SUMMER PROJECT
Things that you are expected to NOT forget for next year. You will have a test on these topics the first week of school. You must use this as a study guide, it is due the FIRST
Wednesday after you return to school, September 2 nd
, 2009.
TOPICS:
Biodiversity
Ecology
Evolution
Biogeochemical Cycles
Natural Selection
Population growth
Bonds(Covalent)
Thermodynamics (Endo/Exo)
Food Webs (Energy)
Photosynthesis
Cellular Respiration
Eukaryotic vs. Prokaryotic cells
Animal vs. Plant cells
ALL organelles and functions
Fossil Evidence
Periodic Table basics
Reading
Ecology
Biodiversity
Biodiversity means the diversity of life, variety of life and organisms. Every organism plays a role in the ecosystem, the more key role players the more stable the ecosystem. The greater the biodiversity the greater the stability of the ecosystem because there are more organisms that can perform the essential roles to maintain the ecosystem alive.
The biodiversity of an ecosystem can be altered by human activity (global warming, deforestation, urbanization, farming, and pollution), population changes, geological events, introduction of non-native species, and climate changes.
The stability of an ecosystem is determined by the stability of producers (make energy) and decomposers (recycle C, N back into the ecosystem). Without decomposers and producers the ecosystem would not survive.
The energy produced by producers is then used up by other organisms by moving up the food chain. Unfortunately NOT all the energy stored will move up to the next trophic level . ONLY 10% of the energy moves up, the remaining 90% is lost to heat and to maintenance of the previous organism.
Population changes
Populations can be increased by Birth and Immigration.
Populations can be decreased by Death and Emmigration.
1

Evolution
Natural Selection
The process of natural selection was proposed by Charles Darwin in the 1850’s.
The process describes “survival of the fittest”. What this means is that those organisms that are born with “desired” traits are better fit for their environment. If you are better fit you are more likely to grow up and reproduce (mate) therefore will pass on the genetic material on to future generations. This process over a few generations will wipe out the
“bad” traits from a population and make the better traits more common in a population.
Biodiversity within a population
Just like biodiversity within an ecosystem provides more stability within the ecosystem, biodiversity within the same species creates stability. Genetic variation within the same species creates a more stable population. Look around you! Within the human population you will notice a lot of variation.
If every single one of us had blue eyes… and a disease was to emerge that caused blindness in people with blue eyes, we would all be dead! Having a variety, hazel eyes, black eyes, brown eyes, and green eyes would ensure that at least some of the human beings would survive the catastrophic event. You see biodiversity is important in both an ecosystem and within a population.
Evidence of Evolution
The main evidence of evolution is fossils that are found in sedimentary rocks. As scientists study the different layers of sedimentary rock (each layer indicating a certain period of time) they will find fossils embedded din them. Just like aging of crust, newer layers are found on the top and older layers are found on the bottom.
If you see a certain fossil in every layer, it means that the species is still alive.
When a fossil disappears from a layer, it means that that species went extinct.
When a new fossil appears in a layer, it means that a new species has emerged.
Biogeochemical Cycles
The word biogeochemical means the study of life(bio) and the interaction with
Earth(geo) and the chemicals that flow between the biotic and abiotic worlds. The four chemicals that are recycled back and forth between the biotic world and abiotic world are
Carbon, Nitrogen, Oxygen and Water. These cycles are driven by forces such as gravity and by energy such as Sun’s energy or Earth’s interior thermal energy.
Carbon
The forms of carbon available are CO
2
(carbon dioxide) found in the Earth’s atmosphere, C
6
H
12
O
6
(glucose) found on organisms tissues, and Na
2
CO
3
(bicarbonate) found dissolved on Earth’s oceans. You can also find carbon in many other things such as sedimentary rocks(limestone) and in fossils.
2

Carbon enters the biotic world from the atmosphere (abiotic) via photosynthesis, where pants use carbon dioxide and water and covert the Sun’s energy into a usable form
(glucose) and oxygen. Carbon is essential as a form of energy for ALL organisms.
Decomposers play an essential role into the carbon cycle as they break down dead matter and recycle the Carbon back into the soil.
Carbon is removed from the atmosphere through photosynthesis and added back to the atmosphere by respiration and combustion (burning of fossil fuels).
Nitrogen
Nitrogen is found in its natural form N
2
gas in the atmosphere. It is also stored in fossil fuels and it is found in soil after decomposers return it from dead organisms.
Nitrogen enters the biotic world from the atmosphere (abiotic) via nitrogen fixation, where bacteria “fix” the nitrogen gas to a usable form NO
3
(nitrate) or NH
4
(ammonium). Nitrogen is essential for growth of ALL organisms. Fertilizers are made out of nitrogen, and fertilizers help plants grow. Decomposers also play an essential role into the nitrogen cycle as they break down dead matter and recycle the Nitrogen back into the soil.
Nitrogen is removed from the atmosphere by nitrogen fixation and added back to the atmosphere by denitrification and combustion.
Oxygen
Oxygen is essential for organisms. Oxygen enters the biotic world from the abiotic (atmosphere) world via photosynthesis. In photosynthesis carbon dioxide and water are converted by plants into glucose and oxygen.
Oxygen is added to the atmosphere via photosynthesis and removed from the atmosphere via respiration. It is the opposite of the Carbon cycle.
Water
Water is also essential for organisms, if it wasn’t for the cycling of water Earth would have run out of water a long time ago.
Water is evaporated from the biosphere and condensed as clouds, it then precipitates (rains) and water is returned to the biosphere.
3

Thermodynamics- Calorimeters measure the energy of a reaction
Endothermic Exothermic
Definition
Examples
Absorb Energy
Will feel cold to the touch
Solid
Liquid
Gas



Liquid (melting)
Gas (evaporation)
Plasma (ionization)
Photosynthesis
Nitrogen fixation
Bond Formation
Release Energy
Will feel hot to the touch
Plasma

Gas (deionization)
Gas

Liquid ( Condensation)
Liquid

Solid (solidification)
Respiration
Denitrification
Combustion
Decomposition (breaking of bonds)
Cellular Respiration
Periodic Table Arrangement
The metals are located to the left of the bold staircase, they can conduct electricity, are malleable and highly reactive.
The metalloids are located immediately to the left and right of the bold staircase.
They have properties of both metals and non-metals and therefore are used as transistors.
The non-metals are located to the right of the bold staircase, they are insulators
(they do not conduct electricity) , and are brittle.
Periodic Trends
Atomic radius is the size of an atom. The smallest atoms are found at the top right of the periodic table (F, Cl, Ne). The largest atoms are found at the bottom left of the periodic table (Cs, Fr, Ba).
Electronegativity is an atom’s selfishness towards its outer shell’s electrons. The most selfish elements are found on the top right of the periodic table (F, Cl, Ne). The least selfish elements are found at the bottom left of the periodic table (Cs, Fr, Ba).
Ionization energy is the energy required to remove an electron from the outer shell of an atom. This trend is the same as electronegativity. The most selfish atoms will also have large ionization energy.
The reason that the smallest atoms (Fluorine, Chlorine) are also the most selfish is because of
Coulomb’s law
. The closer the opposite charges are the larger the attraction between them. The negative electrons are attracted to the positive nucleus and are held together by electrostatic attraction.
4

Bonds
Electrons
Type of elements
Example
Structure
Interesting fact
COVALENT
“shared”
Non-metal-Non-metal
Or
Non-metal – Hydrogen
C-N
O-H
All biological molecules(sugars,
Proteins) are made of covalent bonds
IONIC
“exchanged”
Or
“transferred”
Metal- Non-metal
METALLIC
Electrons float around the metal cations
Metal-Metal
Na-Cl
Au-O
Held together by electrostatic attraction
Cu-Ni
Mg-Co
Can conduct electricity just like plasma because of the free electrons
Eukaryotic vs. Prokaryotic Cells
Every living organism is made up of cells. There are two types of cells, prokaryotic(without a nucleus) and Eukaryotic(with a nucleus).
Prokaryotic cells do not have a nucleus, therefore their genetic material
(DNA/RNA) will normally be just floating around. Examples of prokaryotes are bacteria such as Bacillus bacteria, E. coli, Salmonella.
Notice how there is no nucleus. The genetic material is just floating around.
\
Eukaryotic cells have their genetic material enclosed within a nucleus. Examples of eukaryotic cells include animal cells and plant cells.
5

Plant vs. Animal Cell
An animal cell has the following organelles:
Cell membrane, nucleus, nucleolus, mitochondria, Golgi body, smooth endoplasmic reticulum (ER), rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER), ribosomes, cytoplasm, small vacuoles , and lysosomes .
A Plant cell has the following organelles:
Cell membrane, nucleus, nucleolus, mitochondria, Golgi body, smooth endoplasmic reticulum (ER), rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER), ribosomes, cytoplasm, large vacuole, chloroplast, and a cell wall .
Cell Membrane Found in both plant and animal cells, maintains the cells balance (homeostasis) by controlling what comes in or out by either active transport(uses energy) or passive transport.
Mitochondria
Nucleus
Found in both plant and animal cells, provides the cell with energy by breaking glucose down through cellular respiration.
Glucose (C
6
H
12
O
6
) + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide(CO
2
) + H
2
O + Energy (ATP)
Found in both plant and animal cells, controls all of a cells functions, where DNA is found.
Nucleolus
Ribosomes
Cytoplasm
Rough
Endoplasmic
Reticulum
Smooth ER
Found in both plant and animal cells, where DNA gets transcribed to RNA and then RNA is stored
Found in both plant and animal cells, where RNA gets translated into proteins providing the cells with growth. Ribosomes consist of one large unit and one small unit.
Found in both plant and animal cells, allows organelles to communicate with one another, holds organelles in place.
Found in both plant and animal cells, has ribosomes in it, aids in protein synthesis (translation) by moving proteins along. The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is responsible for the production of the protein and lipid components of most of the cell's organelles.
The smooth ER is where the vesicles carrying newly synthesized proteins (from the rough ER) are budded off.
Golgi Apparatus Found in both plant and animal cells, packages proteins to leave the cell.
Large Vacuole Found only in plant cells, stores large amounts of water. The vacuole is a large vesicle which is also used to store nutrients, metabolites, and waste products.
Cell Wall Found only in plant cells, maintains the cells shape by providing support. It is very rigid and strong.
Chloroplast
Lysosome
Found only in plant cells, converts the sun’s energy into glucose through photosynthesis.
Carbon dioxide(CO
2
) + H
2
O + Energy(Sun) → Glucose (C
6
H
12
O
6
) + Oxygen
Found only in animal cells, contains digestive enzymes that allow it to “eat” bacteria, viruses, waste, or sick organelles. These enzymes are called hydrolytic enzymes that are used to digest macromolecules.
Small Vacuole Found only on animal cells, stores water, nutrients, and waste.
6

Cell Membrane
While the plant cell has a rigid cell wall, an animal cell membrane is a flexible lipid (fats) bilayer. The lipid molecules (mostly phospholipids) that make up the membrane have a polar, hydrophilic (water friendly; mixes with water) head and two hydrophobic (afraid of water; do not mix with water) hydrocarbon tails. When the lipids are immersed in an aqueous solution the lipids spontaneously bury the tails together and leave the hydrophilic heads exposed. Thus this is a handy membrane to use, because it can automatically fix itself when torn. There are three different major classes of lipid molecules - phospholipids, cholesterol, and glycolipids. Different membranes have different ratios of the three lipids.
What makes the membrane truly special is the presence of different proteins on the surface that are used for various functions such as cell surface receptors, enzymes, surface antigens, and transporters. Many of the membrane-associated proteins have hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions. The hydrophilic regions are used to help anchor the protein inside of the cell membrane. Some proteins extend across the lipid bilayer, others cross the bilayer several times
The cell membrane is unique and its form follows its function. The heads of the lipids are hydrophilic(mix with water) while the tails are hydrophobic(do not mix with water).
Think about what happens when you mix oil and water together, they do not mix and the oil will find other oil molecules to accumulate with. This effect is similar in the phospholipid bilayer where the hydrophilic heads are together and the hydrophobic tails are together in the middle.
PROJECT: Create a model of the phospholipid bilayer. Make sure you can explain the function of each part it must include the hydrophilic heads, hydrophobic tails and two proteins embedded into the layer.
7

Transporting things in and out of the cell (active transport vs. passive transport)
Watch the following videos:
USERNAME: upperschool
PASSWORD: computer http://www.brainpop.com/science/cellularlifeandgenetics/activetransport/ http://www.brainpop.com/science/cellularlifeandgenetics/passivetransport/
Active transport is the mediated process of moving particles across a biological membrane against a concentration gradient. If the process uses chemical energy, such as from adenosine triphosphate (ATP). The process of active transport uses energy (ATP).
Passive transport means moving biochemicals and atomic or molecular substances across the cell membrane. Unlike active transport, this process does not involve chemical energy. The four main kinds of passive transport are diffusion, facilitated diffusion, filtration and osmosis. The process of passive transport does not use energy.
Photosynthesis:
Photosynthesis takes place ONLY in plant cells. Inside the choloplasts, chlorophyll absorbs energy from the sun. Plants are able to convert abiotic resources into sugars(carbohydrates, glucose). The process of photosynthesis is endothermic, that is that it absorbs thermal energy (Sun) in order for the reaction to take place.
Photosynthesis removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
6CO
2
+ 6H
2
O + Energy (Sun) → C
6
H
12
O
6
+ 6O
2
Carbon dioxide + water + energy from the sun

glucose + oxygen
Reactants

products
Cellular Respiration:
Cellular respiration takes place in ALL cells. It is the breakdown of glucose into a very high energy molecule called ATP. This process happens inside the mitochondria and it is an exothermic process. Adenosine tri-phosphate (ATP) is used by every cell for energy. The energy comes from the bonds in this molecule, the bonds store very large amounts of energy, once these bonds are broken, energy is released.
C
6
H
12
O
6
+ 6O
2

6CO
2
+ 6H
2
O + Energy (ATP)
8

Questions from the reading- these are examples of the type of questions that you will have on your first exam.
1.
What is the importance of biodiversity?
2.
The greater the biodiversity the ____________the stability
3.
What are the 5 things that can alter biodiversity in an ecosystem?
4.
What two organisms determine the stability of an ecosystem?
5.
What is the role of producers?
6.
What is the role of decomposers?
7.
How much energy moves up the food chain to the next trophic level.
8.
What two things increase a population?
9.
what two things decrease a population?
10.
Define natural selection
11.
How would an organism that is not fit go extinct?
12.
How would biodiversity within a population be beneficial? Give an example
13.
What evidence do we have of evolution?
14.
What does it mean when a new fossil is found on a certain layer?
15.
What does it mean if a fossil disappears at a certain payer?
16.
What does it mean if a fossil is present on the top layer?
17.
What does the word biogeochemical mean?
18.
What does the word biotic mean?
19.
What does the word abiotic mean?
20.
What is the difference between the atmosphere and the biosphere?
21.
What are the four chemicals that are cycled?
22.
What drives these cycles?
23.
Where do we mostly find carbon dioxide?
9

24.
Where do we find bicarbonates?
25.
Where do we find carbon in the form of glucose?
26.
How does carbon enter the biotic world?
27.
What does carbon provide an organism with?
28.
How is carbon dioxide removed from the atmosphere?
29.
How is carbon dioxide added to the atmosphere?
30.
What organisms are responsible for recycling carbon back into the abiotic world?
31.
Where do we find nitrogen gas in its natural form?
32.
What needs to happen to nitrogen before it can be used up by most organisms?
33.
What forms of nitrogen are usable by most organisms?
34.
What does nitrogen provide an organism with?
35.
Who is responsible for recycling nitrogen back to the abiotic world?
36.
How is nitrogen removed from the atmosphere?
37.
How is nitrogen added to the atmosphere?
38.
Is nitrogen “fixation” endothermic or exothermic?
39.
How is oxygen added to the atmosphere?
40.
How is oxygen removed from the atmosphere?
41.
Is respiration endothermic or exothermic?
42.
How is water added to the atmosphere?
43.
Is evaporation endothermic or exothermic?
44.
How does water return to the biosphere?
45.
Define what endothermic is
46.
Define what exothermic is
47.
The process of evaporation is _____thermic
48.
The process of condensation is _____thermic.
49.
The process of photosynthesis is _______thermic
10

50.
The process of cellular respiration is ______thermic.
51.
Combustion is _______thermic
52.
Metal are located to the ________ of the metalloids.
53.
Non-metals are located to the __________ of the metalloids.
54.
__________ conduct electricity.
55.
_____________ do not conduct electricity.
56.
In an ionic bond electrons are ___________.
57.
In a covalent bond electrons are __________.
58.
What is so special about a metallic bond?
59.
A non-metal with another non-metal would form this type of bond.
60.
This type of bond is held by electrostatic attraction
61.
All biological molecules such as carbohydrates, proteins, amino acids are held by
______________ bonds.
62.
T/F every living thing is made up of cells.
63.
What does the work Prokaryotic mean?
64.
What does the word Eukaryotic mean?
65.
Most bacteria are ____________cells.
66.
Animals and plants are ___________ cells because they have a nucleus around their
DNA.
67.
T/F a plant cell has a lysosome
68.
What are the three things that a plant cell has that an animal cell doesn’t?
69.
What is the role of the cell membrane? What type of cells have this organelle?
70.
What is the role of the nucleus? What type of cells have this organelle?
71.
What is the role of the nucleolus? What type of cells have this organelle?
72.
What is the role of mitochondria? What type of cells have this organelle?
73.
What is the role of ribosomes? What type of cells have this organelle?
11

74.
What is the role of the Golgi apparatus? What type of cells have this organelle?
75.
What is the role or endoplasmic reticulum? What type of cells have this organelle?
76.
What is the role of chloroplasts? What type of cells have this organelle?
77.
What is the role of the cell wall? What type of cells have this organelle?
78.
What is the role of a large vacuole? What type of cells have this organelle?
79.
What is the role of a lysosome? What type of cells have this organelle?
80.
What is the name of the process of converting DNA to RNA, where does it take place?
81.
What is the name of the process of converting RNA to proteins, where does it take place?
82.
What are the reactants and products of photosynthesis?
83.
What are the reactants and products of cellular respiration?
84.
Why is an animal cell more flexible?
85.
What is a lipid?
86.
What does the word hydrophillic mean?
87.
What does the word hydrophobic mean?
88.
What is the difference between active and passive transport?
89.
Where does the energy for active transport come from?
90.
Why would proteins and enzymes need to be present in the phospholipid bilayer (cell membrane)?
91.
Is photosynthesis endothermic or exothermic?
92.
Is cellular respiration endothermic or exothermic?
93.
Why is ATP a high energy molecule?
94.
Name the three types of lipids
95.
If the number of predators increases, what happens to the number of prey?
96.
If the number of prey decreases, what happens to the number of predators?
97.
Give three examples of abiotic things,
12