.
644
Solar Technology Australia (2008) Frequently Asked Questions, Australia. Available at: http://www.solartech.com.au/faq.html,
accessed 27 October 2008.
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Purchasing a portion of electricity from GreenPower [na:1.7]
Impacts
[na]
This behaviour is unlikely to reduce the electricity consumption of a household. The higher cost
of electricity may encourage households to reduce their usage, however no research to this
effect has been found at this stage. This behaviour has been included for completeness. It will
influence the greenhouse gas emissions for which Townsville residents are responsible, and
although this is not the primary goal of this investigation, it is a stated aim of the Project as a
whole.
Likelihood
[1.7]
There are currently (October 2008) seven energy companies which provide GreenPower
accredited renewable energy to consumers in Queensland: ActewAGL, AGL, ARK Climate,
Australian Power and Gas, Climate Friendly, Country Energy, COZero, Domayne, Energy
Australia, Ergon Energy, Global Green Plan, Integral Energy, Jack Green Energy, Queensland
Electricity, Red Energy, TRUenergy and Origin Energy.645 In the previous quarter (1 April – 30
June 2008), the number of residential and commercial customers (combined) who purchased
GreenPower declined (NGPAP, 2008).
A 2008 ABS survey found that 52 percent of Australian households were aware of GreenPower,
which includes the 5 percent who are currently purchasing GreenPower, and one third of these
respondents said that they were willing to support GreenPower. These figures represent
increases from 2005, when only 29 percent of respondents were aware of GreenPower (and 19
percent in 1999), and when 23 percent of those households who were aware of the scheme
were willing to support it. 646
Green Power estimates it costs around $1 a week extra to buy some green power, however it
will depend on the energy provider and the amount purchased.647
This is a one off decision to switch to Green Power, however an ongoing decision to keep it. The
‘status quo bias’ suggests that once chosen, consumers may continue to purchase GreenPower
(De Meza et al, 2008).
In the Townsville Have Your Say Questionnaire,648 77.7 percent of respondents said that they
were aware that they could purchase green energy (from Ergon energy), and 32.5 percent said
that they already did this (please note comments above in the earlier section of this report,
which identifies that the age distribution of questionnaire respondents may not be representative
of the Townsville population as a whole).
In terms of behaviours which citizens would be willing to take to make a personal contribution to
mitigating climate change, in the USA 68 percent of respondents to an EcoAlign survey (August
NGPAP (2008) Green Power – Status Report, Quarter 2, 1 April – 30 June 2008, National GreenPower Accreditation Program,
Australia. Available at: http://www.greenpower.gov.au/admin/file/content13/c6/Quarterly_Report_Q2_2008.pdf, accessed 28 October
2008.
646
ABS (2008) Environmental Issues – Energy Use and Conservation, Australian Bureau of Statistics, Australian Government.
Available at:
http://abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/39433889d406eeb9ca2570610019e9a5/E95A38518401BD24CA25750E00108119?opendocum
ent, accessed 02 December 2008.
647
Greenpower (2008) Providers in Queensland, Australia. Available at: http://greenpower.gov.au/home-qld.aspx, accessed 21
November 2008.
648
TCC (2006) Townsville, Have Your Say – Sustainability and Sustainable Cities Questionnaire: Report on Results, Townsville City
Council, Australia.
645
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2008) were interested in purchasing all or some of their electricity from renewable sources.649
This contradicts somewhat a more recent survey (November 2008) which showed that
consumers preferred saving electricity (using less) to paying for an option which might allow
them to continue with current behaviours whilst having less of an impact on climate change,650
although the specific question of purchasing renewable energy, or green power, was not asked.
In the same survey, one third of respondents indicated that they would be ‘very dissatisfied’ with
paying more than 10 percent more for their energy, and 22 percent indicated that they would be
very satisfied with this.
The likelihood of this behaviour is assumed to be moderate.
The expert review panel noted that there may be issues with this behaviour if or when the a
carbon trading scheme is introduced, as some of the proposed models would effectively negate
the impact of households purchasing Green Power, and this may make the behaviour less
likely. The panel suggested a lower likelihood for this behaviour, and the rating has been
adjusted.
649
650
Wimberly, J. (2008) Banking the Green: Incentives for EE and renewable, EcoPinion, Issue 4, August, EcoAlign.
Wimberly, J. (2008) Climate Change and Consumers: The Challenge Ahead, EcoPinion, Issue 5, November, EcoAlign.
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197.
Purchasing all the household’s electricity from GreenPower [na:2]
Impact
[na]
(See above for the impact of purchasing some power from GreenPower)
Likelihood
[2]
GreenPower estimates it would cost around $5.50 extra a week to purchase 100 percent green
power, although this would depend on the household and the energy provider.651 For other
factors, see above under the above behaviour, purchasing some power from GreenPower. It is
estimated that this behaviour has a low to moderate likelihood.
651
Greenpower (2008) Providers in Queensland, Australia. Available at: http://greenpower.gov.au/home-qld.aspx, accessed 21
November 2008.
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198.
Clearing vegetation to reduce shading on solar PV panels [0.17:4]
Impact
[0.17]
Vegetation which shades solar panels will reduce the amount of electricity which they are able to
generate. Even a small amount of shading can have a disproportionate effect. Solar panels
consist of multiple cells, which are typically wired in series (on large panels, there can be several
series’ of cells, wired together in parallel). If part or all of a cell is shaded, the production of free
electrons in that cell will drop, causing a drop in voltage. As all cells in the series will have the
same voltage, this will cause a drop in the voltage of the entire series, and forcing a current
through that partially shaded cell can result in power losses in the form of heat (and can damage
652
the cell). As a result, most solar panels incorporate bypass diodes, which allow the electric
current generated by the other cells to bypass the one which is being shaded.653 This, however,
will nonetheless result in a drop in voltage, and if the system uses batteries, this may in some
cases result in the output voltage being too low to charge the battery. Most panels operate in the
vicinity of 16 to 18 volts, and most batteries require at least 13.5 volts to charge. Typically, the
loss of one cell will see a resultant drop in the overall panel voltage of around 0.48 volts.654 The
impact of this behaviour will hence rely on the amount of shading which is removed by clearing
vegetation, the type of solar panels in use, whether the system uses battery storage or feeds
directly into the grid and the amount of electricity which the panels typically generate. The
average amount of electricity generated by a 1kWh system in Townsville was estimated
previously to be 2,025kWh each year, or approximately 33 percent of the electricity needs of the
average household in Townsville. If this behaviour were to prevent the output of the solar panels
from decreasing by (for example) ten percent, then this would save 202.5kWh each year, or 3.3
percent of the yearly household consumption. Hence, the impact of this behaviour is roughly
estimated to be 0.17.
The expert review panel commented that this behaviour can have a significant impact.
Likelihood
[4]
Solar panels are typically mounted on the roof, and may hence be clear of many trees.
However, where some tall trees do shade the panels, residents will need to either remove the
tree or cut it back. Residents are able to cut back, or remove their own trees with the only
limitation to this is if the tree is a heritage tree, signifying that it is a native tree, and of a
significant age, then it is not able to be removed. If a tree is heritage, it may still be cut back and
this may be sufficient to stop it from shading the solar panels. There are many arborists in
Townsville who can be contracted to perform this service for homeowners if they lack the skills,
confidence or necessary tools, however this will incur a cost. Given that solar panels are a
considerable financial investment, it is assumed that households will have a strong interest in
ensuring that these panels are producing the most electricity they can. Thus, this behaviour is
assumed to be highly likely.
652
Personal Communications
OK Solar, (nd) Diodes in PV Systems, United States. Available at: http://www.oksolar.com/technical/diodes_in_pv_systems.htm,
accessed 11 December 2008.
654
Energy Matters (2007) General Solar Power FAQs, Wind Energy and Solar Power Australia. Available at:
http://www.energymatters.com.au/faqs/general_solar_power_faq.php, accessed 11 December 2008.
653
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199.
Performing tasks requiring hot water early in the day when using solar hot water
[0.54:2]
Impact
[0.54]
This behaviour will save electricity by reducing the amount which the booster on a solar system
is used to heat the water. It will only save electricity when the system has an electric booster
which is switched on (some have gas boosters, and some residents may switch their boosters
off). When water is used earlier in the day and consequently replaced with cooler water, there is
a greater chance of the unit being exposed to a sufficient quantity of solar radiation to heat that
new cooler water (except on overcast days) and the booster system not needing to be activated.
The Townsville City Council notes that in Australia, a solar hot water system will generally use
83 percent less electricity than an electric storage system (it is assumed that the booster and
pump account for the remaining 17 percent), however in Townsville this electricity saving would
be expected to be even greater due to the greater solar availability than in most parts of
Australia.655
Assuming that an electric storage hot water system in Townsville uses on average 2100kWh
each year, then the pump and booster on an average solar hot water system would be
expected to use (at most) 357kWh. In order to provide some estimate of the impact of this
behaviour, it is necessary to make some assumptions. It will be assumed that this behaviour will
halve the amount of time that the booster system operates, giving consideration to the hot water
uses within the house (shower, laundry, dishwasher, washing up) and the degree to which each
of these can be, and would be, displaced in an ordinary household (own estimates). It is also
assumed that the booster is normally responsible for half of the 357kWh consumed by the solar
hot water system. Hence, this behaviour could be expected to save approximately 89kWh a
year, or 1.4 percent of the yearly usage of an average Townsville household. The impact of this
behaviour has been calculated to be 0.07.
The expert review panel noted significant confusion surrounding this behaviour, as more hot
water would be available later in the day. They also suggested that the impact will depend highly
on tank insulation and the booster efficiency, and that it is perhaps better to encourage the
installation of better control systems rather than behavioural change for this behaviour.
Nonetheless, the panel suggested a higher impact than was given here, hence it has been
adjusted.
Likelihood
[2]
This behaviour requires households to consider changing several behaviours within the house,
for instance the time of day at which they take a hot shower, when hot loads of clothes washing
are done, when the dishes are washed and so on. There may be other influencing factors, such
as work routines, the number of people in the house and competition for these activities (for
instance in a larger household with only one shower, it may not be possible for all residents to
take a hot shower in the morning, resulting in some doing this in the evening), and the time
available (for instance, some households may not be able to put a load of washing on (assuming
a hot water cycle is used) in the morning if they work, and may prefer to do this in the evening).
655
TCC (2008) Hot Water Heating, Sustainable Housing for the Tropics, Townsville City Council. Available at:
http://www.townsville.qld.gov.au/resources/1987.pdf, accessed 18 June 2009.
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This behaviour may also be influenced by psychological factors such as a desire to take a hot
bath or shower in the evening to relax or ‘unwind’, or to be clean before going to bed.
Households may also feel that by having a solar hot water system, they have undertaken a large
enough commitment towards reducing their electricity consumption and that behaviours such as
this one are marginal and unnecessary.
The likelihood of this behaviour, based on these considerations, is estimated to be low to
moderate.
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200.
Setting the booster on a solar hot water system to 60oC [0.01:4.5]
Impact
[0.01]
This behaviour will save electricity by reducing the need for an electric booster to come online
(note that this behaviour will only save electricity where the booster is electric, as many solar
systems have gas boosters). It is difficult to estimate how much electricity this would save, as it
depends on the temperature to which solar irradiation can heat the water, the water use patterns
and how often this causes the booster to come online, the size of the storage tank and so on.
Based on estimates for Australia, boosters consume around 8.5 percent of the equivalent
amount of electricity used in an electric hot water system to provide a household’s hot water
heating needs (see behaviour 201: Perform tasks requiring hot water early in the day when
using solar hot water), however in Townsville it is expected that this figure is lower. 656 An average
electric storage hot water system is estimated to consume around 2,100kWh per year to meet
the needs of an average household657 so it may be a reasonable assumption to use this figures
and estimate that the general consumption of a booster would be around 179kWh, or 2.8
percent of the total yearly electricity consumption of the household. .This behaviour would
presumably save some portion of this, depending on what temperature the booster was set at
before. The impact of this behaviour has been estimated to be low, and has been rated as 0.01.
The expert panel confirmed that whilst Legionella regulations require the booster to be set to 62
degrees, setting it lower in practice can afford up to ten percent energy savings to households.
Likelihood
[4.5]
Recommendations for Australian hot water systems are that these should be set to 60 degrees
Celsius or higher to reduce the risk of Legionella disease (some recommendations are for 55
degrees Celsius, 658 however 60 degrees appears to be most common). Most hot water systems
have variable thermostats which allow them to be set as high as 70 degrees. It is likely that
households who install a solar hot water system will do so with an awareness of electricity
consumption and a desire to reduce their personal impact on the environment (although over the
life of a solar hot water system these are cheaper than all other types, the higher upfront costs
make it unlikely that the installation of such as system is done for cost savings alone), 659 and this
may provide impetus for a household to consider the temperature at which the booster is set.
Other factors which may contribute to this decision include the temperature of the water for
various uses, such as showering, and whether a booster set at a lower temperature will provide
sufficient hot water for all the household’s needs. It will also be necessary for a household to
have access to means to inspect, and change, the temperature on a booster. This may be the
knowledge and ability to do so themselves, or access to a technician to do this for them.
The likelihood of this behaviour is assumed to be high.
656
TCC (2008) Hot Water Heating, Sustainable Housing for the Tropics, Townsville City Council. Available at:
http://www.townsville.qld.gov.au/resources/1987.pdf, accessed 18 June 2009.
657
TCC (2008) Hot Water Heating, Sustainable Housing for the Tropics, Townsville City Council. Available at:
http://www.townsville.qld.gov.au/resources/1987.pdf, accessed 18 June 2009.
658
TCC (2008) Hot Water Heating, Sustainable Housing for the Tropics, Townsville City Council. Available at:
http://www.townsville.qld.gov.au/resources/1987.pdf, accessed 18 June 2009.
659
TCC (2008) Hot Water Heating, Sustainable Housing for the Tropics, Townsville City Council. Available at:
http://www.townsville.qld.gov.au/resources/1987.pdf, accessed 18 June 2009.
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201.
Installing a wind generator [5:1]
Impact
[5]
This behaviour will reduce the electricity consumption of a household by reducing the amount of
mains electricity they require. An onsite wind generator will result in the household generating
their own electricity which will be used in lieu of that provided by the electricity provider (please
note that this behaviour may not specifically result in less electricity consumed, however it is
assumed that the intention of this project is in fact to reduce mains electricity consumption). This
behaviour may have an additional benefit of creating greater awareness of electricity
consumption within the household through a more tangible interaction with electricity generation
and consumption, which may result in reduced electricity usage. As this cannot be measured or
estimated, it will not be considered further.
Wind turbines for residential use come in a variety of sizes and output ratings. The actual output
of these will depend highly on the rated power, the location of the turbine and the available wind,
and the other system components (inverters, battery storage) and the power usage and losses
these incur. To provide some idea, micro turbines are available which have a rated output of 230
volts and 600 watts, a blade diameter of around 1.7 metres and are suitable for land applications
(Ampair wind generator, model Ampair600230V). On the other end of the scale, there are
turbines available with a rated power output of 6,000 watts, and voltages available up to 300
volts. This would provide around 6kW of electricity and, excluding heating, would meet almost
the entire needs of a four to six bedroom house (Proven 6 model).660
It is estimated that this behaviour thus has the potential to completely meet a household’s
electricity needs, reducing their mains electricity usage to zero. The behaviour has hence been
rated as 5, although this is done with the caution that this depends on the capacity of the turbine
installed, the household’s electricity usage and the wind profile at the house.
Likelihood
[1]
In the Townsville Have Your Say questionnaire,661 86.1 percent of respondents stated that they
were aware of the installation of a renewable energy generating system as a sustainable
application, and 3.8 percent said that they already were doing this (note that this question did
not specify wind power and may include solar panels, or other generation techniques).
There are significant costs involved in installing residential wind power. For instance, of the
systems mentioned above, the Proven 6 costs around AUD$58,400 (this is not the cheapest
model available, others are more expensive), while the Ampair600230V costs around
AUD$8,600 (an online discount is given, ordinarily this costs AUD$9,460 from this seller). These
costs may not represent the full costs of installation, wiring and necessary accessories such as
inverters and batteries.662 Assuming an average yearly electricity consumption of 6,200,663 the
660
Energy Matters (2008) Residential Wind Power, Australia. Available at: http://www.energymatters.com.au/wind-turbinesresidential-wind-power-c-149_328.html?page=2&sort=20a, accessed 12 December 2008.
661
TCC (2006) Townsville, Have Your Say – Sustainability and Sustainable Cities Questionnaire: Report on Results, Townsville City
Council, Australia.
662
Energy Matters (2008) Residential Wind Power, Australia. Available at: http://www.energymatters.com.au/wind-turbinesresidential-wind-power-c-149_328.html?page=2&sort=20a, accessed 12 December 2008.
663
Qld EPA (2008) Achieving early and affordable greenhouse gas reductions in Queensland - Strategies for voluntary household
and lifestyle changes, Environmental Protection Agency, Queensland Government. Available at:
http://www.climatechange.qld.gov.au/downloads/downloads/working_paper_1.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008
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yearly electricity bills paid by the average household would amount to AUD$1,062 (based on
Tariff 11 pricing in Queensland as of July 2009664).
The success of a wind turbine application relies on the wind profile at the house. Its installation
is also likely to be subject to conditions by the council, due to the height, noise and visual
impacts of the turbine.
The likelihood of this behaviour, given these considerations, is estimated to be low.
664
DME (2009) Retail electricity prices for non-market customers, Queensland Government Gazette, Department of Mines and
Energy. Vol. 351 No. 41. Available at: http://www.dme.qld.gov.au/zone_files/Electricity/09.06.09_-_%5B41%5D__extra_gazette.pdf,
accessed 18 June 2009.
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2.8
Options for House Construction and Retrofit
202.
Install automated systems to control appliances [1:1.7]
Impact
[1]
This behaviour will reduce electricity consumption by the amount which an automated system
can reduce unnecessary electricity use compared with what the resident would ordinarily do.
The impact will be reduced by the amount of electricity which an automated system uses itself to
operate.
Home automation systems in general refer to a range of technologies and scales of
implementation. They can be used at the level of an individual appliance, such as for instance
with programmable setback thermostats, or using timers, occupancy sensors or motion sensors
to control lights, heating and cooling and even VCRs (which use programmed timers). On a
larger scale, these systems can control most of the home appliances. This uses either
microchips which are installed in the appliances themselves, or a central computer which then
distributes the electricity to appliances according to the programmed protocols. These systems
can generally provide feedback also (for instance on electricity consumption), either through the
home computer or television.665
A well designed home automation system can save energy through a number of features, for
instance by maximising the use of passive solar heating and cooling by adjusting the blinds,
windows, vents and fans in response to natural conditions.
Similarly, the thermostat of the air conditioner can be varied in response to the internal
temperature of the room or the time of day. Turning lights on and off in response to movement
can prevent lights from being left on unnecessarily, and the use of standby power can be
reduced where appliances which are not in active use can be turned off completely. A list of
appliance which can potentially be controlled by automated systems might include:

Hot water systems.

Appliances.

Home office, home entertainment and other electronic equipment.

Lighting.

Heating and cooling/air conditioning systems.

Fans and air pumps/heat shifters.

Powered window blinds, shutters and awnings.

Powered vents and window openings.

Water pumps, pool pumps and spas.

Garage doors.
665
Graham, Dr. F.C. (2008) Home Automation: What is it and how does it affect future housing, Mississippi State University
Extension Service, USA. Available at: http://msucares.com/pubs/infosheets/is1606.htm, accessed 16 December 2008.
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
Security systems666
The impact which this control will have will depend on the settings which have been selected by
the user and the control which is possible (this will be product specific and may depend on the
nature of the house being controlled). Potentially, a home automation system can achieve many
of the impacts noted from behaviours above, where the home automation system will replicate
the proposed electricity saving behaviour. It is difficult to calculate the impact of this behaviour,
given the large variation in how such a system would be implemented and use, and this
behaviour has been rated as 1 to indicate its potential.
The expert review panel noted that this behaviour has the potential to be very powerful,
especially if it also provides feedback on savings. Some members commented, however, that
most have high standby power consumption, are distributed with many power packs and are
only as effective as their programming.
Likelihood
[1.7]
The majority of home automation systems in Europe are installed during construction, as trying
to install these post construction (as a retrofit) appears to be an expensive process which can be
intrusive as it will involve rewiring the home to a certain extent. In Europe, there is increasing
penetration of this technology into the home, however this is currently limited by the need for the
aforementioned wiring and once wireless technology is integrated with home automation
systems it is expected that the current growth in the market (expected to double from 2006
levels by 2013) will increase.667
Home automation systems may become more likely when the energy utility facilitates their
integration into the residential market. This may assist the utility in reducing peak demand, and
enable the households to take advantage of lower price electricity during off peak times by
integrating this technology with smart meters. 668
The likelihood of this behaviour, given these considerations, is estimated to be moderate. The
expert review panel suggested a lower likelihood for this behaviour, and it has hence been
adjusted.
666
Ryan, P. & Pavia, M. (2008) 6.10 Home Automation, Your Home Technical Manual, Commonwealth of Australia. Available at:
http://www.yourhome.gov.au/technical/fs610.html, accessed 16 December 2008.
667
Allen, C. (2007) Home Automation Market is Set to Double, California Green Solutions, USA. Available at:
http://www.californiagreensolutions.com/cgi-bin/gt/tpl.h,content=807, accessed 16 December 2008.
668
Ryan, P. & Pavia, M. (2008) 6.10 Home Automation, Your Home Technical Manual, Commonwealth of Australia. Available at:
http://www.yourhome.gov.au/technical/fs610.html, accessed 16 December 2008.
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203.
Considering the location of hot water using fixtures when designing and building
a home [0.10:1.7]
Impact
[0.10]
Water-using fixtures such as in the laundry, bathrooms and kitchen should be as close together
as possible to reduce the length of piping to each of them, and consequently the amount of hot
water lost in the pipes. The impact is proportional to the volume of the pipes, type of water
heater and amount of hot water being used (particularly in short bursts). Around 30 percent of
the electricity used to heat water is lost through losses in the tank and pipes669 and it is estimated
that losses in the pipes are responsible for half of this. This behaviour may be able to reduce
pipe length and energy losses by an assumed 40 percent, or 69 percent of the total energy
consumption of an electric storage hot water system (estimated to use on average 2,100kWh
per year). This would result in yearly electricity savings of 126kWh, or 2 percent of the total
annual household consumption. The impact of this behaviour is thus estimated to be 0.10.
Likelihood
[1.7]
This behaviour is noted in several energy efficiency guides published in Australia.670 The decision
of where to locate ‘wet’ areas within a home will most likely have other influences also, such as
if ensuite bathrooms are desired, and the preferred layout of the rooms within the house. The
likelihood of this behaviour based on these considerations is estimated to be moderate. The
expert review panel suggested a lower likelihood, hence it has been adjusted.
669
Riedy, C., Milne, G. and Reardon, C. (2008) 6.5 Hot water service - Technical Manual, Design for Lifestyle and the Future,
Commonwealth of Australia. Available at: http://www.yourhome.gov.au/technical/fs65.html, accessed 03 November 2008
670
For instance: Riedy, C., Milne, G. and Reardon, C. (2008) 6.5 Hot water service - Technical Manual, Design for Lifestyle and the
Future, Commonwealth of Australia. Available at: http://www.yourhome.gov.au/technical/fs65.html, accessed 03 November 2008;
DEWHA (b) (2008) Global Warming – Cool it, Water Heating, Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts,
Australian Government. Available at: http://www.environment.gov.au/settlements/gwci/water.html, Accessed 20 October 2008.; EPA
(2003) Energy Efficient Home Design, Guidelines, Environmental Protection Agency, Queensland Government. Available at:
http://www.epa.qld.gov.au/publications/p00404aa.pdf/Energy_efficient_home_design.pdf, accessed 01 November 2008.
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204.
Using smaller diameter pipes for hot water in building construction [0.05:2]
Impact
[0.05]
This behaviour will reduce electricity consumption by minimizing the amount of water which sits
in the hot water pipes and cools in between uses. The impact is proportional to the change in
volume of the pipes, type of water heater and amount of hot water being used (particularly in
short bursts). There is an inherent assumption that hot water pipes are currently oversized to
some degree. It is presumed that there would be marginal room for improvement on the current
situation with this design, given that larger pipes will typically cost more to buy and install, hence
there are already strong incentives to not oversize these. Around 30 percent of the energy used
to heat water is lost through losses in the tank and pipes,671 and it is estimated that this
behaviour may save some portion of the energy which is lost in pipes. The impact of this
behaviour has been rated as 0.01 to reflect the small gains which are expected to be possible.
The expert review panel suggested a slightly higher impact for this behaviour, and hence it has
been adjusted.
Likelihood
[2]
This behaviour is a one off action, which will need to be decided upon during the design phase
of house construction. Smaller diameter pipes are assumed to be cheaper, and may also make
pipe insulation more affordable. This behaviour is dependent upon information being available at
the point of decision (plumbers, architects and hardware stores); smaller diameter pipes being
available (it is assumed that piping comes in standardised sizes); and that smaller diameter
pipes will be able to carry the required flow.
The likelihood of this behaviour is estimated to be low to moderate.
The expert review panel noted that this behaviour can also reduce waiting times for hot water,
however, it may reduce the water pressure being delivered. One panel member from the United
States noted that this is currently not allowed under the US building legislation.
671
Riedy, C., Milne, G. and Reardon, C. (2008) 6.5 Hot water service - Technical Manual, Design for Lifestyle and the Future,
Commonwealth of Australia. Available at: http://www.yourhome.gov.au/technical/fs65.html, accessed 03 November 2008
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205.
Installing caulking to fix draughts in the home [0.28:2]
Impact
[0.28]
This behaviour can save electricity in the home by reducing the amount of heat which is
transferred through small gaps in walls, skirting boards and other such areas in a home. Gaps
and draughts can account for around 10 to 15 percent of heat transfer in the average home,
however drafts can cause a disproportionate feeling of being cold due to the movement of air. 672
Caulking can reduce the amount of such leaks.
Determining the impact of this behaviour will have many assumptions. For instance, not all
homes will have gaps needing caulking, and not all home will have as many as might account
for the full 10 to 15 percent in heating and cooling demands quoted above. Similarly, this
behaviour will not reduce electricity consumption unless the household is using mechanical
heating and cooling, such as air conditioning and heating. Fifty-three percent of households in
Townsville own an air conditioner, 673 and is assumed that heating needs are minimal due to the
generally warm, tropical climate in Townsville. 674 It is also necessary to estimate the electricity
consumption of this mechanical cooling. It would be expected that these would be run during the
summer months given that Townsville has a tropical climate which is characterised by hot,
humid summer months which peaks in December and January at around 31.4 degrees Celsius,
however from October until April, there are still days when the temperature is over 29 degrees
Celsius and the air conditioner may be used675 (it is worth noting that, particularly from October til
April, these peak temperatures may be during the day when many Townsville residents will be at
work in an office and hence residential air conditioners will not be used as much).
The Queensland EPA estimates that the average home in Queensland uses 2,709kWh a year to
run their air conditioners676 (please note that this may underestimate the amount of electricity
consumed by air conditioners in Townsville households, as the climate in Townsville is warmer
than in many Queensland locations). Hence, if caulking were to save between 10 and 15
percent of the electricity used to cool the home over the summer period, then this would equate
to a reduction in electricity usage of between 271kWh and 407kWh as an upper and lower limit
based on all the stated assumptions. This would reduce the yearly electricity consumption of the
average Townsville household by between 4.4 and 6.6 percent, hence the impact of this
behaviour is calculated to be an average of 0.28.
The expert review panel noted that the impact of this behaviour will depend on non-passive
cooling (such as air conditioners and fans).
Likelihood
[2]
672
HEAT (2003) Top Tips for Staying Warm, Home Energy Advice Team, ACT Government. Available at:
http://www.heat.net.au/action-advice-page/pdfs/factsheets/old_factsheet_pdfs/top_tips_for_staying_warm_web.pdf, accessed 10
November 2008.
673
Goudie, D. (1995) Sustainable Domestic Energy Use in North Queensland, James Cook University, Australia.
674
BOM (2007) Climate Statistics for Australian Locations, Bureau of Meteorology, Australia. Available at:
http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_032040.shtml, accessed 08 December 2008.
675
BOM (2007) Climate Statistics for Australian Locations, Bureau of Meteorology, Australia. Available at:
http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_032040.shtml, accessed 08 December 2008.
676
Qld EPA (2008) Achieving early and affordable greenhouse gas reductions in Queensland - Strategies for voluntary household
and lifestyle changes, Environmental Protection Agency, Queensland Government. Available at:
http://www.climatechange.qld.gov.au/downloads/downloads/working_paper_1.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008
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This behaviour relies on households being aware of such leaks. Whilst these can be found using
techniques such as passing lit incense around the edges of a room to see the direction in which
the smoke moves, households may not be aware of the need to do this, or how.
Caulking is an activity which could be undertaken by most households, with products which can
be bought from most hardware stores, and Bunnings Warehouse provides downloadable videos
to show households how they could do this.677
Based on these considerations, the likelihood of this behaviour is estimated to be moderate.
The expert review panel noted that this behaviour will also improve the comfort of the home,
however gave it a lower likelihood rating. Hence, this has been adjusted.
677
Bunnings (2008) DIY Videos, Caulking, Bunnings Warehouse, Australia. Available at: http://www.bunnings.com.au/learn-how-toDIY_diy-videos-noflash.aspx?category=10, accessed 11 December 2008.
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206.
Shading the outdoor components of the air conditioner from the sun [0.22:2]
Impact
[0.22]
This behaviour will reduce electricity consumption by enabling the air conditioner to work more
efficiently. Direct sunlight on an air conditioning unit’s outside heat exchanger can increase its
energy consumption by ten percent.678
The Queensland EPA estimates that on average, Queensland homes use 2,709kWh each year
to run their air conditioners.679 Assuming that this behaviour prevents an increase in electricity
consumption (it is assumed that the above mentioned wattages are for when the air conditioning
units are operating under efficient circumstances), then this behaviour would save around
271kWh a year (per household). This is equivalent to around 4.4 percent of the annual electricity
usage of the average Townsville household, hence the impact of this behaviour has been
calculated to be 0.22.
The review panel noted caution with this behaviour, as it is important to not impede air flow
around the unit. As the important consideration here is the ambient air temperature, it is
important to also shade the nearby walls and ground.
Likelihood
[2]
Shading can be provided by plants (trees, shrubs, vines), which will require planting and some
maintenance, and there may be a time delay between planting and when the plant is sufficiently
large to provide adequate shade. Similarly, a physical structure such as a fence, lattice or an
overhang can provide some shading. There may be costs associated with each of these options,
however each may also provide other benefits which may increase the attractiveness of this
behaviour. Residents may be more likely to undertake this behaviour if recommended by an air
conditioning technician, as this person may additionally assist in sizing and installing the unit.
Households may also feel that an air conditioning unit is not an attractive feature, providing
aesthetic incentive to shade it. The likelihood of this behaviour is estimated to be moderate to
high.
The expert review panel gave this behaviour a lower likelihood rating, hence it has been
adjusted.
678
EERE (2005) Landscape shading, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, US Department of Energy, USA. Available at:
http://apps1.eere.energy.gov/consumer/your_home/landscaping/index.cfm/mytopic=11940, accessed 08 December 2008.
679
Qld EPA (2008) Achieving early and affordable greenhouse gas reductions in Queensland - Strategies for voluntary household
and lifestyle changes, Environmental Protection Agency, Queensland Government. Available at:
http://www.climatechange.qld.gov.au/downloads/downloads/working_paper_1.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008
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207.
Insulating verandah roofs as a retrofit [0.637:1]
Impact
[0.37]
This behaviour may reduce electricity costs by reducing the radiant heat gain through the
verandah roof (this behaviour applies only to homes with a verandah), which will in turn provide
an outdoor area which is cool and comfortable during the hottest times of the year, reducing the
need for indoor air conditioning. Additionally, this behaviour may reduce the temperature of the
house by acting, in effect, as an oversized eave, and in this way reducing the air conditioning or
other mechanical cooling demand inside the house.680 As a verandah is an unenclosed space,
this behaviour will only serve to impede radiant heat, which can attribute for some 93 percent of
summer heat gain.681
To assess the impact of this behaviour, it is necessary to make some assumptions over the use
this verandah will have, compared with having an uninsulated verandah roof. While no figures
have been found for the effect of verandah insulation specifically, the literature suggests that
roof and ceiling insulation can reduce heating and cooling energy required by 45 percent,
suggesting this insulation reduces the transfer of heat by around this amount. Given that from
October to April, the mean monthly maximum temperature in Townsville is above 29 degrees
Celsius, it will be assumed that for a large portion of this time, air conditioners could potentially
be used. It is assumed that by reducing the heat flow into the verandah space by 45 percent,
this will make the use of this space usable for twenty percent more of the time (as some of the
time for which residential air conditioners will be used may be during periods when residents
wish to be inside the house for reasons other than temperature control). For the purposes of
providing some metrics, it is also assumed that verandah insulation, as opposed to an
uninsulated verandah, will reduce the cooling load on the air conditioner, when it is in use, by
ten percent.
The Queensland EPA estimates that on average, Queensland homes use 2,709kWh each year
to run their air conditioner.682 Hence, the electricity savings from this behaviour, given the above
assumptions, would sum to a twenty percent reduction in overall air conditioner use (542kWh a
year) and a ten percent reduction in the cooling load for the remaining eighty percent of normal
air conditioner use (217kWh) to provide a total of approximately 759kWh a year. This would
reduce the yearly electricity consumption of the average household in Townsville by around 12.2
percent, hence the impact of this behaviour is calculated to be 0.61.
While recognising that this is an important behaviour, the expert review panel suggested that
this behaviour has a lower impact, hence it has been adjusted downwards accordingly.
Likelihood
[1]
This behaviour implies that insulation has been installed in the verandah roof as a retrofit
(although this could equally be done during construction). The Home Technical Manual notes
that it is relatively easy to add insulation to a roof or ceiling and is generally worth the effort.
McGee, C., Mosher, M. & Clarke, D. (2008) 4.7 Insulation Design – Technical Manual, Design for Lifestyle and the Future,
Commonwealth of Australia. Available at: http://www.yourhome.gov.au/technical/fs47.html, accessed 29 September 2008
681
Sunrise Homes (2008) Insulation Answers Part 2, Tasmania. Available at:
http://www.sunrisehomes.net.au/asp/content.asp?articleID=171, accessed 09 December 2008.
682
Qld EPA (2008) Achieving early and affordable greenhouse gas reductions in Queensland - Strategies for voluntary household
and lifestyle changes, Environmental Protection Agency, Queensland Government. Available at:
http://www.climatechange.qld.gov.au/downloads/downloads/working_paper_1.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008
680
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There would, however be costs associated.683 This behaviour will make the verandah more
comfortable for households, providing a tangible benefit. The likelihood of this behaviour is
estimated to be moderate.
The expert review panel suggested that this behaviour was less likely than was found here,
hence the rating has been adjusted downwards.
McGee, C., Mosher, M. & Clarke, D. (2008) 4.7 Insulation Design – Technical Manual, Design for Lifestyle and the Future,
Commonwealth of Australia. Available at: http://www.yourhome.gov.au/technical/fs47.html, accessed 29 September 2008
683
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208.
Installing eave vents [0.66:3]
Impact
[0.66]
Eave vents help to create a flow of air throughout the house, allowing warmer air which rises to
exit from the top of the roof, and cooler air to be pulled in through under the eaves of the house,
where the shading will allow the air to be cooler.684 This will keep the roof area cooler, and save
energy through reducing the cooling demand of the home. The attic space (the area between
the ceiling and the roof) can reach much higher temperatures than the outside ambient
temperature due to the effects of radiative heating from solar rays incident on the roof surface,
and from the hot air inside the house rising into the attic space and becoming trapped (if this
space is not vented). One site from the United States notes that these areas can reach
temperatures over 70 degrees Celsius even if the outside temperature is only around 35
degrees Celsius.685 This heat can cause the rooms below to heat also if the ceiling is poorly
insulated, and can add as much as 30 percent to the cooling costs (electricity consumption for
cooling) of the home, and with a well insulated ceiling between 12 and 15 percent. 686
The Queensland EPA estimates that on average, Queensland homes use 2,709kWh each year
to run their air conditioners.687 Hence, the electricity savings from this behaviour, given the above
assumptions, would sum to around 325kWh to 406kWh a year for a well insulated ceiling, and
up to 813kWh for an uninsulated ceiling This would reduce the yearly electricity consumption of
the average household in Townsville by 13 percent for an uninsulated ceiling (and by between
5.2 and 6.5 percent for an insulated ceiling), hence the impact of this behaviour has been
calculated to be 0.66.
The expert review panel commented that this behaviour is helpful in summer but can hinder
winter efficiency. Also, if the roof is a dark colour and has no reflective foil beneath it a
considerable number of eave vents might be required to make a noticeable difference.
Likelihood
[3]
The use of eave vents can make a home more comfortable in summer and reduce the cost of
providing summer cooling. The likelihood of this behaviour is estimated to be moderate.
684
Touchstone Energy (nd) Touchstone Energy Home Specifications Booklet, Touchstone Energy Living, United States. Available
at: http://www.jacksonenergy.com/TouchstoneEnergyHomeBoolet.pdf, accessed 11 December 2008.
685
Stewart, B. (2008) Attic Ventilation, Texas A & M University, United States. Available at:
http://www.factsfacts.com/MyHomeRepair/ventilation.htm, accessed 11 December 2008.
686
Stewart, B. (2008) Attic Ventilation, Texas A & M University, United States. Available at:
http://www.factsfacts.com/MyHomeRepair/ventilation.htm, accessed 11 December 2008.
687
Qld EPA (2008) Achieving early and affordable greenhouse gas reductions in Queensland - Strategies for voluntary household
and lifestyle changes, Environmental Protection Agency, Queensland Government. Available at:
http://www.climatechange.qld.gov.au/downloads/downloads/working_paper_1.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008
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209.
Planting conical trees to the south west and south east to provide shading during
summer [1.5:3]
Impact
[1.5]
This behaviour will reduce electricity consumption in the home by providing shading to the south
western and south eastern facades of the house. This will reduce the solar radiation hitting
these facades, and the amount by which the house heats up. It may reduce both the amount of
time for which mechanical cooling (air conditioners and / or fans) is needed, and the load on
these appliances when in use. This behaviour will not hinder the winter sun, and hence is not
expected to increase the heating demands during winter.688 Sustainability Victoria noted that
using plants to shade a building can reduce the internal temperatures of a house in summer by
between 6 and 12 degrees Celsius.689
The impact of this behaviour will depend on many factors, such as the other initiatives which are
taken by the household to increase the passive solar ability of the house to withstand summer
temperatures. These might include insulation, a light coloured roof, roof venting, the use of
eaves, a fly roof and so on. The impact will also depend on the type of mechanical cooling which
is used and how it is used.
The Queensland EPA estimates that the average home in Queensland uses 2,709kWh a year to
run their air conditioners.690 As each degree of extra cooling will increase the electricity
consumption by 10 percent,691 it is assumed that each degree less will reduce it by 10 percent.
This behaviour could hence save sixty percent (or more) of the electricity required for cooling. It
may also reduce the amount of time for which air conditioners are used, and it will be estimated
that this reduction will be around twenty percent, given the large potential reduction in internal
temperatures.
Hence, the electricity savings from this behaviour, given the above assumptions, would sum to a
68 percent reduction in overall air conditioner use (1842kWh a year). This is equivalent to 30
percent of the average household in Townsville’s yearly electricity consumption, hence the
impact of this behaviour has been calculated to be 1.5.
The expert review panel suggested that in Townsville it might be advisable to grow trees on all
sides of the house.
Likelihood
[3]
Households may undertake this behaviour for a variety of reasons, including the desire to have
a garden, or visually pleasing trees, or for personal carbon sequestration. This behaviour may
be less likely where the space available is not suitable for planting trees, where the positioning
of the house and the location of rooms is not conducive to this layout of trees, if there are
competing needs for the outside space (such as to store a car or boat, for a swimming pool, for
a low garden, for grassed space). The likelihood of this behaviour is estimated to be moderate.
688
EPA (2003) Energy Efficient Home Design, Guidelines, Environmental Protection Agency, Queensland Government. Available at:
http://www.epa.qld.gov.au/publications/p00404aa.pdf/Energy_efficient_home_design.pdf, accessed 01 November 2008.
689
SEA (nd) Landscape Design, Sustainable Energy Authority, Government of Victoria, Australia. Available at:
http://www.sustainability.vic.gov.au/resources/documents/Landscape_design.pdf, accessed 11 December 2008.
690
Qld EPA (2008) Achieving early and affordable greenhouse gas reductions in Queensland - Strategies for voluntary household
and lifestyle changes, Environmental Protection Agency, Queensland Government. Available at:
http://www.climatechange.qld.gov.au/downloads/downloads/working_paper_1.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008
691
Milne, G. (b) (2008) 6.2 Heating and Cooling – Technical Manual, Design for Lifestyle and the Future, Commonwealth of
Australia. Available at: http://www.yourhome.gov.au/technical/fs62.html, accessed 29 September 2008.
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210.
Planting trees and / or constructing physical structures to direct summer breezes
towards the house [0.22:1]
Impact
[0.22]
This behaviour will reduce electricity consumption in the home by promoting the air movement
towards the house. If the breezes are able to access outdoor living areas, or indeed indoor living
areas, then this air movement can have a direct cooling effect on the building’s inhabitants. At
temperatures of around 25 degrees Celsius, an air movement of between 0.5 and 1.0 meters
per second will have a similar effect to as if the temperature was reduced around 2 to 3
degrees.692 This may either reduce the need for mechanical cooling (such as air conditioners or
fans) or reduce the settings at which they are set. Such breezes, if not directly accessing the
inhabitants, may help to cool the house as a whole by creating air movements to shift warmer air
created by solar radiation striking the building shell from around the building and replacing it with
cooler air. It may also assist in ventilation of the house. This, again, will save electricity when it
reduces the need for mechanical cooling.
It is estimated that this behaviour might reduce the electricity used for mechanical cooling by ten
percent. The Queensland EPA estimates that the average home in Queensland uses 2,709kWh
a year to run their air conditioners.693 This behaviour would reduce the yearly electricity
consumption of the household by 271kWh or 4.4 percent of the yearly usage of the average
Townsville household. The impact of this behaviour has hence been calculated as 0.22.
Likelihood
[1]
This behaviour requires a household to have space in which to construct such structures or
plant trees. It also presumes that there is access to such breezes from outside the property
limits and that these aren’t obstructed by other buildings or objects. This behaviour may be
affected by the costs involved in constructing such structures, and by competing uses for that
space such as to store a car or boat, for a swimming pool, for a low garden, for grassed space.
It also requires households to have an understanding of the direction from which summer
breezes predominately come, and to appreciate how vegetation might facilitate their gaining
cooling benefit from them. Households may plant trees for a variety of reasons, including the
desire to have a garden, or visually pleasing trees, or for personal carbon sequestration,
however there is assumed to be a low likelihood that they would plant trees to create summer
breezes.
692
SEA (nd) Air Movement, Sustainable Energy Authority, Government of Victoria, Australia. Available at:
http://www.sustainability.vic.gov.au/resources/documents/Air_movement.pdf, accessed 11 December 2008.
693
Qld EPA (2008) Achieving early and affordable greenhouse gas reductions in Queensland - Strategies for voluntary household
and lifestyle changes, Environmental Protection Agency, Queensland Government. Available at:
http://www.climatechange.qld.gov.au/downloads/downloads/working_paper_1.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008
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211.
Installing a fly roof to shade the entire building [1.70:1]
Impact
[1.70]
This behaviour will reduce the electricity consumption of a home through reducing the summer
demand for mechanical cooling. It will reduce the amount of solar radiation striking the house,
enabling it to stay cooler. As such this may reduce both the amount of time for which mechanical
cooling is used, and the load on it when it is. External shading can reduce the heat gain inside
the home by 70 to 85 percent.694 The ‘Your Home Technical Manual’ outlines recommendations
for this behaviour, suggesting that the entire building shell be shaded if not for the whole year,
then at least summer.695 Given that up to 93 percent of summer heat gain is due to radiant
heat,696 the shading of the entire building can reduce a significant portion of the heat gain.
The Queensland EPA estimates that on average, Queensland homes use 2,709kWh each year
to run their air conditioner.697 Given that a fly roof could prevent 70 to 85 percent of the heat gain
coming into the house, it is assumed that it will reduce the cooling demand by this amount also.
Hence, based on the above assumptions, this behaviour could save between 1,896kWh and
2,303kWh a year. This is equivalent to between 31 and 37 percent of the yearly electricity
consumption of the average household in Townsville, hence the impact of this behaviour has
been calculated to be on average 1.70.
Likelihood
[1]
The construction of a fly roof would presumably require a technician and may incur considerable
expense. Little information has been uncovered as to the specifics to either of these aspects in
Australia. It is assumed from this that this may not be a common behaviour. As a fly roof is a
structure which exists above the existing roof line, it may require additional supports to support
it, depending on what building materials are used. The likelihood of this behaviour, given these
considerations, is estimated to be low.
694
SEA (nd) Air Movement, Sustainable Energy Authority, Government of Victoria, Australia. Available at:
http://www.sustainability.vic.gov.au/resources/documents/Air_movement.pdf, accessed 11 December 2008.
695
McGee, C., (2008) 4.4 Shading – Technical Manual, Design for Lifestyle and the Future, Commonwealth of Australia. Available
at: http://www.yourhome.gov.au/technical/fs44.html, accessed 29 September 2008
696
Sunrise Homes (2008) Insulation Answers Part 2, Tasmania. Available at:
http://www.sunrisehomes.net.au/asp/content.asp?articleID=171, accessed 09 December 2008.
697
Qld EPA (2008) Achieving early and affordable greenhouse gas reductions in Queensland - Strategies for voluntary household
and lifestyle changes, Environmental Protection Agency, Queensland Government. Available at:
http://www.climatechange.qld.gov.au/downloads/downloads/working_paper_1.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008
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212.
Installing a green roof [0.55:1.5]
Impact
[0.55]
This behaviour will reduce electricity usage in Townsville homes by reducing the need for
mechanical heating and cooling. This is a relatively new technology, hence there is a range in
the figures quoted for the effect this behaviour might have. Environment Canada found that a
one storey house that had a grass green roof (with 10cm of growing medium) could reduce the
summer cooling needs by 25 percent. Also in Canada, another experiment found that a 6 inch,
extensive green roof reduced both summer heat gains by 95 percent, and winter heat losses by
26 percent (these are compared with reference roofs without a green roof).698
In another source, it was noted that a one-story building could reduce their cooling costs (which
can be translated to cooling energy) by 20 to 30 percent.699
To assess the impact of this behaviour, it is necessary to make some assumptions over the use
of an air conditioner (please note that this may reduce the use of other appliances, such as fans,
however for simplicity, this estimate will focus on air conditioners. Also, heaters may be used in
winter and this may reduce the need for such electrical heating. However, this is assumed to be
minimal given the climate in Townsville700). The Queensland EPA estimates that on average,
Queensland homes use 2,709kWh each year to run their air conditioners.701
Hence, the electricity savings from this behaviour, given the above assumptions, would sum to a
twenty to thirty percent reduction in overall air conditioner use (542kWh to 813kWh a year). This
is equivalent to between 8.7 and 13 percent of the yearly electricity consumption of the average
Townsville household, hence the impact of this behaviour has been calculated to be an average
of 0.55.
This behaviour will be relevant to the 53 percent of households in Townsville who own an air
conditioner.702
Likelihood
[1.5]
Studies into green roofs have found that they provide numerous benefits, including extending
the life of the roof, lowering the costs of heating and cooling (or simply making the house more
comfortable through the provision of an effective insulating layer), sound insulation, as well as
amenity and aesthetics. Green roofs can be installed in modules or in bulk, however there are
specific requirements including sufficient load bearing capacity of the roof, adequate growing
substrate (for instance, soil), drainage layers, filter layer and root repelling layers (among
others). 703 Considerable work has been done in Europe and Northern America, such that the
698
GRHC (2005) About Green Roofs, Green Roofs for Healthy Cities, North America. Available at:
http://www.greenroofs.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=26&Itemid=40, accessed 09 December 2008.
699
Greenroofs.com (2007) Economic advantages. Available at: http://www.greenroofs.com/Greenroofs101/economic.htm, accessed
09 December 2008.
700
BOM (2007) Climate Statistics for Australian Locations, Bureau of Meteorology, Australia. Available at:
http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_032040.shtml, accessed 08 December 2008.
701
Qld EPA (2008) Achieving early and affordable greenhouse gas reductions in Queensland - Strategies for voluntary household
and lifestyle changes, Environmental Protection Agency, Queensland Government. Available at:
http://www.climatechange.qld.gov.au/downloads/downloads/working_paper_1.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008
702
Goudie, D. (1995) Sustainable Domestic Energy Use in North Queensland, James Cook University, Australia.
703
GRHC (2005) About Green Roofs, Green Roofs for Healthy Cities, North America. Available at:
http://www.greenroofs.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=26&Itemid=40, accessed 09 December 2008.
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science and technical knowledge surrounding green roofs has progressed significantly, even if
they are currently less prevalent in Australia.704
There are providers and installers of both green roofs and green walls in Townsville 705 and the
Riverway Arts Center, in Townsville, has an installed green roof.706 The likelihood of this
behaviour is estimated to be moderate.
The expert panel noted that there may be structural issues with houses which could prevent this
behaviour (this might include the slope of the roof, and the amount of load which the walls and
structural beams can hold), and gave the behaviour a lower likelihood rating. It has been
adjusted accordingly.
704
Bass, B. (2007) Green Roofs and Green Walls: Potential Energy Savings in the Winter, Environment Canada at the University of
Toronto, Adaptations and Impacts Research Division. Available at: http://www.upea.com/pdf/greenroofs.pdf, accessed 15 June
2009.
705
SEA 02 (2008) Townsville Ocean Terminal – Sustainable Development Opportunities, North Queensland. Available at:
http://www.citypac.com.au/citypac/documents/projects/townsville/seis/Volume%202%20%20A20%20Sustainable%20Development.pdf, accessed 09 December 2008.
706
TCC (2007) About Riverway, Townsville City Council, Australia. Available at: http://riverway.townsville.qld.gov.au/about/index,
accessed 09 December 2008.
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213.
Installing green walls [0.90:2]
Impact
[0.90]
Green walls are a modern take on an old concept of growing plants over walls. Green walls can
still be constructed from these more traditional concepts, or using high-tensile steel cables to
extend the range of plants which can be grown on or against the walls. Some kinds of plants will
grow directly onto walls, and others may need assistance.707
This behaviour will reduce household electricity consumption by evening out daily temperature
fluctuations by as much as 50 percent,708 or as noted by Sustainability Victoria, this can reduce
the internal temperatures of a house in summer by between 6 and 12 degrees Celsius.709 This
will reduce the need for mechanical heating and cooling. Given that up to 93 percent of summer
heat gain is due to radiant heat,710 the shading of walls with plants (especially on the southern
and eastern facades) can reduce a significant portion of the heat gain.
To estimate the impact of this behaviour, some assumptions are necessary. As each degree of
extra cooling will increase the electricity consumption by 10 percent,711 it is assumed that each
degree less will reduce it by 10 percent. This behaviour could hence save sixty percent (or
more) of the electricity required for cooling. It may also reduce the amount of time for which air
conditioners are used, and it will be estimated that this reduction will be around twenty percent,
given the large potential reduction in internal temperatures.
The Queensland EPA estimates that on average, Queensland homes use 2,709kWh each year
to run their air conditioner.712 Hence, the electricity savings from this behaviour, given the above
assumptions, would sum to a 68 percent reduction in overall air conditioner use (1842kWh a
year). This is equivalent to 30 percent of the average household in Townsville’s yearly electricity
consumption, hence the impact of this behaviour has been calculated to be 1.5.
Please note that this calculation uses Queensland averages for air conditioner electricity
consumption, which may underestimate actual use in Townsville. This behaviour may also
eliminate the need for an air conditioner, given the large potential reductions in internal
temperatures, and the impact could hence be even greater.
The expert panel suggested that the impact of this behaviour was slightly less than was given
here, hence the rating has been reduced.
Likelihood
[2]
Green walls may be installed for a variety of reasons, including aesthetics, reduced heating and
cooling costs, and air quality. The potential for some vines and creepers to grow directly onto
the building façade without assistance may enhance the likelihood of this behaviour through
707
Livingroofs.org (nd) Green walls, United Kingdom. Available at: http://livingroofs.org/livingpages/typevegstructure.html, accessed
09 December 2008.
708
Livingroofs.org (nd) Green walls, United Kingdom. Available at: http://livingroofs.org/livingpages/typevegstructure.html, accessed
09 December 2008.
709
SEA (nd) Landscape Design, Sustainable Energy Authority, Government of Victoria, Australia. Available at:
http://www.sustainability.vic.gov.au/resources/documents/Landscape_design.pdf, accessed 11 December 2008.
710
Sunrise Homes (2008) Insulation Answers Part 2, Tasmania. Available at:
http://www.sunrisehomes.net.au/asp/content.asp?articleID=171, accessed 09 December 2008.
711
Milne, G. (b) (2008) 6.2 Heating and Cooling – Technical Manual, Design for Lifestyle and the Future, Commonwealth of
Australia. Available at: http://www.yourhome.gov.au/technical/fs62.html, accessed 29 September 2008.
712
Qld EPA (2008) Achieving early and affordable greenhouse gas reductions in Queensland - Strategies for voluntary household
and lifestyle changes, Environmental Protection Agency, Queensland Government. Available at:
http://www.climatechange.qld.gov.au/downloads/downloads/working_paper_1.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008
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reducing costs. Where high-tensile steel is required, this may be less likely. Green walls have
been noted to be possible up to a height of around 25 metres,713 and the existence of high set,
‘Queenslander’ homes may reduce the ability of some Townsville households to effectively grow
a green wall. This behaviour is likely to entail significant costs in contruction, planting and
maintenance, and there may be resistance to the aesthetic of having a green wall.
The likelihood of this behaviour is estimated to be low to moderate.
As noted by the expert panels, a green wall can simply be a trellis, making this behaviour
relatively more likely than (for instance) a green roof.
713
Livingroofs.org (nd) Green walls, United Kingdom. Available at: http://livingroofs.org/livingpages/typevegstructure.html, accessed
09 December 2008.
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214.
Construct outdoor living areas (protected from the elements) [0.30:3]
Impact
[0.30]
This behaviour may save energy by reducing the need for mechanical cooling inside the home.
Outdoor living areas may have greater access to natural breezes, which can have a direct
cooling effect on the body. At temperatures of around 25 degrees Celsius, an air movement of
between 0.5 and 1.0 meters per second will have a similar effect to as if the temperature was
reduced around 2 to 3 degrees.714 Where the passive design of the house is not optimal, outdoor
living areas may remain significantly cooler as air which is warmed from solar radiation can
easily move away, as opposed to indoor areas where this warmed air will be trapped. The
impact of this behaviour will depend upon the degree to which individual households reduce
their air conditioner usage, and as such it is difficult to attach any value to this behaviour.
However, to provide some context, the following information may be useful.
The Queensland EPA estimates that on average, Queensland homes use 2,709kWh each year
to run their air conditioner.715 The climate in Townsville is such that the mean temperature at 3pm
is over 29 degrees Celsius from November until March and is just under in October and April. 716
It could be assumed that air conditioners could potentially be used for a large portion of this
time. For each degree of extra cooling, the electricity consumption of the air conditioner will
increase by 10 percent. 717 It is assumed that this behaviour could potentially reduce both the
amount of time for which the air conditioner is used, and the load on the air conditioner when it
is operating by reducing the ambient temperature of the house. If it is assumed that the amount
of time for which an air conditioner is used is reduced by ten percent, and that the cooling load
on the air conditioners when in use is reduced by 2 degrees, or twenty percent. This behaviour,
based on such considerations, would reduce the energy consumption of an average household
in Townsville by 759kWh, or 12 percent. The impact of this behaviour is hence calculated at
0.61, although this should be kept in the context of the noted assumptions.
The expert review panel noted that it is important to specify the nature of the outdoor living area
(orientation, shading and so on) for this behaviour to be effective. The reviewers suggested that
the impact is less than was given here, hence it has been adjusted downwards.
Likelihood
[3]
This behaviour may be influenced by many factors, such as the lifestyle of inhabitants, space
availability, and the costs of construction. The actual reduction in electricity will partly depend
upon residents turning off the air conditioner while they are not in the room. It is assumed that
outdoor living is a part of the Queensland lifestyle. Townsville is reported to have on average
300 days of sunshine a year,718 and presumably this will encourage this behaviour. The likelihood
of this behaviour is hence estimated to be moderate.
714
SEA (nd) Air Movement, Sustainable Energy Authority, Government of Victoria, Australia. Available at:
http://www.sustainability.vic.gov.au/resources/documents/Air_movement.pdf, accessed 11 December 2008.
715
Qld EPA (2008) Achieving early and affordable greenhouse gas reductions in Queensland - Strategies for voluntary household
and lifestyle changes, Environmental Protection Agency, Queensland Government. Available at:
http://www.climatechange.qld.gov.au/downloads/downloads/working_paper_1.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008
716
BOM (2007) Climate Statistics for Australian Locations, Bureau of Meteorology, Australia. Available at:
http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_032040.shtml, accessed 08 December 2008.
717
Milne, G. (b) (2008) 6.2 Heating and Cooling – Technical Manual, Design for Lifestyle and the Future, Commonwealth of
Australia. Available at: http://www.yourhome.gov.au/technical/fs62.html, accessed 29 September 2008.
718
TCC (2008) Hot Water Heating, Sustainable Housing for the Tropics, Townsville City Council. Available at:
http://www.townsville.qld.gov.au/resources/1987.pdf, accessed 24 October 2008.
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215.
Avoiding paving or concrete in front of windows [0.22:2]
Impact
[0.22]
This behaviour can reduce electricity consumption in the home by reducing the cooling demands
imposed upon mechanical cooling appliances, such as air conditioners and fans. Sunlight which
reflects off surfaces, such as paving or concrete, (glare) can reflect through windows and into
the home, increasing internal temperatures. By contrast, a grassed surface not only absorbs a
significant portion of this sunlight and reduces the radiated heat but through evapotranspiration
can reduce the temperature near to the ground relative to a paved surface by as much as six
degrees Celsius.719 The impact that this will have inside the home will depend on the size of the
window, the kind of window treatments (tinting, glazing and curtains) as well as the methods
employed to cool the home.
To provide some context to the potential reductions in electricity consumption in the home that
this behaviour may create, the Queensland EPA estimates that the average home in
Queensland uses 2,709kWh a year to run their air conditioners.720 For each degree of extra
cooling, the electricity consumption of the air conditioner will increase by 10 percent.721 Hence,
by reducing the internal temperatures of the home through reduced reflected radiation, this
behaviour could save 271kWh per year for each degree cooler that the ambient temperature
inside the house remains. This is equivalent to around 4.4 percent of the annual electricity
usage of the average Townsville household, hence the impact of this behaviour has been
calculated to be 0.22.
The expert review panel noted that in fact in winter, having paving or concreting in front of
windows can help with heating (this comment may be more suited to colder climates), and that
so long as these paved areas are shaded in summer, they should not be a significant issue.
Likelihood
[2]
This behaviour may be governed by other factors, such as a desire to have a paved area
directly outside of the home for outdoor living and entertaining, and the size of the property (as
this may restrict the potential locations for such paved areas). The warm, tropical climate in
Townsville722 may create a greater desire for outdoor living areas however the intermittent
monsoonal weather may provide impetus to shade such outdoor areas, which could reduce the
impact of not performing this behaviour. The likelihood of this behaviour is considered to be low
to moderate.
719
SEA (nd) Landscape Design, Sustainable Energy Authority, Government of Victoria, Australia. Available at:
http://www.sustainability.vic.gov.au/resources/documents/Landscape_design.pdf, accessed 11 December 2008.
720
Qld EPA (2008) Achieving early and affordable greenhouse gas reductions in Queensland - Strategies for voluntary household
and lifestyle changes, Environmental Protection Agency, Queensland Government. Available at:
http://www.climatechange.qld.gov.au/downloads/downloads/working_paper_1.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008
721
Milne, G. (b) (2008) 6.2 Heating and Cooling – Technical Manual, Design for Lifestyle and the Future, Commonwealth of
Australia. Available at: http://www.yourhome.gov.au/technical/fs62.html, accessed 29 September 2008.
722
BOM (2007) Climate Statistics for Australian Locations, Bureau of Meteorology, Australia. Available at:
http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_032040.shtml, accessed 08 December 2008.
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216.
Positioning furniture to make use of natural breezes and heating / cooling effects
[0.66:3]
Impact
[0.66]
This behaviour may reduce the heating and cooling demands of a house by placing furniture to
maximise the benefit of natural passive design. At temperatures of around 25 degrees Celsius,
an air movement of between 0.5 and 1.0 meters per second will have a similar effect to as if the
temperature was reduced around 2 to 3 degrees.723 Moving a furniture item, such as desk for
example, away from direct sunlight coming through the window may also reduce cooling needs
by reducing the effect of solar radiation. Solar radiation can be responsible for up to 93 percent
of summer heat gain,724 and may disproportionately drive cooling needs in the home. On a larger
scale, the selection of what various rooms in the house will be used for can also effect electricity
consumption. If furniture is located so as to create ‘zones’ for heating and cooling, the total
space which is actually heated or cooled may be reduced. Similarly, the aspect of the house in
which various activities may occur will affect the cooling and heating demands. For instance,
windows and rooms facing west will receive solar radiation in the afternoons and may be less
comfortable for living areas. Rooms which face north can be more easily protected from direct
solar rays as the sun will remain more directly overhead for the whole day, hence these rooms
may be more suited to activities which will be undertaken for most of the day. This can assist
placing inhabitants in the most comfortable rooms of the house, reducing the inhabitants needs
for cooling even if other areas of the house remain relatively hot.725
Estimating the impact of this behaviour is difficult, as it will depend on numerous factors, such as
the nature of activities undertaken in the home and how consistently they use the same space,
the methods used for heating and cooling, the quality of insulation, whether window treatments
are used and so on.
To provide some context, the Queensland EPA estimates that the average home in Queensland
uses 2,709kWh a year to run their air conditioners.726 If it is assumed that this behaviour both
reduces the space which is cooled, allow some amount of air conditioning to be replaced by
natural breezes, and positions furniture away from radiative heat sources (i.e., windows), then it
might reduce the cooling demands by thirty percent (own estimate). This behaviour would hence
save up to 813kWh a year, or 13 percent of the total yearly electricity consumption of the
average household in Townsville. The impact of this behaviour has hence been calculated to be
0.66.
Likelihood
[3]
The amount of direct solar access to a room will depend significantly on the house site and
layout,727 and in some homes it may not be feasible to locate furniture in what would have been
723
SEA (nd) Air Movement, Sustainable Energy Authority, Government of Victoria, Australia. Available at:
http://www.sustainability.vic.gov.au/resources/documents/Air_movement.pdf, accessed 11 December 2008.
724
Sunrise Homes (2008) Insulation Answers Part 2, Tasmania. Available at:
http://www.sunrisehomes.net.au/asp/content.asp?articleID=171, accessed 09 December 2008.
725
Gall, J. (2008) 8.3 The Gap, Queensland, Your Home Technical Manual, Commonwealth of Australia. Available at:
http://www.yourhome.gov.au/technical/fs83.html, accessed 11 December 2008.
726
Qld EPA (2008) Achieving early and affordable greenhouse gas reductions in Queensland - Strategies for voluntary household
and lifestyle changes, Environmental Protection Agency, Queensland Government. Available at:
http://www.climatechange.qld.gov.au/downloads/downloads/working_paper_1.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008
727
SEA (nd) Siting and solar access, Sustainable Energy Authority, Government of Victoria, Australia. Available at:
http://www.sustainability.vic.gov.au/resources/documents/Siting_and_solar_access.pdf, accessed 11 December 2008.
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the optimal position due to the house design. Other factors, such as the size and nature of the
furniture, a desire for certain views from a window, the type of activities undertaken in the house,
the needs of inhabitants (such as, for instance, having a child’s room located close to the
parents’ room, or an office located away from living areas) may also impact on this decision. An
inhabitant’s knowledge and understanding of passive solar design and where to locate furniture
for maximum benefit will presumably be a large determinant in whether this behaviour will be
undertaken. However, it is likely that there will be an incentive to locate those activities which
are undertaken often in a comfortable position within the house. Radiative heat (for instance,
afternoon sun) can be physically uncomfortable, where as breezes, or making use of an air
conditioned room, will make an individual more comfortable. The likelihood of this behaviour is
hence assumed to be moderately likely.
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217.
Plugging fireplaces which are not in use [0.01:4]
Impact
[0.01]
This behaviour will reduce the electricity consumption of homes where mechanical heating and
cooling are used, as it will reduce the loss of heated or cooled air through the fireplace. As hot
air rises, this behaviour may have a greater impact on warmed air, however the climate in
Townsville is such (a warm, tropical climate) that it is unlikely that heaters would be used
heavily.728 The impact of this behaviour is likely to be minimal as it is unlikely that many houses
will have been constructed with fireplaces, and those which have been may not be used often.
The impact has hence been rated as 0.01.
The expert review panel considered this a significant source of air leaks in homes, and noted
that the BCA requires dampers.
Likelihood
[4]
It is unlikely that there will be many houses in Townsville with fireplaces due to the climate,
which is relatively warm year round.729 Houses which have fireplaces are unlikely to use them
often, and this may encourage this behaviour as it would be expected to be less of an
inconvenience to plug the fireplace in between uses. The likelihood has been estimated to be
moderately high.
728
BOM (2007) Climate Statistics for Australian Locations, Bureau of Meteorology, Australia. Available at:
http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_032040.shtml, accessed 08 December 2008.
729
BOM (2007) Climate Statistics for Australian Locations, Bureau of Meteorology, Australia. Available at:
http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_032040.shtml, accessed 08 December 2008.
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218.
Installing insulation in the ceiling as a retrofit [0.77:4]
Impact
[0.77]
Ceiling insulation can reduce cooling energy needed by 45 percent, and the walls by 20
percent.730 Properly insulated, a home can halve its electricity usage for heating and cooling,731
hence insulation is the single most effective item that can be added to a home to increase its
energy efficiency.732
The Queensland EPA estimates that the average home in Queensland uses 2,709kWh a year to
run their air conditioners733 (please note that this may underestimate the amount of electricity
consumed by air conditioners in Townsville households, as the climate in Townsville is warmer
than in many Queensland locations). Hence, this behaviour (on its own) has the potential to
reduce the electricity consumption of the average household in Townsville by 949kWh a year, or
15.3 percent of their yearly consumption. The impact of this behaviour has been calculated at
0.77.
Likelihood
[4]
This is a one off behaviour, which will save electricity through reducing the need for mechanical
cooling and heating. The cost of installing insulation in the ceiling for an average home is
approximately $816 if the homeowner does this themselves, or $1200 if a contractor performs
the installation. This would save approximately $89 a year in air conditioning costs, or a
reduction in electricity usage of 574kWh and 597 kg of GHG emissions.734 Insulating the ceiling
as a retrofit is relatively easy compared with walls.735
In the Townsville Have Your Say questionnaire,736 92.3 percent of respondents stated that they
were aware of tropical housing design (which would include this behaviour) as a sustainable
application, and 59.4 percent that they had already applied this to their home.
An ABS survey found that there has been an increase in the number of homes which are
insulated, and in 2008 61 percent of Australian homes were insulated, up from 52 percent in
1994. Of those who were installing insulation, 83 percent stated that they were doing it to
improve the comfort of their home, only 11 percent were installing insulation to save on energy
bills energy and 4 percent to reduce their energy usage. Those without insulation, or not
insulating stated that the principle reasons were that they weren’t the home owner or not
730
Australian Greenhouse Office (2007) Global Warming Cool It - Heat, Department of Environment and Natural Resources,
Australian Government. Available at: http://www.environment.gov.au/settlements/gwci/heat.html, accessed 29 September 2008.
731
McGee, C.; Mosher, M. & Clarke, D. (2008) 4.7 Insulation, Your Home Technical Manual, Australian Government. Available at:
http://www.yourhome.gov.au/technical/fs47.html, accessed 09 December 2008.
732
ABC (2007) ‘The Renters’ Carbon Cops, ABC Television. Available at:
http://www.abc.net.au/tv/carboncops/factsheets/cc_renters.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008
733
Qld EPA (2008) Achieving early and affordable greenhouse gas reductions in Queensland - Strategies for voluntary household
and lifestyle changes, Environmental Protection Agency, Queensland Government. Available at:
http://www.climatechange.qld.gov.au/downloads/downloads/working_paper_1.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008
734
Qld EPA (2008) Achieving early and affordable greenhouse gas reductions in Queensland - Strategies for voluntary household
and lifestyle changes, Environmental Protection Agency, Queensland Government. Available at:
http://www.climatechange.qld.gov.au/downloads/downloads/working_paper_1.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008
735
McGee, C.; Mosher, M. & Clarke, D. (2008) 4.7 Insulation, Your Home Technical Manual, Australian Government. Available at:
http://www.yourhome.gov.au/technical/fs47.html, accessed 09 December 2008.
736
TCC (2006) Townsville, Have Your Say – Sustainability and Sustainable Cities Questionnaire: Report on Results, Townsville City
Council, Australia.
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responsible for such an installation (34 percent), due the cost of installing insulation (17 percent)
and that they had not considered this (12 percent). 737
In a recent (August 2008) survey in the USA, respondents were asked how they might spend an
extra $200. Five percent stated that they would spend this money insulating the attic (ceiling) or
around doors and windows (the main most popular response to this question was to put the
money in the bank (52 percent), and the next most preferred option was to purchase energy
efficient appliances (9 percent).738 Whilst not specifically relevant to Townsville or Australia, this
may provide a general indication of such sentiments in the western world, as many of the
influences in the USA and Australia may be the same.
The expert review panel commented broadly on the need for incentives to encourage this
behaviour, such as rebates. There are currently rebates available for households who add
insulation as a retrofit (see below) hence the likelihood of this behaviour is estimated to be high.
ABS (2008) Environmental Issues – Energy Use and Conservation, Australian Bureau of Statistics, Australian Government.
Available at:
http://abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/39433889d406eeb9ca2570610019e9a5/E95A38518401BD24CA25750E00108119?opendocum
ent, accessed 02 December 2008.
738
Wimberly, J. (a) (2008) Banking the Green: Incentives for EE and renewable, EcoPinion, Issue 4, August, EcoAlign.
737
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219.
Installing insulation in the walls as a retrofit [0.43:1]
Impact
[0.43]
Insulation in the walls can reduce cooling energy needed by 20 percent.739 The Queensland EPA
estimates that the average home in Queensland uses 2,709kWh a year to run their air
conditioners740 (please note that this may underestimate the amount of electricity consumed by
air conditioners in Townsville households, as the climate in Townsville is warmer than in many
Queensland locations). Hence, this behaviour has the potential to reduce the electricity
consumption of the average household in Townsville by 542kWh a year, or 8.7 percent of their
yearly consumption. The impact of this behaviour has been calculated at 0.43.
Likelihood
[1]
Insulating the walls as a retrofit is relatively difficult, especially compared with ceilings.741
In the Townsville Have Your Say questionnaire,742 92.3 percent of respondents stated that they
were aware of tropical housing design (which would include this behaviour) as a sustainable
application, and 59.4 percent that they had already applied this to their home.
An ABS survey found that there has been an increase in the number of homes which are
insulated, and in 2008, 61 percent of Australian homes were insulated, up from 52 percent in
1994. Of those who were installing insulation, 83 percent stated that they were doing it to
improve the comfort of their home, only 11 percent were installing insulation to save on energy
bills energy and 4 percent to reduce their energy usage. Those without insulation, or not
insulating stated that the principle reasons were that they weren’t the home owner or not
responsible for such an installation (34 percent), due the cost of installing insulation (17 percent)
and that they had not considered this (12 percent). 743 Recent studies for the Insulation Council of
Australia and New Zealand suggested that 62 percent of homes in Queensland aren’t
insulated.744
The likelihood of this behaviour, given these considerations, is estimated to be low.
739
Australian Greenhouse Office (2007) Global Warming Cool It - Heat, Department of Environment and Natural Resources,
Australian Government. Available at: http://www.environment.gov.au/settlements/gwci/heat.html, accessed 29 September 2008.
740
Qld EPA (2008) Achieving early and affordable greenhouse gas reductions in Queensland - Strategies for voluntary household
and lifestyle changes, Environmental Protection Agency, Queensland Government. Available at:
http://www.climatechange.qld.gov.au/downloads/downloads/working_paper_1.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008
741
McGee, C.; Mosher, M. & Clarke, D. (2008) 4.7 Insulation, Your Home Technical Manual, Australian Government. Available at:
http://www.yourhome.gov.au/technical/fs47.html, accessed 09 December 2008.
742
TCC (2006) Townsville, Have Your Say – Sustainability and Sustainable Cities Questionnaire: Report on Results, Townsville City
Council, Australia.
743
ABS (2008) Environmental Issues – Energy Use and Conservation, Australian Bureau of Statistics, Australian Government.
Available at:
http://abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/39433889d406eeb9ca2570610019e9a5/E95A38518401BD24CA25750E00108119?opendocum
ent, accessed 02 December 2008.
744
Qld EPA (2008) Achieving early and affordable greenhouse gas reductions in Queensland - Strategies for voluntary household
and lifestyle changes, Environmental Protection Agency, Queensland Government. Available at:
http://www.climatechange.qld.gov.au/downloads/downloads/working_paper_1.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008
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220.
Installing weather stripping to fix draughts in the home [0.22:3]
Impact
[0.22]
Gaps and draughts can account for around 10 to 15 percent of heat transfer in the average
home. In the wintertime, drafts can cause a disproportionate feeling of being cold due to the
movement of air.745 Installing draught excluders under doors, around windows and sealing
around skirting boards can be one of the most cost effective ways of improving the heating
efficiency of a home.746 Given the tropical climate of Townsville, it is noted that there is little to no
need for heating.747 This behaviour will also affect summer cooling, however. Various sources
estimate that the sum total of the leaks around a door can be the equivalent to a regular sized
brick,748 and the leaks within a room can amount to the equivalent of an open window. 749 The
Queensland EPA estimates that the average home in Queensland uses 2,709kWh a year to run
their air conditioners750 (please note that this may underestimate the amount of electricity
consumed by air conditioners in Townsville households, as the climate in Townsville is warmer
than in many Queensland locations). If it is assumed that this behaviour can result in ten percent
less energy being needed for cooling, then this behaviour would reduce the yearly electricity
usage of the average household in Townsville by 271kWh, or 4.4 percent. The impact of this
behaviour has been calculated to be 0.22.
Likelihood
[3]
Draughts can be found easily by using incense and watching the direction of the smoke, or may
be noticed by the homeowner by the cool air movement during winter. Fixing draughts can be
done by the homeowner, for instance cloth sausages to place under doors are often available in
supermarkets and from craft stores, and gap filler is available in hardware stores. Weather strips
for windows (pieces of foam which attach to the inside of the window frame) are also available
from hardware stores, as are weather strips for the bottoms of doors (which screw on).751 These
all come in a variety of styles, colours, thicknesses and qualities. Prices for adhesive foam
weather stripping which can be attached all the way around a door frame begin at $2.94 for 5
meters, and screw on weather stripping for the bottoms of doors (again, there are a variety of
styles, for both internal and external doors and features, such as lifting up as the door is
opened) begin at $9.63.752
745
HEAT (2003) Top Tips for Staying Warm, Home Energy Advice Team, ACT Government. Available at:
http://www.heat.net.au/action-advice-page/pdfs/factsheets/old_factsheet_pdfs/top_tips_for_staying_warm_web.pdf, accessed 10
November 2008.
746
HEAT (2003) Top Tips for Staying Warm, Home Energy Advice Team, ACT Government. Available at:
http://www.heat.net.au/action-advice-page/pdfs/factsheets/old_factsheet_pdfs/top_tips_for_staying_warm_web.pdf, accessed 10
November 2008.
747
Planning Services Special Projects Unit (2009) Guide 5 – Building Materials and Insulation for Townsville Homes, Townsville City
Council. Available at: www.townsville.qld.gov.au/resources/4340.pdf, accessed 05 June 2009.
748
Blanchard, C. (2007) House Taming, Cool Max, Torrensville, South Australia. Available at:
http://www.coolmax.com.au/ht/weatherstripping.php, accessed 15 June 2009.
749
TruEnergy (undated) Energy Efficiency Tips, Australia. Available at: http://www.truenergy.com.au/Energy_Efficiency/tips.xhtml,
accessed 15 June 2009.
750
Qld EPA (2008) Achieving early and affordable greenhouse gas reductions in Queensland - Strategies for voluntary household
and lifestyle changes, Environmental Protection Agency, Queensland Government. Available at:
http://www.climatechange.qld.gov.au/downloads/downloads/working_paper_1.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008
751
Our House (2008) Snuggle up for winter, Nine MSN, Australia. Available at:
http://ourhouse.ninemsn.com.au/ourhouse/factsheets/db/tips/04/487.asp, accessed 10 November 2008.
752
Personal communications with Bob, from Bunnings Hardware Store in Stafford, Queensland, 2008
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In the Townsville Have Your Say questionnaire,753 92.3 percent of respondents stated that they
were aware of tropical housing design (which would include this behaviour) as a sustainable
application, and 59.4 percent that they had already applied this to their home.
The likelihood of this behaviour, given these considerations, is considered to be moderate.
TCC (2006) Townsville, Have Your Say – Sustainability and Sustainable Cities Questionnaire: Report on Results, Townsville City
Council, Australia.
753
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221.
Paint the roof white, or a light colour [1.28:4]
Impact
[1.28]
This behaviour will reduce the electricity used by a house to mechanically cool their home by
increasing the amount of solar radiation reflected by the roof. Light-coloured roofs decrease the
flow of heat into a building by reflecting solar radiation incident on the roof. A white roof, as
opposed to a galvanised roof, can reduce the heat gain of a roof by thirty percent,754 which it has
been suggested can reduce the air conditioning load due to solar heating of the building by 75
percent.755 The Queensland EPA suggests that average air conditioner usage in the Queensland
home equates to around 2,709kWh per year,756 hence this behaviour would potentially reduce
the yearly electricity consumption of the average household in Townsville by 1582kWh or 26
percent. The impact of this behaviour has hence been calculated to be 1.28.
The expert review panel suggested that a corrugated iron roof (silver) can be almost as efficient,
and that this behaviour should be combined with insulation to ensure it does not negatively
impact on the energy consumed in winter for heating. One panel member suggested that if
needing to make a choice between behaviours, insulation may be a better option.
Likelihood
[4]
Roofs may be repainted for a variety of reasons, including aesthetics, or to protect and maintain
the roof, to seal an asbestos roof and make it safer. As a light coloured roof will tend to make
the house cooler, this may be more likely in a tropical location such as Townsville. There may be
aesthetic concerns over light coloured roofs, and these may show dirt more easily.
In the Townsville Have Your Say questionnaire, 89.9 percent of respondents stated that they
were aware of this behaviour as a sustainable application, and 48.1 percent said that they
already have a white or reflective roof.757
The likelihood of this behaviour, given these considerations, is considered to be moderate to
high.
Planning Services Special Projects Unit (2009) Guide 5 – Building Materials and Insulation for Townsville Homes, Townsville City
Council. Available at: www.townsville.qld.gov.au/resources/4340.pdf, accessed 05 June 2009.
755
Suehrcke, H. (2001) Thermal Performance of a Building using Engineering Equation Solver, presented at Northern Engineering
Conference, Cairns (7-10 June, 2001), Available at: http://www.soe-townsville.org/white-roof/index.html, accessed 06 November
2008.
756
Qld EPA (2008) Achieving early and affordable greenhouse gas reductions in Queensland - Strategies for voluntary household
and lifestyle changes, Environmental Protection Agency, Queensland Government. Available at:
http://www.climatechange.qld.gov.au/downloads/downloads/working_paper_1.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008
757
TCC (2006) Townsville, Have Your Say – Sustainability and Sustainable Cities Questionnaire: Report on Results, Townsville City
Council, Australia.
754
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222.
Installing roof ventilation as a retrofit [0.37:4]
Impact
[0.37]
This behaviour will save electricity in the home by removing hot air which can become trapped in
the roof cavity. This will increase the effectiveness of the ceiling insulation (if some exists) and
reduce the amount of time for which air conditioners are needed, and reduce the load when or if
it is used.
Roof ventilation allows the hot air, which will rise inside the house, to escape through the roof
and enables cooler air to be pulled in from below.758 Without good ventilation, but with good
insulation, the roof cavity can behave similar to an oven, trapping the hot air rather than
releasing it. This behaviour may reduce the need for mechanical cooling in the home. Some
tests performed in Australia suggest that roof ventilation can lower the summer temperature
inside the home by ten percent, or from 30oC without ventilation, to 27oC.759 For each degree of
extra cooling, the electricity consumption of the air conditioner will increase by 10 percent.760 The
Queensland EPA suggests that average air conditioner usage in the Queensland home equates
to around 2,709kWh per year.761 Hence, if this behaviour reduces the summertime indoor
temperatures by on average three degrees, it could save thirty percent of the electricity used to
air condition the home. Over a year, this would reduce the electricity usage of the average
household in Townsville by 813kWh, or 0.13. Hence, the impact of this behaviour has been
calculated to be 0.66.
The expert review panel suggested a lower impact for this behaviour, based on the variability in
the results it can give, depending on other factors such as the roof colour, and the presence of
reflective foil under the roof. If the roof is a dark colour and/or no reflective foil exists, then it is
noted that the heat load within the roof can be far bigger than vents can handle. If the roof is a
light colour and/or a reflective foil has been installed then this behaviour can be very effective.
Based on these considerations, the impact for this behaviour has been reduced.
Likelihood
[4]
Roof ventilation techniques have been invented in Australia, and are suitable for the climate.
They additionally can help to reduce condensation, which can be a problem in tropical (and subtropical) areas, such as Townsville. Two roof ventilators are needed (for corrugated iron roofs),
on opposing sides of the roof, to enable an air flow. These can be installed by a homeowner
who has some technical skills, and installation instructions are available online. Otherwise, for
tiled roofs, six to eight are needed and these replace the existing tiles. The cost for two roof
ventilators for an iron roof is AU$226 to AU$252 depending on the roof coating (inc. GST), or
the tile roof ventilators are AU$79 each (inc. GST). These do not alter the appearance of the
758
Habitat Hardware (2008) Universal Tile Ventilators, Australia. Available at: http://www.habitathardware.com.au/roofvents.htm,
accessed 26 November 2008.
759
Bristile Roofing (2006) Insulation and Ventilation, Bristile Roofing Australia. Available at:
http://www.australbrick.com.au/pcms_file/Insulation_Ventilation_Brochure_261164483384.pdf, accessed 15 June 2009.
760
Milne, G. (b) (2008) 6.2 Heating and Cooling – Technical Manual, Design for Lifestyle and the Future, Commonwealth of
Australia. Available at: http://www.yourhome.gov.au/technical/fs62.html, accessed 29 September 2008.
761
Qld EPA (2008) Achieving early and affordable greenhouse gas reductions in Queensland - Strategies for voluntary household
and lifestyle changes, Environmental Protection Agency, Queensland Government. Available at:
http://www.climatechange.qld.gov.au/downloads/downloads/working_paper_1.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008
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roof greatly (they are ‘unobtrusive’) and are available in a variety of colours and finishes to
match the existing roof colour.762
In the Townsville Have Your Say questionnaire,763 92.3 percent of respondents stated that they
were aware of tropical housing design (which would include this behaviour) as a sustainable
application, and 59.4 percent that they had already applied this to their home.
The likelihood of this behaviour, given these considerations, is estimate to be moderate to high.
762
Habitat Hardware (2008) Universal Tile Ventilators, Australia. Available at: http://www.habitathardware.com.au/roofvents.htm,
accessed 26 November 2008.
763
TCC (2006) Townsville, Have Your Say – Sustainability and Sustainable Cities Questionnaire: Report on Results, Townsville City
Council, Australia.
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223.
Planting deciduous vines to shade the northern aspects [0.65:2]
Impact
[0.65]
Deciduous vines can block in incoming solar radiation, and additionally evapo-transpire which, if
close enough to the walls or window of the house, can provide extra cooling effects. As they are
deciduous, in winter time they will allow the winter sun to come into the house. 764 Shading the
western face of the house reduces the amount of hot afternoon summer sun.765 Gauging the
extent of the impact of this behaviour depends on (for example) the size of this western facing,
the building materials used on this aspect (for instance, the portion of windows, and the heat
capacity of the walls), the extent of vegetative covering of the walls, the type of cooling used in
the house and the amount that this cooling is usually used. Some sources estimate that external
shading can reduce heat gain by 70 – 85 percent,766 and potentially this behaviour might achieve
some portion of this. The Queensland EPA estimates that on average, Queensland homes use
2,709kWh each year to run their air conditioners.767 Assuming air conditioning is used, and that
this behaviour might reduce the cooling load by 50 percent, this behaviour would hence save
1355kWh each year, or 22 percent of the yearly electricity consumption of the average
Townsville household. The impact of this behaviour has hence been calculated to be 1.09,
however it should be noted that this figure depends on the many assumptions listed above.
The expert review panel suggested this behaviour has a lower impact, hence it has been shifted
downwards.
Likelihood
[2]
This behaviour is assumed to have some costs associated with it, including the cost of
purchasing the vines and potentially soil conditioners, lattice or some other supporting structure
for the vines themselves. There may be resistance to this behaviour depending on the
aesthetics of the house, and there are likely to be ongoing maintenance requirements for the
vine. There will be a time delay before the benefits are received as the plant grows, and this
may be a disincentive. Some houses may have concrete or paved areas in front of the wall,
which may inhibit their ability to grow a vine, although it is assumed that this could be done by
using a pot. The likelihood of this behaviour, given these considerations, is considered to be low
to moderate.
764
HEAT (2008) Top Tips for Staying Cool, Home Energy Advice Team, ACT Government. Available at:
http://www.heat.net.au/action-advice-page/pdfs/factsheets/old_factsheet_pdfs/top_tips_for_staying_coo_webl.pdf, accessed 10
November 2008.
765
ABC (2007) ‘The McSweeneys’ Carbon Cops, ABC Television. Available at:
http://www.abc.net.au/tv/carboncops/factsheets/cc_mcsweeney.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008.
766
SEA (nd) Air Movement, Sustainable Energy Authority, Government of Victoria, Australia, p21. Available at:
http://www.sustainability.vic.gov.au/resources/documents/Air_movement.pdf, accessed 11 December 2008.
767
Qld EPA (2008) Achieving early and affordable greenhouse gas reductions in Queensland - Strategies for voluntary household
and lifestyle changes, Environmental Protection Agency, Queensland Government. Available at:
http://www.climatechange.qld.gov.au/downloads/downloads/working_paper_1.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008
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224.
Double glazing windows as a retrofit [0.22:1]
Impact
[0.22]
Doors and windows account for 30 percent of heating and cooling losses from a house, and as
windows typically outnumber doors, they tend to be responsible for a greater share of these
losses. Technologies have improved whereby windows can now be double, triple and quadruple
glazed, with the spaces between the glass panes filled with inert gases to enhance the
insulating properties. Windows can additionally be coated with reflective coatings to increase the
insulating effect.768
Double glazing windows can reduce summer heat coming in by 10 percent, 769 and heat losses
through the window by 50 percent.770 It is presumed that heating costs in Townsville will be
negligible, given the mild winters, with the minimum July temperatures reaching only 13.6
degrees Celsius.771 The Queensland EPA estimates that the average home in Queensland uses
2,709kWh a year to run their air conditioners772 (please note that this may underestimate the
amount of electricity consumed by air conditioners in Townsville households, as the climate in
Townsville is warmer than in many Queensland locations). If this behaviour were to reduce the
heating load by 10 percent, then this would reduce the yearly electricity consumption of the
household by 171kWh or 4.4 percent of the yearly usage of the average Townsville household.
The impact of this behaviour has hence been calculated as 0.22.
Likelihood
[1]
Windows in Australia are given a Window Energy Rating Scheme (WERS) star rating, on a
scale from 0 to 10, which represents its heating and cooling properties.773 In Townsville, where
the summers are warm and the winters fairly mild, windows with a good cooling rating would be
more appropriate.
More than one third of Australian homes (35 percent, as of 2008) do not have any window
dressing to reduce either heat loss or gain. Double glazing is more common in the southern,
cooler states and territories (Tasmania and the ACT). 774
Double glazing existing windows is noted to be labour intensive,775 and although replacing
existing windows with double glazed windows can be expensive, there are some services
Californian Energy Commission (2006) Today’s Windows, Consumer Energy Centre, California. Available at:
http://www.consumerenergycenter.org/home/windows/todays_windows.html, accessed 18 August 2009.
769
ABC (2007) ‘The McSweeneys’ Carbon Cops, ABC Television. Available at:
http://www.abc.net.au/tv/carboncops/factsheets/cc_mcsweeney.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008.
770
HEAT (2008) Top Tips for Staying Cool, Home Energy Advice Team, ACT Government. Available at:
http://www.heat.net.au/action-advice-page/pdfs/factsheets/old_factsheet_pdfs/top_tips_for_staying_coo_webl.pdf, accessed 10
November 2008.
771
BOM (2007) Climate Statistics for Australian Locations, Bureau of Meteorology, Australia. Available at:
http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_032040.shtml, accessed 08 December 2008.
772
Qld EPA (2008) Achieving early and affordable greenhouse gas reductions in Queensland - Strategies for voluntary household
and lifestyle changes, Environmental Protection Agency, Queensland Government. Available at:
http://www.climatechange.qld.gov.au/downloads/downloads/working_paper_1.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008
773
SEDO, (2008), Energy Smart Homes – Windows and shading, Sustainable Energy Development Office, Government of Western
Australia. Available at: http://www.sedo.energy.wa.gov.au/pages/windows.asp, accessed 05 December 2008.
774
ABS (2008) Environmental Issues – Energy Use and Conservation, Australian Bureau of Statistics, Australian Government.
Available at:
http://abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/39433889d406eeb9ca2570610019e9a5/E95A38518401BD24CA25750E00108119?opendocum
ent, accessed 02 December 2008.
775
Australian Government (undated) Renovator’s Guide, Tips for Good Design, In collaboration with the building and design
industry. Available at: http://www.yourhome.gov.au/renovatorsguide/designer2.html, accessed 15 June 2009.
768
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available which can retrofit existing windows to reduce these costs.776 The likelihood of this
behaviour, given these considerations, is estimated to be low to moderate.
The expert review panel confirmed that, while desirable, this behaviour is expensive and rated it
with a lower likelihood, hence the rating here has been adjusted.
776
Magnetite (undated) Overview, Australia. Available at: http://www.magnetite.com.au/page.asp?pID=242, accessed 15 June 2009.
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225.
Tinting windows as a retrofit [0.87:2]
Impact
[0.87]
Tinted windows can reduce the electricity consumption of a home by reducing the heat which is
transferred through the windows in summer, thereby reducing the amount of mechanical cooling
which is needed. Whilst shading a window is the most effective means of reducing heat gain into
the house, tinting and high performance glass can still be very effective, especially in areas
which are more difficult to shade.777 Energy Star rated windows in the USA, which include both
double glazing, and a low e coating (low emissivity), are claimed to block over 70 percent of the
solar gain during summer, and in winter can reflect the heat inwards.778 Australian sources
suggest that tinting may be less effective, however metrics have not been found.779
The Queensland EPA estimates that the average home in Queensland uses 2,709kWh a year to
run their air conditioners780 (please note that this may underestimate the amount of electricity
consumed by air conditioners in Townsville households, as the climate in Townsville is warmer
than in many Queensland locations). If this behaviour were to reduce the heating load by 40
percent (author’s estimate, based on the various findings throughout the literature), then this
would reduce the yearly electricity consumption of the household by 1,083kWh or 17 percent of
the yearly usage of the average Townsville household. The impact of this behaviour has hence
been calculated as 0.87.
The expert review panel noted that this behaviour can be a good solution where the scope for
external blinds is limited, such as in the upper storey of houses or apartments. This will also
block winter heat gain, however this is less of an issue for Townsville. It can also reduce
daylight, however the newer types of tinting is much better.
Likelihood
[2]
Energy Star rated windows, with the above mentioned features, can additionally protect
furnishings, photographs and other items in the home by reducing the impact of direct exposure
to the sun’s rays. They can also reduce condensation on the windows.781 Window tinting also
reduces the amount of light which enters the home, and can themselves become hot as they
absorb the radiative heat from the sun, and this may discourage households from performing
this behaviour.782 There would be costs involved with this behaviour, and hence as a retrofit, the
likelihood based on these considerations is estimated to be low to moderate.
Planning Services Special Projects Unit (2009) Guide 5 – Building Materials and Insulation for Townsville Homes, Townsville City
Council. Available at: www.townsville.qld.gov.au/resources/4340.pdf, accessed 05 June 2009.
778
US EPA (2006) Energy Star Qualified Windows, Protect the Home and Increase Comfort, Energy Star, US Environmental
Protection Agency, USA. Available at: http://www.energystar.gov/ia/new_homes/features/Windows_062906.pdf, accessed 13 August
2009.
779
For instance, SEDO (2007) Energy Efficiency Housing, Sustainable Energy Development Office, Western Australian Government.
Available at: http://www.sedo.energy.wa.gov.au/uploads/Energy_Eff_hous_8pg_49.pdf, accessed 11 June 2009.
780
Qld EPA (2008) Achieving early and affordable greenhouse gas reductions in Queensland - Strategies for voluntary household
and lifestyle changes, Environmental Protection Agency, Queensland Government. Available at:
http://www.climatechange.qld.gov.au/downloads/downloads/working_paper_1.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008
781
Ruppert, K.C., Porter, W.A. and Lee. H.J. (2008) Energy Efficient Homes: Windows and Skylights, Florida Department of
Environmental Protection and the University of Florida, USA. Available at: http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/FY1045, accessed 12 August 2009.
782
SEDO (2007) Energy Efficiency Housing, Sustainable Energy Development Office, Western Australian Government. Available at:
http://www.sedo.energy.wa.gov.au/uploads/Energy_Eff_hous_8pg_49.pdf, accessed 11 June 2009.
777
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226.
Installing eaves [0.46:4]
Impact
[0.46]
Eaves provide protection from the radiative heat transfer from the summer sun through
windows. It’s estimated that eaves will reduce the heat gain through windows by around 70
percent, and that between 25 and 35 percent of heat enters the house through windows.783 It’s
hence estimated that this behaviour has the potential to cut the cooling demand on air
conditioners by between 17.5 and 24.5 percent.
The Queensland EPA estimates that the average home in Queensland uses 2,709kWh a year to
run their air conditioners784 (please note that this may underestimate the amount of electricity
consumed by air conditioners in Townsville households, as the climate in Townsville is warmer
than in many Queensland locations). This behaviour hence has the potential to reduce the
yearly electricity consumption of the household by between 474kWh and 664kWh, or between
7.6 and 10.7 percent of the yearly usage of the average Townsville household. The impact of
this behaviour has hence been calculated as 0.46.
The impact of this behaviour will vary depending on the size of the eaves, whether mechanical
cooling is used and if so, the efficiency of the appliance and how often it’s used.
Likelihood
[4]
It is possible to install eaves as a retrofit to the home, and the likelihood of this happening will
depend on the ability of a homeowner to do such jobs themselves, the ability to obtain paint to
ensure the eaves match the existing façade, and the cost. Julie, from James Hardie (a
manufacturer of window eaves) confirmed that it is simple for homeowners to install eaves using
a cordless drill.785
A consultant from Bunnings hardware store in Albion provided costs for eaves, which are around
$11.15 for a 600mm eave, and slightly cheaper for a 450mm eave. However these can only be
installed on windows with an overhang. If there isn’t one, then a tradesperson will be required,
who may need to remove guttering. Alternatively, a hood can be installed which Mitchell from
Bunnings at Stafford estimated cost around $18 for a 2.4 metre length, however they no longer
stock these items.786
Eaves are reportedly the simplest and cheapest way of shading the house, and in single story
houses should be all that is required.787
In the Townsville Have Your Say questionnaire,788 92.3 percent of respondents stated that they
were aware of tropical housing design (which would include this behaviour) as a sustainable
application, and 59.4 percent that they had already applied this to their home.
783
SEA (2002), Home Cooling Hints, Sustainable Energy Authority, Government of Victoria. Available at:
http://www.resourcesmart.vic.gov.au/documents/home_cooling_hints.pdf, accessed 15 June 2009.
784
Qld EPA (2008) Achieving early and affordable greenhouse gas reductions in Queensland - Strategies for voluntary household
and lifestyle changes, Environmental Protection Agency, Queensland Government. Available at:
http://www.climatechange.qld.gov.au/downloads/downloads/working_paper_1.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008
785
Personal communications, October 2008.
786
Personal communications, October 2008.
787
Reardon, C. (2008) 4.1 Passive Design – Technical Manual, Design for Lifestyle and the Future, Commonwealth of Australia.
Available at: http://www.yourhome.gov.au/technical/fs41.html , accessed 29 September 2008.
788
TCC (2006) Townsville, Have Your Say – Sustainability and Sustainable Cities Questionnaire: Report on Results, Townsville City
Council, Australia.
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The likelihood of this behaviour, given these considerations, is estimated to be moderate to
high.
The expert review panel noted that it can be expensive to change the roof (this contradicts
evidence found within the literature, however this is based on adding eaves without changing
the roof) and that if may be cheaper to add insulation or add adjustable shading.
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2.9
227.
Additional Behaviours related to housing construction
Tinting windows during construction [0.87:2]
Impact
[0.87]
Tinted windows can reduce the electricity consumption of a home by reducing the heat which is
transferred through the windows in summer, thereby reducing the amount of mechanical cooling
which is needed. Whilst shading a window is the most effective means of reducing heat gain into
the house, tinting and high performance glass can still be very effective, especially in areas
which are more difficult to shade.789 Energy Star rated windows in the USA, which include both
double glazing, and a low e coating (low emissivity), are claimed to block over 70 percent of the
solar gain during summer, and in winter can reflect the heat inwards.790 Australian sources
suggest that tinting may be less effective, however metrics have not been found.791
The Queensland EPA estimates that the average home in Queensland uses 2,709kWh a year to
run their air conditioners792 (please note that this may underestimate the amount of electricity
consumed by air conditioners in Townsville households, as the climate in Townsville is warmer
than in many Queensland locations). If this behaviour were to reduce the heating load by 40
percent (own estimate, based on the various findings throughout the literature), then this would
reduce the yearly electricity consumption of the household by 1,083kWh or 17 percent of the
yearly usage of the average Townsville household. The impact of this behaviour has hence
been calculated as 0.87.
The expert review panel noted that this behaviour will also impact on winter heat gain (however
this is less of an issue for Townsville). One panel member commented that ‘the jury is still out on
this [behaviour]’, suggesting it may be debatable whether it has a high impact or not.
Likelihood
[2]
Energy Star rated windows, with the above mentioned features, can additionally protect
furnishings, photographs and other items in the home by reducing the impact of direct exposure
to the sun’s rays. They can also reduce condensation on the windows.793 Window tinting also
reduces the amount of light which enters the home, and can themselves become hot as they
absorb the radiative heat from the sun, and this may discourage households from performing
this behaviour.794 There would be costs involved with this behaviour, and the likelihood based on
these considerations is estimated to be low to moderate.
Planning Services Special Projects Unit (2009) Guide 5 – Building Materials and Insulation for Townsville Homes, Townsville City
Council. Available at: www.townsville.qld.gov.au/resources/4340.pdf, accessed 05 June 2009.
790
US EPA (2006) Energy Star Qualified Windows, Protect the Home and Increase Comfort, Energy Star, US Environmental
Protection Agency, USA. Available at: http://www.energystar.gov/ia/new_homes/features/Windows_062906.pdf, accessed 13 August
2009.
791
For instance, SEDO (2007) Energy Efficiency Housing, Sustainable Energy Development Office, Western Australian Government.
Available at: http://www.sedo.energy.wa.gov.au/uploads/Energy_Eff_hous_8pg_49.pdf, accessed 11 June 2009.
792
Qld EPA (2008) Achieving early and affordable greenhouse gas reductions in Queensland - Strategies for voluntary household
and lifestyle changes, Environmental Protection Agency, Queensland Government. Available at:
http://www.climatechange.qld.gov.au/downloads/downloads/working_paper_1.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008
793
US EPA (2006) Energy Star Qualified Windows, Protect the Home and Increase Comfort, Energy Star, US Environmental
Protection Agency, USA. Available at: http://www.energystar.gov/ia/new_homes/features/Windows_062906.pdf, accessed 13 August
2009.
794
SEDO (2007) Energy Efficiency Housing, Sustainable Energy Development Office, Western Australian Government. Available at:
http://www.sedo.energy.wa.gov.au/uploads/Energy_Eff_hous_8pg_49.pdf, accessed 11 June 2009.
789
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228.
Installing double glazed windows during construction [0.22:3]
Impact
[0.22]
Doors and windows account for 30 percent of heating and cooling losses from a house, and as
windows typically outnumber doors, they tend to be responsible for a greater share of these
losses. Technologies have improved whereby windows can now be double, triple and quadruple
glazed, with the spaces between the glass panes filled with inert gases to enhance the
insulating properties. Windows can additionally be coated with reflective coatings to increase the
insulating affect.795
Double glazing windows can reduce summer heat coming in by 10 percent,796 and heat losses
through the window by 50 percent.797. It is presumed that heating costs in Townsville will be
negligible, given the mild winters, with the minimum July temperatures reaching only 13.6
degrees Celsius.798 The Queensland EPA estimates that the average home in Queensland uses
2,709kWh a year to run their air conditioners799 (please note that this may underestimate the
amount of electricity consumed by air conditioners in Townsville households, as the climate in
Townsville is warmer than in many Queensland locations). If this behaviour were to reduce the
heating load by 10 percent, then this would reduce the yearly electricity consumption of the
household by 271kWh or 4.4 percent of the yearly usage of the average Townsville household.
The impact of this behaviour has hence been calculated as 0.22.
It is noted that double glazing windows is more effective in cold climates, as it will still transfer
heat from direct sun and are more effective in prevent conductive heat transfer.800
Likelihood
[3]
It is noted that window glazing can be a ‘significant investment’ in the quality of a home,
insinuating significant costs are involved, however if installed during construction, these costs
should be considered relative to the cost of standard windows. 801 They are also noted to reduce
the noise within the home. The likelihood of this behaviour is assumed to be moderate, given
these considerations.
Californian Energy Commission (2006) Today’s Windows, Consumer Energy Centre, California. Available at:
http://www.consumerenergycenter.org/home/windows/todays_windows.html, accessed 18 August 2009.
796
ABC (2007) ‘The McSweeneys’ Carbon Cops, ABC Television. Available at:
http://www.abc.net.au/tv/carboncops/factsheets/cc_mcsweeney.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008.
797
HEAT (2008) Top Tips for Staying Cool, Home Energy Advice Team, ACT Government. Available at:
http://www.heat.net.au/action-advice-page/pdfs/factsheets/old_factsheet_pdfs/top_tips_for_staying_coo_webl.pdf, accessed 10
November 2008.
798
BOM (2007) Climate Statistics for Australian Locations, Bureau of Meteorology, Australia. Available at:
http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_032040.shtml, accessed 08 December 2008.
799
Qld EPA (2008) Achieving early and affordable greenhouse gas reductions in Queensland - Strategies for voluntary household
and lifestyle changes, Environmental Protection Agency, Queensland Government. Available at:
http://www.climatechange.qld.gov.au/downloads/downloads/working_paper_1.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008
800
SEDO (2003) The First Steps to Summer Cooling, Sustainable Energy Development Office, Government of Western Australia.
Available at: http://www.sedo.energy.wa.gov.au/uploads/summer_cooling_2pg_40.pdf, accessed 15 June 2009.
801
Lyons, P., Hockings, B. & Reardon, C. (2008) Your Home Technical Manual – 4.10: Glazing, 4th Ed. Government of Australia.
Available at: http://www.yourhome.gov.au/technical/fs410.html, accessed 11 June 2009.
795
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229.
Installing insulation in the walls during construction [0.43:3]
Impact
[0.43]
Insulation in the walls can reduce cooling energy needed by 20 percent.802 The Queensland EPA
estimates that the average home in Queensland uses 2,709kWh a year to run their air
conditioners803 (please note that this may underestimate the amount of electricity consumed by
air conditioners in Townsville households, as the climate in Townsville is warmer than in many
Queensland locations). Hence, this behaviour has the potential to reduce the electricity
consumption of the average household in Townsville by 542kWh a year, or 8.7 percent of their
yearly consumption. The impact of this behaviour has been calculated at 0.43.
Likelihood
[3]
The most cost effective time to insulate is during construction. Cooling and heating bills can
halve, however it may eliminate the need for air conditioners and heaters altogether if combined
with other design features (McGee et al, 2008; Pears, 2004, p144). The Townsville City Council
estimates that in the tropical Townsville climate, insulation will pay for itself within two to three
years through reduced cooling costs. 804 The likelihood of this behaviour is estimated to be
moderate.
The expert review panel noted that this is good practice, and that building regulations generally
require some insulation in the walls, however more is generally always better. Another panel
member noted that to attain a BCA 5 or 6 star rating, the walls would need some degree of
insulation.
802
Australian Greenhouse Office (2007) Global Warming Cool It - Heat, Department of Environment and Natural Resources,
Australian Government. Available at: http://www.environment.gov.au/settlements/gwci/heat.html, accessed 29 September 2008.
803
Qld EPA (2008) Achieving early and affordable greenhouse gas reductions in Queensland - Strategies for voluntary household
and lifestyle changes, Environmental Protection Agency, Queensland Government. Available at:
http://www.climatechange.qld.gov.au/downloads/downloads/working_paper_1.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008
804
Planning Services Special Projects Unit (2009) Guide 5 – Building Materials and Insulation for Townsville Homes, Townsville City
Council. Available at: www.townsville.qld.gov.au/resources/4340.pdf, accessed 05 June 2009.
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230.
Installing insulation in the ceiling during construction [0.77:4]
Impact
[0.77]
Ceiling insulation can reduce cooling energy needed by 45 percent.805 Properly insulated, a
home can halve its electricity usage for heating and cooling,806 hence insulation is the single
most effective item that can be added to a home to increase its energy efficiency.807
The Queensland EPA estimates that the average home in Queensland uses 2,709 kWh a year
to run their air conditioners808 (please note that this may underestimate the amount of electricity
consumed by air conditioners in Townsville households, as the climate in Townsville is warmer
than in many Queensland locations). Hence, this behaviour (on its own) has the potential to
reduce the electricity consumption of the average household in Townsville by 949 kWh a year,
or 15.3 percent of their yearly consumption. The impact of this behaviour has been calculated at
0.77.
The expert review panel considered this behaviour to be essential, despite some apparently
misguided expert advice which suggests this behaviour is not necessary in the northern parts of
Australia.
Likelihood
[4]
The most cost effective time to insulate is during construction. Cooling and heating bills can
halve, however it may eliminate the need for air conditioners and heaters altogether if combined
with other design features.809 This behaviour is estimated to be moderately to highly likely.
Comments from the expert review panel suggested that homes awarded a five or six star rating
under the Building Code of Australia rating scheme should have ceiling insulation installed.
805
Australian Greenhouse Office (2007) Global Warming Cool It - Heat, Department of Environment and Natural Resources,
Australian Government. Available at: http://www.environment.gov.au/settlements/gwci/heat.html, accessed 29 September 2008.
806
McGee, C.; Mosher, M. & Clarke, D. (2008) 4.7 Insulation, Your Home Technical Manual, Australian Government. Available at:
http://www.yourhome.gov.au/technical/fs47.html, accessed 09 December 2008.
807
ABC (2007) ‘The Renters’ Carbon Cops, ABC Television. Available at:
http://www.abc.net.au/tv/carboncops/factsheets/cc_renters.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008
808
Qld EPA (2008) Achieving early and affordable greenhouse gas reductions in Queensland - Strategies for voluntary household
and lifestyle changes, Environmental Protection Agency, Queensland Government. Available at:
http://www.climatechange.qld.gov.au/downloads/downloads/working_paper_1.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008
809
McGee, C.; Mosher, M. & Clarke, D. (2008) 4.7 Insulation, Your Home Technical Manual, Australian Government. Available at:
http://www.yourhome.gov.au/technical/fs47.html, accessed 09 December 2008, and Pears, A. (2004) ‘Energy Efficiency: Long Term
Potential and an Approach to Incorporating Consideration of Energy Efficiency into Economic Modelling’, Greenhouse Challenge for
Energy: Appendices – Report to the Victorian Department of Infrastructure and Department of Sustainability and Environment, The
Allen Consulting Group. p144.
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231.
Designing the kitchen to allow for optimal placement of fridges when designing
and building a home (in a cool, well ventilated area away from heating appliances)
[0.20:3]
Impact
[0.20]
Locating fridges and freezers in a cool place with adequate ventilation will reduce electricity
demand, power points for appliances should be readily accessible, and air conditioning vents
should be out of direct sunlight. Refrigerators account for around 14 percent of household GHG
emissions, and can use up to 20 percent more electricity on hot days,810 an effect which may be
exacerbated by locating fridges in hot locations. Even on days which are not hot, the fridge may
still use this additional electricity to run as the temperature within a house can often vary at
different locations. The impact of this may be greater for second fridges which, if not considered
during house design, may be located in the garage which is often located on the south-west
corner (the hottest aspect) to allow the living areas of the house to be more comfortable. This
behaviour assumes that a fridge is located such that it has adequate ventilation around the coils,
is in a cool spot and that the fridge is not positioned in close proximity to a heat producing
appliance.
It is estimated that allowing air to circulate around the coils will save up to 151 kWh a year and
by positioning the refrigerator in a cool location, 101 kWh.811 Overall, this might reduce the
electricity consumption of the average household in Townsville by 4 percent, hence the impact
of this behaviour has been calculated to be 0.20. It should be noted that these calculations make
several assumptions, including that the efficiencies of the fridges in question are consistent with
those used by the Australian Greenhouse Office in making their estimations, and that the power
generation efficiency and emissions profile in Western Australia is similar to that in Townsville.
Likelihood
[3]
It is assumed that the location of the fridge will depend upon several factors, such as the layout
of the rooms and the space available within the kitchen for the fridge.
The Queensland Government will release the updated Building Code in late 2008812 which is
expected to require all new homes to meet 5 star standards under the Building Code of
Australia’s rating scheme. This will necessitate a variety of measures, such as house orientation
to maximise the heating and cooling effects, good insulation, light coloured roofs and walls,
glazing windows, good ventilation, the use of natural light, the use of light building materials, and
appropriate landscaping (among others). This will significantly increase the likelihood of such
measures being implemented in newly built and renovated Townsville homes.813 It is thus
considered likely that the refrigerator will be located in a cool spot, due to insulation and passive
solar design.
The likelihood of this behaviour overall is estimated to be moderate.
Pears, A. (2004) ‘Energy Efficiency: Long Term Potential and an Approach to Incorporating Consideration of Energy Efficiency
into Economic Modelling’, Greenhouse Challenge for Energy: Appendices – Report to the Victorian Department of Infrastructure and
Department of Sustainability and Environment, The Allen Consulting Group. p139
811
These figures are based on findings by the Australian Greenhouse Office which suggests greenhouse gas emission reductions,
and has been converted to electricity savings using figures supplied by SEDO in Western Australia,. See:
http://www.environment.gov.au/settlements/gwci/appliances.html, and http://www.sedo.energy.wa.gov.au/pages/emissions.asp
812
Personal communication with Tom, DIP, 2008
813
DIP (2008) Improving Sustainable Housing in Queensland – Discussion Paper, Department of Infrastructure and Planning,
Queensland Government. Available at: http://www.dip.qld.gov.au/docs/temp/sustainablehousingstage_web_final.pdf, accessed 06
November 2008
810
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232.
Putting doors at the bottom of stairwells
Impact
This behaviour can reduce the electricity consumed to heat and cool a house by minimising the
transfer of air up and down the staircase. Staircases have been found to increase heating needs
by 40 percent by losing hot air upwards.814 This would be the same for stairwells leading
downwards from air conditioned / cooled spaces as the warmer air from below moved upwards.
To assess the impact of this behaviour, it is necessary to make some assumptions over the use
of an air conditioner (please note that this may reduce the use of other appliances, such as fans,
however for simplicity, this estimate will focus on air conditioners. Also, heaters may be used in
winter and this may reduce the need for such electrical heating. However, this is assumed to be
minimal given the climate in Townsville815). Given that from October to April, the mean monthly
maximum temperature in Townsville is above 29 degrees Celsius, it will be assumed that for a
large portion of this time.
The efficiency of air conditioners, and their electricity consumption, can be ascertained to a
degree from their star rating. For instance, a three and a half star rated air conditioner with a
2.6kW output (NationWide Electric, WL-252DCX) uses 0.95kW of power, where as a six star
rated air conditioner with the same output (Panasonic) uses 0.69kW.816 The Queensland EPA
estimates that the average home in Queensland uses 2,709kWh a year to run their air
conditioners817 (please note that this may underestimate the amount of electricity consumed by
air conditioners in Townsville households, as the climate in Townsville is warmer than in many
Queensland locations).
Hence, the electricity savings from this behaviour, given the above assumptions, would sum to a
forty percent reduction in overall air conditioner use (1084kWh a year).
Likelihood
This behaviour may be influenced by many factors, such as the layout of the house and whether
it will be suited to having a door at either end of the stairwell, how greatly a door would
inconvenience house inhabitants, and the costs and time involved with such a retrofit. Bunnings
Warehouse provides a how-to brochure for hanging doors, and sells all the parts necessary
(there is a Bunnings Warehouse in Townsville), however some households may still find that
they are unable to perform this behaviour themselves and would require a technician, which
would involve additional cost.
ABC (2007) ‘The Bettenays’ Carbon Cops, ABC Television. Available at:
http://www.abc.net.au/tv/carboncops/factsheets/cc_bettenays.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008.
815
BOM (2007) Climate Statistics for Australian Locations, Bureau of Meteorology, Australia. Available at:
http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_032040.shtml, accessed 08 December 2008.
816
DEWHA (nd) Search and compare appliances, Energy Rating, Department of Water, Heritage and the Arts, Australian
Government. Available at: http://www.energyrating.gov.au/appsearch/default.asp, accessed 17 November 2008.
817
Qld EPA (2008) Achieving early and affordable greenhouse gas reductions in Queensland - Strategies for voluntary household
and lifestyle changes, Environmental Protection Agency, Queensland Government. Available at:
http://www.climatechange.qld.gov.au/downloads/downloads/working_paper_1.pdf, accessed 20 October 2008
814
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Additional Behaviours not considered further at this stage:
233.
Orientate house (during construction) so that main walls and windows face north,
locate living areas to the north and east
234.
Group rooms into ‘zones’ when designing houses
235.
Preference open plan houses with verandas during construction
236.
Build with light weight construction material
237.
Select windows which maximize air flow
238.
Design elevated houses for underneath air flow
239.
Build house with high, raked ceilings
240.
Maximising the amount of external walls in housing design
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2.10 References
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