Dr. Wilfred A. Gallant
Associate Professor
School of Social Work
University of Windsor
Windsor, ON
N9C 3K1
February 12, 2016
Dear
I wish to sumit the following article entitled: “A New Perspective in Curriculum
Orientation: A Synthesis in Social Work Education” for review in your journal. As
requested,
please find four printed copies of the article, a 3.5 inch disk saved in Wordperfect9 as:
wilmikemelsherw2002.wpd. A separate electronic copy has been forwarded to your e-mail
address ___________________ on Wordperfect9 and saved as: wilmikemel.wpd. All references
and formatting is in APA style Should you have any questions, please feel free to contact me at
(519) 253-3000, ext. 3071 or Dr. Holosko at 3075 if necessary.
Sincerely yours,
Dr. Wilfred A. Gallant
Associate Professor
cc.
Dr. Michael Holosko & Ms. Melanie Gallant
1
A New Perspective in Curriculum Building
2
Cognitive, Affective and Experiential Elements in Social Work Curriculum Building: A New
Perspective in the Synthesis of Social Work Education
or
A New Perspective in Curriculum Orientation: A Synthesis in Social Work Education
Wilfred Gallant, Ed. D., M.S.W., R.S.W., I.C.A.D.C.ab, Michael Holoskobc, Ph.D., M.S.W.,
Melanie Gallantd, M.A., B.A., B.Sc.
a
Associate Professor of Social Work, Telephone (519) 253-4232, ext. 3071; FAX (519) 973-
7036; e-mail BL1@ uwindsor.ca.
b
Social Work, University of Windsor, Lambton Hall, 401 Sunset Avenue, Windsor, Ontario N9B
3P4, Canada.
c
Professor of Social Work, Telephone (519) 253-4232 , ext 3075, FAX (519) 973-7036; e-mail
holosko@ uwindsor.ca.
d
Doctoral Student in Applied Social Psychology, University of Windsor, Windsor, ON, (519)
971-9489, e-mail, mgallan2@uwindsor.ca
.
This paper is intended for possible publication in
The Electronic Journal of Education
Running Head: A New Perspective in Curriculum Building
A New Perspective in Curriculum Building
Date of Submission:
3
February 12, 2016
A New Perspective in Curriculum Building
4
Abstract
This article identifies a method of integrating five major curriculum orientations combined
with an understanding model of teaching and learning which addresses both content and process.
The purpose, therefore, is to explain these combined orientations for social work curriculum
building. This approach broadens the professional base of social work by incorporating
knowledge from the fields of education, educational psychology, counseling and generic social
work practice. This article provides a parallel description between the processes of thinking,
feeling and doing carried out in the field of social work and those elements related to the
cognitive, affective and behavioral dimension in social work education. The article concludes
with an eclectic and synergistic stance to curriculum building, offers student feedback and
suggestion for teachers in higher education.
A New Perspective in Curriculum
5
Cognitive, Affective and Experiential Elements in Social Work Curriculum Building: A New
Perspective in the Synthesis of Social Work Education
A New Perspective in Curriculum Orientation: A Synthesis in Social Work Education
The quality of teaching and learning is at the heart of contemporary debates about the
success and failure of our higher education system and there is a growing need for teachers to pay
heed to curriculum design, integration and implementation (Passe, 1995). What should be
included in the curriculum has been a major philosophical concern since the time of Plato (Kelly,
1989). Traditionalists, giving way to conceptual-empiricist, have all too often narrowed
curriculum and instruction to generalities which ignore the specificity of each situation, and the
inherent qualities which the learner and the teacher bring (Curran, 1976; Taylor, 1986). The most
difficult task for educators might be to think creatively ‘outside the box’ and to relinquish the
‘school bus mentality’ that seems to be permanently fixed to all too familiar and comfortable
traditions (Eisner, 1994). The conservative influence of universities on secondary education is
further fostered in higher education as it restricts educational opportunities for students (Eisner,
1994). This paper redresses this imbalance by focusing on the classroom climate that evolves
when both the unique person of the teacher and of the student engaged in the educational
enterprise is taken into consideration. In this type of environment, the instructor is a vital
facilitator of the ‘teaching’ process and students are an integral aspect of the ‘learning’
experience (Common, 1991). Educational theorists, whose major intent is to upgrade educational
systems and to improve the performance of those within, have identified, among others, five
major orientations to curriculum, often referred to as curriculum ideologies (Eisner, 1985). These
include: 1) cognitive processes, 2) human technology, 3) self-actualization or personal relevance,
4) social reconstruction, and 5) academic rationalism (Eisner, 1985; Eisner, 1998). This paper
incorporates these five orientations or ideologies to curriculum in light of the use of the
"understanding model" (Curran, 1976) of teaching and learning, and demonstrates the
implications and relevance of these dimensions for social work curriculum building. Additionally,
A New Perspective in Curriculum
6
this paper demonstrates the use of an androgogical approach to adult education which applies the
cognitive concepts of knowledge (thinking), the affective aspects of values (feeling) and
behavioral dimensions of skills (doing) gleaned from the practice of social work. More
importantly, this paper will describe selective elements of educational content and process and
conclude with an eclectic and synergistic stance to teaching and learning.
I.
The Understanding Model
Our effectiveness as teachers depends on our ability to empower students for professional
and educational achievement and to improve the teaching/learning enterprise (Common, 1991;
Eisner, 1985; Eisner, 1998). Such effectiveness is built upon a mutual understanding between
teacher and student. Curran (1976) developed the "understanding model" in his research on the
application of psychological counselling to the learning process. This humanistic approach
recognizes the personal worth and dignity of both teacher and learner and focuses on students'
task to learn specific social work content and to identify with the person of the teacher. In turn,
the teacher identifies with the student’s unique method of integrating new knowledge and
experience. Through this existential model, students gain an appreciation of the cognitive,
affective, behavioral, and experiential components of the learning experience (Egan, 1998). This
model provides for harmony among students' unique selves and their acculturation to the social
work profession. The process by which students come to identify themselves as social workers
emerges through the personal integration of theory and practice skills in the classroom. This is
accomplished most effectively when the basic purpose, knowledge, attitude and skills in social
work intervention are introduced and used dynamically and systematically in the classroom itself
and when students are able to ‘navigate’ effectively through the process (Cox, 2001). Teachers
also benefit because their dialogue with students in class becomes a rich experience that promotes
their own integration of person, professor and model of a social work practitioner.
The "understanding model," is akin to the "personal relevance and self-actualization"
orientation to curriculum. As such, it presupposes a symbiotic relationship whereby teachers and
students are deeply in need of each other and actually reaching out to each other for their own
A New Perspective in Curriculum
7
mutual fulfillment – the professor as ‘committed’ teacher and, the student as ‘invested’ learner
(Schwartz, 1961; Shulman, 1999). Potential social workers are best nurtured in a mutually
supportive environment that frees teachers to give willingly and to share their knowledge while
assisting their students to open themselves to receive wisdom and insights that will hopefully
become the beginning impetus for their personal and professional growth. In respect to this
educational dynamic, Towle (1954) was conscious of both the protective and integrative function
of the ego. She saw the role of the teacher in social work education as an opportunity to nurture
the ego for growth and sensitivity to the emotional and intellectual demands of learning. She had
hoped that social work educators would collaborate with education professors and researchers for
the mutual advancement of teaching and learning.
The "understanding model" acknowledges the striking parallel between a student's
resistance to new knowledge and the resistance professional social workers experience in their
clients when confronted with change. If students are led to recognize and appreciate resistance in
themselves in a learning setting, they will become far more adept at perceiving resistance and
threat in their clients. It is believed that this ‘hands-on’ experience will help them learn how to
intervene more effectively in their clients' lives. Social work education that fails to take the
creative tension inherent in learning into account creates a self-defeating bind. In the humanistic
model, resistance in a classroom is no longer viewed as a stumbling block, but is seen as a
building block for authentic learning. Using the "understanding model," students are encouraged
to respond in an enabling way to the presentation of the teacher very much as they would be
called upon to provide such responses to their clients. These enabling responses move the teacher
to share his/her personal knowledge and knowledge of social work with increased vitality and
self-determination (Biestek, 1957; O’Neil-McMahon, 1996; Timberlake, Farber, & Sabatino,
2002). Such sharing is as essential to the teaching/learning process as it is to effective social work
practice. In turn, the teacher empathically responds to the needs of the students in helping them
make sense of their educational experience and in dealing with the blocks which make it difficult
for them to learn.
The rewarding qualities possible in an interpersonal relationship between a student and
teacher are of paramount significance because these skills are parallel with those that will ensure
A New Perspective in Curriculum
8
effectiveness in the fundamental relationship between a client and social worker. Thus, students
can become more effective practitioners by applying the social work skills of attending, active
listening and responding in the classroom (Cournoyer, 2000; Egan, 1998). Just as clients need
space to tell their own story in their own way, so too teachers and students have a corresponding
need to be mutually understood and respected in what they bring to the class experience. When
teacher and students both feel convalidated, they both recognize their own creative resources
(Shulman, 1999).
I
The Three Dimensions of Thinking, Feeling and Doing Paralled with the Knowledge,
Values and Skills of Social Work.
Towle (1954), who was exposed to the era of progressive education with its emphasis on
the role of education in the growth process, focused on the ego investment of the student as a
critical aspect of the educational experience. According to her, the role of the teacher consisted of
an empathic relationship that strengthens students' potential and incentive, subsequently
reinforcing their capacity for growth in order that learning may proceed rather than become
constricted. She was particularly influenced by the work of John Dewey and William Kilpatrick
who both emphasized an individualized whole-person, student-centered approach to education as
opposed to a mere subject-centered model. According to Dewey, self-expression, growth,
development and self-realization are the essential factors in the person-centered approach
(Gitterman, 1972, Kelly, 1989).
Knowledge must be internalized and transformed into skillful action (Gitterman, 1972).
Our primary objective in terms of ‘knowing’ and ‘doing’ must be to acknowledge and to sketch
the dialectical relevance of the relation between the general, the abstract, the specific and the
concrete in such a manner that each of these elements contributes to the transformation of the
other (Taylor, 1986). According to Towle, the social work educator should adapt her/his casework
learning--meeting individual needs, wants, goals and capacities so as to alleviate unfavorable
conditions--and apply this knowledge in the classroom as it pertains to the student’s integrative
learning. This approach reduces barriers to productive learning and subsequently fosters personal
and professional growth. Students' identification with their teacher, and hence with the
development of their own professional competence, requires a shift from their former way of
A New Perspective in Curriculum
9
‘thinking’, ‘feeling’ and ‘doing’ to their development of a more professional stance. In social
work supervision, for example, as well as in social work education, "knowing" is not equivalent to
"doing". According to Rothman (1973), contemporary educational theory and practice sensitizes
the teacher to the problems and potentials in the teaching/learning enterprise. According to her,
knowledge and process are central ingredients in generating and sustaining learning. The teacher
actively guides each student in discerning patterns of knowledge and integrating these into
practice.
A phenomenological inquiry focuses on human perception and the feelings they generate
(Short, 1991). An individual comes to know through the symbolic transformation of experience
which encompasses three phases of mental activity: a) ‘perceiving’--of new data in the
environment, b) ‘ideating’--when students think and talk about what they have perceived, and c)
‘presenting’--testing the concept or notion with others. In terms of ‘perceiving’, the first contact
is through the senses. This is where students receive new data. It is at this point that distortion of
perception calls for a ‘caring confrontation’ by the teacher to correct misperceptions so that
students can see the world more accurately (Brook-Smith, Goodman & Merdith, 1976; Egan,
1998). Though ‘ideating the intellectual and feeling dimension are stimulated by the student’s
need to know. In this respect, the teacher provides a stimulating environment. ‘Presenting’
provides students the opportunity to symbolically represent the meaning of concepts to others on
their own terms (Eisner, 1994; Brooks-Smith, et al.,1976). It is the task of the teacher to extend
students' perceptions and the proclivities they possess to help them validate these perceptions. As
teacher and students share experiences, ideas, constructs, and generalizations as tools for
disclosing the whole of a problem and its fundamental elements, a model is projected of what
ultimately must go into the learner's own private world of ‘knowing’, ‘thinking’ and ‘doing’
creating for the student a ‘logic of discovery’ (Curran, 1979; Eisner, 1994; Eisner, 1999;
Rothman, 1973). For a teacher to make a difference, he or she has to focus on experiences,
namely the experiences of the students, which is the basis for student-centered learning and the
foundation for effective problem-solving and the effective delivery of service, in effect, doing
what they ‘know’ and what they can ‘do’ in situations that matter (Common, 1991, Eisner, 1999).
The ‘logic of discovery’ entails a process of evaluating the trials and corrections of the social
10
A New Perspective in Curriculum
work content informed by the student and put into practice, evaluating the corrections made in the
field and providing reason-based evidence for the student’s interpretation of the material
(Blochowicz, 1998; Miller & Morgan, 2000), These three processes explored by Towle and
Rothman parallel the ‘knowledge’, ‘values’ and ‘skills’ of social work practice and are shown in
Figure I
According to Rothman (1976) and Towle (1954) ‘knowledge’ or ‘thinking’ relates to
knowing social work knowledge and attitudes. Any false interpretations which the students
demonstrate calls for appropriate information on behalf of teacher and student. Values or feelings
addresses the emotional development of the student, their individualized learning experience,
their energy level, the attitude and feeling tone with which they engage in the process. The skill or
doing of social work practice calls for students to test their new-found knowledge in classroom
simulations, video taping and in their field practice. These three creative dimensions are based on
assumptions which are still alive and well in the educational system today (Eisner, 1998).
According to Gallant (2002), in social work education,
‘understanding’ is akin to
knowledge, ‘integration’ is akin to values , and ‘operationalizing.’ is akin to
skills.
‘Understanding’ the course content and the classroom process as well as the uniqueness which
both the teacher and the student bring to it, is of primary importance. Misunderstanding calls for
re-presenting content or classroom process or dealing with intellectual blocks that impede
authentic learning. ‘Integration’ deals with personalizing the learning, and pulling things together
where the teacher provides the optimal opportunity for a meaningful integration of content to
occur. ‘Operationalizating’ entails putting into practice what is uniquely learned in the classroom,
from the review of the literature and in the various learning exercises. In this model, students can
‘make’ their own meaning out of what is taught rather than be ‘spoon fed’. Subsequently, through
their own self-determination (Biestek, 1957) and empowerment, they can search for knowledge
and truth in their own unique way (Eisner, 1999).
Creating a participative culture in the classroom is not without its concomitant tension.
These tensions need to be addressed in one way or another by the teacher (Snow, 2001). In this
regard, the concept of counseling/learning can be appropriately applied directly to the educational
experience. The teaching/learning process is seen as a unique experience in personal growth,
A New Perspective in Curriculum
11
development, integration and fulfillment for both the teacher and student. The latter's difficulties
and blocks, particularly on the emotional, instinctive and somatic levels, are of major
consequence (Curran, 1972, p. 4) Early in their relationship, the professor recognizes anxiety in
the learner, becomes a sensitive, perceptive counselor, and thus helps her/him through anger or
emotional blocking. The student gains security and confidence to trust the knower and to
internalize the social work knowledge that is being conveyed to them. This counseling/learning
model and the renewed educational experience incites constructive learning in the classroom as
opposed to what is regarded as traditional "defensive learning" (Curran, 1972, pp. 4-5). Clemence
(1965), using a student-centered philosophy, sheds light upon the continuity between education
and casework (therapeutic intervention) when he states that both challenge the latent capacities of
individuals and maximize their potential. By evaluative feedback, the social work educator can
aid students to integrate their learning and help them progress toward professional maturity.
In order to facilitate and accomplish this transfomational process, student learning must be
a joint effort between teacher and student. This requires a balanced flow between theory and
practice and between educational content and process at three critically significant levels:
educational learning, personal growth and professional competence. The three factors of: a)
understanding, b) integration and c) operationalization or the parallel of a) knowledge [thinking],
b) values [feeling] and c) skills [doing] of social work practice are critical ingredients of selfinvested learning. These three factors are consistent with the concepts developed by BrooksSmith, Goodman and Meridith (1976) who have identified three dimensions of ‘ideating’,
‘perceiving’ and ‘presenting’ (1976). ‘Understanding’ imposes order upon our experiences as we
uniquely perceive our identity and relatedness to others and to the subject matter. For example, if
we take the simple understanding of words. The words ‘stubborn, ‘obstinate, and ‘pigheaded’ are
defined in the dictionary as ‘not easily influenced’. If we examine them more closely within a
cultural context there is a significant variant in our perception and interpretation of the words. For
instance, ‘firm’ is considered a good thing, ‘obstinate’ is a less desirable thing, and ‘pigheaded’
comes across as a nasty thing. ‘Understanding’ and ‘perception’ require careful communication
between the teacher and the learner in order to insure optimum learning and accurate absorption
of content (Kelly, 1989). Figure 1 compares these three models of curriculum.
12
A New Perspective in Curriculum
Insert Figure 1 Here
III.
Androgyny
There are further insights to be gained for social work education by focusing on
the distinct elements which pertain to androgyny – the teaching of adults in higher education
(Tweedel, 2000). Malcolm Knowles (1972) proposed a classical androgogical approach which
makes adult education more exciting, relevant, dynamic and real. He postulates four basic
dynamics: 1) changes in self concept, 2) the role of experience, 3) readiness to learn and 4)
orientation to learning. An androgogical design for learners entails: a) setting a climate, b) mutual
planning, c) diagnosing needs, d) formulating program objectives, e) planning a sequential design
of learning activities, f) conducting the learning experience, and g) evaluating the learning. The
thrust of Knowles' work in creating educational environments calls for maturing professionals
who can develop and expand the models of competency through mutually self-directing inquiry
(Common, 1991; Kelly, 1989). For example, by having the students conduct a ‘do you best’ video
tape with a fellow student, allows them to obtain a birds eye view of what they need to learn to
enhance their social work skills. Also, a written contract gives them the opportunity to decide
what needs to go into their learning to improve their effectiveness as a social work practitioner.
Most importantly, writing critical reflective diaries or bibliographacies allows them to internalize
their readings and to give them meaning in a manner that will enhance their skills as social
workers.
IV.
Eisner's Pioneering Work
There is a complementary manner in which art form can be used in the design and
evaluation of educational programs. Eisner has developed useful, educationally significant
curriculum programs and has legitimized artistic form for describing, interpreting and evaluating
what transpires in the classroom. As a result, he has seen dramatic changes in students, especially
his doctoral students. Eisner (1985, 1999) challenges the narrow confines of scientific inquiry
when applied to education because he believes that educational environments can encompass both
A New Perspective in Curriculum
13
scientific and artistic elements With the virtual demise of behaviorism, he opens new ground for
contemporary education by drawing assumptions from art and art education which in the past
have not been characteristic of educational inquiry. In order for teachers to deal with the
organization of planned activity, they need not always start with aims or objectives and then
deductively proceed to evaluation. According to Eisner,(1985, 1999) curriculum development has
both a practical and an artistic component which require prudence, wisdom and practical insight
as they relate to the realities of the classroom. The artistic elements of taste, design and fitness
must blend together, make sense and be aesthetic.
Eisner (1985) is aware that conceptual notions with strong educational appeal need to be
enriched and modified in order to be functional. Evaluating the way they work or the way they
fail to work in the classroom is one concrete way of doing this. Eisner’s concept of educational
connoisseurship provides for a conscious examination of educational life that expands one's
perceptual experience and relationship with what is learned (Eisner, 1985, p. 195). On the other
hand, educational criticism discloses the qualities of an educational event so that one can ascertain
its value (Eisner, 1985). Using these two dimensions, allows students to attend to the pervasive
qualities of the classroom and to the latent cues communicated by teachers and students. For
example, when students are encouraged to give creative written expression to their learning
experience, the reader can participate more vicariously in their experience (Common, 1991:
Kelly, 1989). Eisner's philosophical thrust provides a rich incentive for a renewal of teaching and
learning. His use of educational criticism is consistent with social case studies although differing
significantly from it in that students can critically reveal what they perceive and experience in the
classroom dynamic itself. The use of the process recordings to analyze their interviewing skills as
part of the course requirement speaks to these educational dimensions.
V.
Philosophical Orientations or Ideologies Toward Curriculum: An Eclectic Stance
Each philosopher of curriculum has some aspects which are appealing (Passe, 1995).
Consequently, it is possible to use a curriculum which incorporates features of different teaching
philosophies. On average, teachers in their practice, for the most part, use modified aspects of the
five orientations to curriculum. Some may tend to concentrate on one major orientation and others
A New Perspective in Curriculum
14
may combine one or two of them. By considering the various aspects of these orientations or
ideologies, a teaching course can have a philosophical base which is eclectic in nature. Teachers
can actually plot out their own orientations as shown later in Figure 2. My own philosophical
base for teaching has been eclectic and synergistic in nature and borrows systematically from the
five major ideologies to curriculum with a strong emphasis with the self-actualization and
personal relevance model.
These are the five orientations which illustrate my own teaching profile. The first is the
development of cognitive processes has its roots in process-orientated psychology and is seen by
some educational theorists as ‘progressivism’ (Passe, 1995). It relates to Bloom's educational
taxonomy which identifies six levels of operation: a) possession of information, b)
comprehension, c) application, d) analysis, e) synthesis and f) evaluation. This taxonomy is
similar to Figure 1 and represents increasingly complex cognitive processes. Cognitive processes,
consistent with the ‘logic of discovery’, are generally considered to be introspective and problemcentered. Students define problems they wish to pursue and the teacher helps with the appropriate
materials and guidance (Eisner, 1985, Miller & Morgan, 2000). This is particularly true as
students identify problems encountered with clients in their field placement and appropriate
corrections in terms of problem exploration and resolution are made as these matters are
continually discussed in the classroom (Corey & Corey, 2002; Cournoyer, 2000; Miller &
Morgan, 2000; O’Neil-McMahon, 1096; Toseland & Rivas, 19–).
“Cognitive processes’ are incorporated in the classroom by the use of a teaching/learning
contract where students identify what they still need to learn. This can be determined by the
application of a pre-test or a pre-video tape interview to demonstrate what students know or do
not know. The teacher as facilitator assists the students with the steps necessary for them to reach
the goals and objectives which they have personally chosen as part of their initiation into the
profession. For example, one student might contract to be more concrete and self-disclosing in the
classroom. The teacher might model these two elements and invite students to use them in triads
or small groups. In these small groups, the students are able to use their social work skills to
understand and respond to one another and to specify any concern, confusion, anxiety or
resistance that might be present. Following this group learning experience, they meet with the
A New Perspective in Curriculum
15
larger class where any additional ambiguities or issues are clarified. Using this method, students
are able to define and solve problems, locate relevant resources and evaluate the results of their
efforts all under the sensitive guidance and knowledge of the classroom teacher. As a result,
students are offered a first hand experience using their newly attained social work skills directly
in the classroom.
Through the use of cognitive processes, students are also taught how to learn, re-learn and
un-learn. As a result, they develop an appreciation for the use of appropriate cognitive skills. This
process promotes increased intellectual development and enhanced cognitive functioning and not
just quantity of knowledge or regurgitation (Kelly, 1986). Students are seen as dynamic learners
who have ultimate control over their destiny in terms of being more and more autonomous and
more aptly prepared for social work practice. An emphasis is placed in the classroom on students
learning what is actually taught by having them verbally communicate the content of the lecture
material back to the instructor. In this way, if a few students understand what the teacher is
teaching, then it can be assumed that these same number of students can then assist in teaching
the remaining learners the same content. Such an approach can greatly diminish competitiveness
and can increase a participative sense of learning community (Common, 1991; Kelly, 1989).
According to Kelly (1989), ‘academic rationalism’ emphasizes the supremacy of the
intellect over other human faculties independently of the information provided by the senses. It
consistently returns to questions of social justice, the quality of the social order. Eisner (1985)
sees academic rationalism, as dealing with ethical or normative determinants which is closely
related to the goals and objectives of social work intervention (Cournoyer, 2000; Timberlake, et
al., 2002). In this model the social worker has a responsibility for the people it serves. These
important areas are discussed in class and students are given an opportunity to deal with them as
these issues relate to their clients in their respective placement.
Where the empiricist or the rationalists [we know what we know through the senses]
postulate the supremacy of the intellect in perceiving knowledge independently of the information
provided by the senses, an opposite view maintains that knowledge of the world and about us
can be derived only though the use of our senses (Kelly, 1989). This brings us to the third
orientation, self-actualization or personal relevance. This orientation calls for active learning as
A New Perspective in Curriculum
16
opposed to the mere learning of facts (Eisner, 1985, Kelly, 1986). It takes into consideration the
ideological stance of the teacher and the student (Kelly, 1989). Therefore, in order for the
experience to be truly educational, students should have some say in setting up goals and in
determining how they intend to be invested in the learning experience. It is essential that teachers
establish rapport with students and realize how they actually see themselves when involved in the
classroom. Unless teachers are able to visualize the character of the student's experience, there is
a danger that they may relate to students as mere numbers on a list rather than as creative
individuals who wish to expand the quality of their learning experience (Eisner, 1985). Following
each class, students write down the goals they have set out for themselves, what they have
accomplished during the week and how this has been helpful to them in their learning experience.
They also communicate what they intend to focus on for the next week. It is here that they make
comment or suggestions related to the course and the classroom process.
The task of the professional educator is somewhat like that of a travel agent in providing a
resource-rich environment whereby students will find what they need in order to grow naturally
without having to be coerced. Teachers have an appreciable task on their hands in establishing
rapport with students and in creating curricula that are geared to the aptitudes and interests of the
learner. It is not sufficient for students to merely do what is expected of them in the classroom.
Students need to realize the personal relevance of dealing with intellectual problems (Eisner,
1985).
‘Personal relevance’, a humanistic perspective, places emphasis upon personal
interpretation and personal meaning. This is arrived at reflectively and dialogically by the student
practitioner (Short, 1991). In terms of ‘personal relevance’, the course is designed so that students
have an input in determining the personal significance the course will have for them. This
provides them, within reason and the demands of professional practice and accreditation, an
opportunity for enhancing, changing or delineating some aspects of the curriculum process.
Education is seen in the original sense of the Latin word ‘educare’ which means ‘to lead’, ‘to
guide’ or "to draw forth" (Buscaglio, 1982, p. 7). By her/his attitude, commitment and
enthusiasm, the teacher can facilitate student learning. Students provide responsible, narrative
accounts of their integration of social work theory and its application in the field practice
A New Perspective in Curriculum
17
component. In other words, they have a voice in the internalization of the content and the practical
application of theory as they field test it and return to the classroom to check out their learning
efforts (Short, 1991). In addition, the assignments are individualized so that students can choose
areas of personal relevance.
Knowledge becomes educative only through its adaptation to the needs and the capacities
of students. It is intent upon transforming the culture (Common, 1991; Kelly, 1989; Passe, 1995).
Social work and social welfare is more allied with the fourth curriculum orientation of ‘social
adaptation’ and ‘social reconstruction’ to the extent that it serves the interests of the people in the
particular society in which it is engaged. In effect, the mission in this orientation is to locate social
needs, to be sensitive to them, and, in turn, to provide the kinds of programs that are relevant for
meeting the needs that have been identified, particularly, in relation to solving societal problems
(Brueggerman, 1996; Eisner, 1985, Eisner, 1999; Passe, 1995). Students need to learn how to
critically evaluate social issues and how to bring about constructive change. Social workers are
not merely reinforcers of the status quo but also innovators of change. “Social reconstruction’
seeks largely to raise the consciousness level of students from a mediocre "status quo disposition"
to providing or encouraging fundamental changes in basic structures of society. It presupposes an
ethnographic grasp of our society at this particular point in time (Short, 1991). In this model, the
curriculum is the vehicle for remedying such critical issues as drug abuse, sex education, race
prejudice, environmental pollution, stress, community mental health, eugenics and the location of
nuclear energy plants. It essentially determines the quality of the culture that students will inhabit.
(Eisner, 1985, Eisner, 1999). Here the emphasis is on the questions social workers have to deal
with. According to Eisner, it is not a matter of avoidance, by retreating to the abstractions of the
academic disciplines, but rather a matter of using the knowledge provided by the academic
disciplines as a tool for dealing with what is socially significant. The task of professional
educators is to help social workers cope with the difficulties and issues raised by the professional
in practice.
Some educational theorists see curriculum as linear, or as a repetitive, step by step process
(Bloom, 1956; Krotwoke, 1965; Passe, 1995; Wheeler, 1967). Others, such as Saunders (2000),
see such skill training as a requisite component of courses offered in formal adult education
18
A New Perspective in Curriculum
programs. This alternate view deals with essentially ‘proven knowledge’ or ‘practice wisdom’
which has been consistently used in the field of social work practice (Passe, 1995; Siporin, 1975).
Such an approach is reflected in the fifth orientation, the ‘curriculum of technology’. This
approach which is increasingly prevalent in our society, relates means to ends. It rests on
determining: 1) what are the purposes and objectives of curriculum and 2) the developmental
processes it wishes to promote (Blenkin, 1988; 1988; Blenkin & Kelly, 1987, Kelly, 1986; Kelly,
1989; Tyler, 1949). If the course objectives clearly state what students are expected to learn, then
it should be relatively easy to implement the type of training necessary to achieve these goals. The
learning here is sequential in that it builds upon the preceding material. It is also student reliant in
that the stronger students can be a source of support for the weaker. Again, students in this model
act as a co-operative community of learners committed to their own growth and learning,
invested in their own learning, and assisting each other’s growth (Eisner, 1985). Here again, the
‘proof of the pudding’ (Bradley, 1985) is in the objective achievement of goals within a
supportive teaching/learning environment and in Dewey’s own words: “making the ‘process’ and
‘goal’ one and the same thing” (Kelly, 1989, p. 91).
Figure 2 identifies a curriculum profile that was developed by Patrick Babin, It graphically
illustrates the level at which I use these orientations in my own teaching practice as they relate to
content, goals and organization of the curriculum (Nephew, et al., 1979). This device allows a
teacher to determine their orientation relative to content, goals, and organization of the
curriculum. There are 57 questions which range from one orientation to the other. In terms of my
own assessment of these ideologies, the ratings scores are almost identical for: Cognitive
Processes (CP) = 9, Technology (T) = 9 and Academic Rationalism (AR) = 8. The Highest
Rating Score is for Self-Actualization or Personal Relevance (SA) = 13. The lowest score is on
Social Reconstruction (SR) = 6. Table II shows the following results:
Insert Figure 2 Here
VI
Incorporating the Five Orientations and Ideologies–A Creative Synthesis
A New Perspective in Curriculum
19
Curriculum can be substantially improved by integration and synthesis (Passe, 1995).
According to Eisner (1985), the five ideologies are seldom encountered in their pure form,
although one of the five views does usually dominate. This can be seen by doing one’s own
profile. Each orientation, Eisner contends, is justified on the basis of professional judgment which
is achieved by reflecting upon one’s own practice and by considering what research has to say
about practice. Having considered the five orientations to curriculum, I will conclude with my
own creative syntheses, a method which “...attempts to critically examine and integrate specific
points of view into new wholes” (Shostrom, 1979, p. xxii). In this model, a teacher can adopt or
apply whatever THEY consider useful or facilitative to teaching and learning. As a personal
example, I have attempted in my own professional development to integrate various teaching and
learning approaches in order to create a blended and creative synthesis. Specifically, I have made
use of various principles taken from the works of Freud, Adler, Frankel, Curran, Maslow,
Shostrom, Egan, and Carkhuff and Berenson. Freud stressed man’s will to pleasure. I have sought
to make the adult learning experience enjoyable or pleasant. Adler based his approach on a
person’s will to power. Since adults are often overwhelmed or helpless in their new learning
environment, I have tried to provide them with a sense of power, empowerment or
accomplishment. It is important to assist students in working through the confusion which arises
when horizons are extended and when their boundaries and perception of the world are being
threatened. Victor Frankel emphasized a person’s will to meaning. “What keeps us going is the
recognition that we have meaning and purpose in our lives” (Timberlake, Farber & Sabatino,
2002).Though an adult may experience life as being without value, each person invariably
searches for a sense of meaning and purpose in their lives. Students thus strive for integration and
resolution in their learning and look upon the teacher to aid them in this process. I also take from
Sullivan’s spirit of consensual validation, Shulman’s emphases on the importance of a ‘symbiotic
relationship’, and Eisner’s inclusion of ‘logical discovery (Blachowich, 1998; Miller & Morgan,
2000). Curran (1976) addresses a person’s will to community where teachers and students are
both seen in their total personalities, deeply engaged together in the learning process. This aspect
of my own teaching philosophy is based upon the relevance of ‘personal meaning’ for the student
(Eisner, 1999). My
application of a creative synthesis builds also upon the humanism of
A New Perspective in Curriculum
20
Abraham Maslow and the actualizing process of Shostrom wherein adult students are encouraged
to fully explore the depth of their strengths as well as their weaknesses. I attempt to help students
to discover their untapped potential. In this, like others, I encourage students to recognize their
own strengths and liabilities. (Common, 1990; Shostrom, 1976, p. 302).
According to Rogers, the authority which the professor has to teach rests upon certain
attitudinal qualities which exist in personal relationship between the facilitator and the learner
(Common, 1991). The work of Carkhuff and his associates bring a blend of the person-centered
approach of Carl Rogers and the learning by objectives of the behaviorists. The Carkhuff model
places emphases upon the basic concepts of empathy, respect, genuineness, concreteness, selfdisclosure, self-exploration and confrontation. I attempt to be available to the deepening
experience of students, and to provide incentive which can enable learners to move from where
they are at the beginning of the term, (point A), to where they want to be at the end of the term,
(Point B). I also try to aid students in identifying the necessary steps needed to move from A to B.
Here, the adult student is viewed as a gestalt configuration of physical, emotional, intellectual and
experiential components (Carkhuff & Anthony, 1979; Egan, 1998)
To paraphrase Shostrom (1976), in his reference to Assagioli, a creative synthesis must be
geared to the existential moment. Who the teacher is, what is going on at the moment, and where
in the total process of teaching and learning, both instructor and student are, all contribute to the
existential decision on a thinking, feeling and doing bases. Emotive language in the classroom
engages the senses and the emotions thus enabling the personal or idiosyncratic understanding of
subject matter, events and interactions. It is a process which provides the opportunity to
internalize one’s learning experience by owning it as one’s own and putting the new – and
knowledge to work in one’s professional practice (Common, 1991). It is the ‘educable moment’
where the cognitive, affective, behavioral and experiential components of learning come to life
and have their fruition in a ‘new social work self. By sharing this new-found knowledge and
experience with the instructor and the other students, the teaching/learning climate is enhanced
and magnified and the student is transformed beyond the mere ‘grasp’ of knowledge or the mere
ingestion of ‘cerebral level’ content which often leaves a learner isolated and disengaged.
I have systematically applied insights from Curran’s (1976) teaching/learning research
21
A New Perspective in Curriculum
which he conducted at Loyola University. Curran had discovered basic elements that are essential
to individualized learning and he grouped these elements under the acronym SARD, four letters
with
six
implications...SECURITY,
ATTENTION-AGGRESSION,
RETENTION-
REFLECTION and DISCRIMINATION. A feeling of security empowers the student to a sense of
openness. This in turn, determines a great deal of the actual level of investment to the plan that
will be applied to learning. Attention is imperative to avoid boredom and guilt. Learners need to
assert themselves and to learn aggressively. Thus, it is important that they be convalidated and
supported by a participative community which includes the teacher and the other students (Kelly,
1989). In this way, students experience a balance between the forces of self-assertion on one
hand, and the need to belong on the other. Retention is important for later use. By responding and
reflecting the learning content, students increase their retention ability. Discrimination is
necessary if students are to accurately identify the major concepts and the required skills (Curran,
1976).
Students need to learn a suitable way to assimilate their new knowledge in social work so
that they can internalize this material in an informed way–one that can be effectively
operationalized in their beginning practice. Indeed, students learn best in an interactive format
which has a heavy emphasis on their day to day experiences and on the practical application of
their learning (Tweedell, 2000). Students are encouraged to discover their own personal
significance to the learning experience. By the use of an insemination-germination model to
teaching/learning, students are helped to ‘flesh out’ and ‘give life’ to their new concept through
the use of an interior informational type of process (Curren, 1976). In this agrarian model, the
teacher who has sown the seed of learning now provides warmth and security for the student
providing a receptive soil bed. The teacher is also the knower who instills the seed of knowledge
within that student. The student, in turn, is now able to make an act of trust in the teacher-knower,
as she/he attempts to understand and integrate this new knowledge with further help from the
teacher, thus giving birth to a new social-work-self. In this whole-person orientation to education,
students can accept responsibility for their own choices and can be rewarded in a supportive
fashion through the reassurance and guidance of the teacher and the gains that are made in their
professional development. What occurs is somewhat similar to Sullivan’s concept of consensual
A New Perspective in Curriculum
22
validation wherein students feel prized and valued in their uniqueness and are further motivated to
risk exploring at deeper level of growth and maturity. What is evidenced here is a synergistic and
symbiotic relationship where students can uniquely operationalizes the knowledge they have
internalized concerning social work intervention. In this way, learning is integrally related to the
real life experiences of students.
VII.
Student Responses to the Classroom Teaching/Learning Experience
What do students have to say about the teaching/learning model that they experienced? By
taking a close look at student feedback, further implications can be drawn for enhancing the
human learning experience. The replies of students seem to indicate, for the most part, a rather
favorable response to the essential elements of teaching and learning. The less favorable
comments offer incentive for further androgogical improvement. The comments which follow
outline a summary of student feedback. Following each class students are asked to write any
comments about the teaching./learning experience and to offer any suggestions as to areas they
would like to see changed or modified. In addition, in the final class, students are given a
questionnaire which they are asked to complete anonymously. The results are given to the social
work secretary and are not opened by the instructor until the final grades are officially posted.
1.

Favorable Feedback
The warmth and openness of the instructor fostered a climate that encouraged the active
participation of students and contributed to meaningful growth and professional development.
It kept my interest alive and really made me think and learn. Because of his teaching style, and
considering that I am a rather shy person, I have “come out of my shell” and I am confident in
my ability to use in my social work practice the knowledge and skills I gained from this
course.

By using the A to B format, the instructor effectively modeled the skills of listening, attending,
understanding, responding, assessment and problem-solving, all of which we need as social
workers. It was very much a mutual exchange and a very meaningful encounter. We were
reinforced in our journey by the caring guidance and expertise of the teacher.

Through use of the contract, we were challenged to take a good, hard, honest look at ourselves
and to recognize areas which required our attention. It made me take responsibility for myself,
A New Perspective in Curriculum
23
and not leaving the onus strictly on the teacher.

The goals the teacher set - to provide the nutrients of knowledge, support and caring to
students - were clearly attained. This nurturance took place not only in the classroom but
extended into his office, the hallway, or wherever the situation arose where he instinctively
knew a student was in need. It was through his "availability" that many students were able to
look into themselves, and begin to grow in the direction the student felt necessary. This
approach could serve as a model for other social work professors who are searching for a way
to teach ‘humanness’ in the classroom.

This teaching/learning model recognizes the value and significance of the facilitative skills
between  teacher/student,  student/teacher  and student/student within the classroom. He
genuinely communicates the real worth of the student/learner by fostering his or her growth
through the understanding of their needs and feelings which result as part of the learning
experience.

This class has provided me with a deeper awareness of the dynamics which occur in human
interaction, and has given me a stronger ‘skill’ base for effective intervention.
 I have never had a class like this before. I am use to sitting and taking note after note while
listening to the teacher ramble on about something which is suppose to have relevance but at
the time really means nothing because I am so busy trying to get it all down on paper. In this
class, we were challenged to think “outside the box”, to be creative and to be expressive of our
true selves.
 I always left class with such a ‘great feeling’ that I couldn’t wait for the next class to occur. I
find it difficult to put into words exactly how this class has affected me, but I do know that I
have been altered in a tremendous manner, both personally and professionally, beyond what
any textbook could report. This alternate approach to learning was a challenge from the
cerebral learning which has dominated my elementary, high school and university years. For
the first time, I have come to know ‘experientially’ and I prize as a treasure knowledge which
I will never forget. The sharing community has given me the opportunity to trust, to confide
and to grow with my fellow classmates, and most of all to understand what it means to ‘learn
with my heart’.
A New Perspective in Curriculum
24
Less Favorable Responses
 Too structured; expectations too high.
 Though there is room for discussion, there is little or no room for arguments in this model.
 The triads require closer supervision or teacher monitoring to ensure their effectiveness as a
training tool.
 Social work students are a strange breed; they work so hard to express and experience feelings
and process outside the classroom, but inside the class they put that effort to rest.
 It is difficult for students who are used to being passive recipients of content in most other
courses to become dynamically engaged in the personal and professional demands of the
‘human’ classroom and ‘humanistic’ learning.
 This model calls for self-awareness which is often avoided in other classes This aspect does
not come easy and therefore, the ego defenses of students are sometimes higher.
 Too risky to respond in front of all the other students because it will be looked upon by other
students as patronizing the instructor.
 Students often reject this type of model because it requires total self-investment which is often
a demanding and somewhat painful experience. As much as the instructor provided positive
support in and outside of the classroom, in order for students to effectively overcome their
resistance to learning, they must make an effort be committed to personal growth and
professional development as ‘budding’ and ‘accountable’ as social workers. Nothing changes
if we are not encouraged to ‘really’ work.
 Some students are unaware of what social work entails in the ‘human’ classroom.
The
students must understand that the reality which confronts them in the human classroom is part
of the reality that will confront them in the field – a invaluable experience that will give them
workable skills in helping clients.
 I know what you're doing in terms of teaching within a holistic context, and though it is really
good and I very much appreciate it, nonetheless, when you stop and think of it, we have some
twenty years of hard-nosed ‘traditional schooling’ behind us which hampers our movement
A New Perspective in Curriculum
25
from this comfortable nest.
 You are running up against resistance, closed-mindedness, which reinforces intellectualism
and prevents students from internalizing the concepts of the ‘human’ classroom.
 The classroom calls for more honesty than some students are prepared to give.
 Because of the uniqueness of this model and the growth-struggle entailed in learning it is
almost inevitable that some students will reject this teaching method as new experiences often
create undue anxiety which can lead to rejection of the new and unfamiliar experience and
students are unwilling to risk the new experience for greater professional gain .
VIII Implications and Suggestions for Educators
There are, as can be expected of any innovative approach, both positive and negative
responses to this proposed model. Ultimately, the most important thing is that the instructor
remain open and receptive to the feedback of students. The measure of effectiveness lies in the
student's ability to derive personal meaning from the learning experience so as to enhance his/her
professional competence. To facilitate student learning using this model, it may be useful to
provide a summation of the philosophy and teaching style entailed as an aid in clarifying and
modifying course objectives and processes. The use of Flander's Interaction Matrix Analysis
could help to determine the strengths and weaknesses of instruction (Eisner, 1985). It would also
be helpful to administer a cognitive map to determine the unique learning style of each student
(Hill, 1981) and to further personalize their learning by adapting the approach which seems to
conform to the majority of the students without compromising the substance of the instructor’s
own ideology. The following are a few suggestions for educators.

We must continue to examine in a critical fashion the justification of the curriculum
orientation/s we choose and determine the effectiveness it has for students in personalizing
their learning experience.

We must continually evaluate the effectiveness of an eclectic approach to curriculum and
borrow from the new developments in the field of curriculum and design.

Continue to check the reactions of student as to the instrumental quality of the
teaching/learning experience and to consider valid responses that will help change the face
A New Perspective in Curriculum
26
of learning by adapting new techniques and processes.
IX
Concluding Remarks
It is hoped that this paper will spark a renewed interest in reevaluating ones own
educational experiences so as to improve curriculum building. What is offered then, by way of
challenge is for educators to risk a more encompassing orientation to curriculum which takes into
consideration the needs of both the teacher and the student in the educational enterprise. In sum,
this paper has provided a beginning androgogical framework for an integral understanding
process to occur in the teaching/learning encounter. The understanding concept, reflective of a
counselling-learning type modality is quite consistent with the fundamental knowledge, values,
and skills of social work practice as applied systematically and dynamically in the classroom.
Although the discussion of this article has been limited to the intervention sequence, these ideas
and principles can be applied to all courses in the social work curriculum.
Social work educators have an unprecedented opportunity to enhance and to foster the taskoriented learning experience of students. It is hoped that the ideas presented will in some small
way, prove to be a source of illumination in social work education and will prompt faculty to
reexamine their traditional approaches and values toward teaching and learning. In this way,
potential social work professionals will be exposed to an educational endeavor which is both
challenging and rewarding. Further work needs to be done in order to more clearly define,
evaluate and transmit this proposed educational design for social work. The ultimate measure
will be student learning.
Finally, this paper has presented a fresh, innovative, humanistic, whole-person model which
engages the social, intellectual, emotional and somatic capacities of both the teacher and the
student. A plea has been made for the incorporation of a counselling-learning type modality
which has been gleaned from the insights of social work and other related disciplines such as
psychology and education. As social work educators, and as educators in general, we cannot
afford to rest on our laurels as we must be innovators of our educational enterprise.
This paper has provided an eclectic and synergistic teaching and learning approach. I have
given an indication of some influential literature in the field of education and social work, a brief
examination of my own (what has guided me throughout my 30 years of teaching) approach and
A New Perspective in Curriculum
27
its implications for social work curriculum building. This paper, hopefully, will encourage social
work educators to reexamine their own teaching and learning approach in light of new insights
gleaned from professionals and educational leaders in the field. Finally, in terms of social work
education, we would like to paraphrase one simple caveat suggested by Eisner (1998), when he
advises that sometimes it may just be better not to give customers what they want but, instead, to
help them understand what they ought to want. This is in no way paternalistic but is consistent
with the rigour and demands placed upon the accreditation demands of required to practice social
work and the stictuativeness and perseverance required of each student to meet the demands
necessary for the accomplishment of this criteria of competence. As teachers, it is our task to help
students interpret from our own expertise what social work education, or any form of higher
education for that matter, is all about but perhaps more importantly, in the conviction of Alfred
North Whitehead, that no matter what approach we responsibly take in our legitimate attempt to
teach students, ‘the joy is in the journey’ (Eisner, 1999).
28
A New Perspective in Curriculum
References
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31
A New Perspective in Curriculum
Figure 1
A Comparative Chart of Three Dimensions of Teaching and Learning
Smith,
Rothman &
Goodman &
Towle
Gallant
Meredith
Perceiving
Knowledge
Thinking
Understanding
First Contact is
Knowing Social Work Knowledge,
Course Content and Classroom
Through the
Values, Attitudes and Skills
Material
Senses Where
Uniqueness of the Teacher
Student Receives
Uniqueness of Each Student
New Data
Knowledge
Distortion Calls
False Interpretations Calls for
Misunderstanding and Intellectual
for
Appropriate Information on Behalf
Blocks Call for Re-presenting
Confrontation
of Teacher and Student
Content and Facilitating Cognitive
Resistance to Learning New
Material
Values
Ideating
Feeling
Integrating
Intellect and
Emotional Development
Personalized Learning
Feeling
of Student,
Pulling Together the
Dimension are
Individualized Learning, and
Knowledge Gained
Stimulated by
Energy Level
the Need to
Know
Values
The Teacher
Teacher Provides for
Teacher Provides Optimal
Provides a
Student Growth by Reducing the
Opportunity for Meaningful Process
Stimulating
Ego’s Mechanism
to Occur
Environment
of Defense and Emotional
Blocks to Learning
32
A New Perspective in Curriculum
Skills
Presenting
Doing
Operationalizing
Symbolically
Using the Knowledge, Skills and
Effectively Putting into Practice the
Representing on
Values of Social Work and Testing
Knowledge, Values and Skills of
One’s Own
These for Practical Use in the
Social Work Practice Uniquely
Terms Concepts
Classroom Teaching/Learning
Learned in the Supportive
to Others for
Experience and in the Field Practice
Teaching/Learning Environment
Feedback
Component
33
A New Perspective in Curriculum
Figure 2
Curriculum Orientation Profile
Rating
Orientation Dimension
CP
T
SA
Rating
SR
AR

13
13
12
12
11
11
10
10

9

9

8
8
7
7

6
6
5
5
4
4
3
3
2
2
1
1
CP
T
SA
SR
AR
A New Perspective in Curriculum
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A New Perspective in Curriculum
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