Despite feminist progressive movements in human civilizations, female management philosophies are differed with male philosophies. Men and women consistently continued to maintain their differences in the practice of management. This perceptual philosophical path of Occidental and African power-gender cultures towards entrepreneurial management, Occidental utopian philosophical conception of life is spaceward while
African pragmatic perception of life is earthward. Male managers in both cultures conceive their managerial visions through organizational stress and tension (forward vision – visionary consciousness), while female managers in both cultures perceive their managerial vision through sensational desirability (forward and backward experiences – traditional consciousness).
Men and women can speak the same language universally. However, we assume that similarly they should be able to perceive and understand each other equally. If the latter proposition is true, then in an organization do women exert the same managerial power within the workplace as men do? Not so, an argument refuted in this paper.
By nature, women are communicative, intuitive, nurturing, sensitive, supportive, and persuasive Schwartz, (1989). Researchers found that most women have a higher sense of the importance of long-term relationship Covey, (1993). Women’s sense of importance to long-term relationship and their natural instincts bring to mind the more
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personal issues. The higher percentage of married women shows that they do not have to live a lonely private life Epstein (1991). However, when an Occidental culturally oriented woman considers advancement in her career, she elevates personal career over family concerns, which trend is not acceptable in African cultures.
By nature, men are aggressive, very competitive, risk takers, self-reliant and predictable to women. This is primarily why they work so well in positions of power and influence and why they like to take advantage of their positions. Feminists researchers focus on the way that male domination spreads through and exists in organizations. This patriarchal view comes in the form of traditional organizational management from that period of time when only men worked. Men can best be described as competitive, tough, decisive, strong and in control in most situations. Men tend to have a management mindset and management that focuses primarily on control and efficiency and on turning people into things. Covey, (1993). Studies show that when groups are asked to name a leader, members are inclined to nominate men because of stereotypical beliefs that men are more leader-like than women. However, studies have found several similarities between men and women leaders. Some of these related to money and family management. Simons and Cornwell (1989) indicate, “The obstacles in cross-gender communication are often greater than those between foreign cultures. Despite a quarter century of feminist progress and the many changes in gender roles in society, at a most basic and unconscious level, men and women consistently continue to be talked to and talked about differently, touched and approached differently; dressed and dealt with out of role assumptions and expectation that are significantly different”.
In all cultures, human organizations were mostly managed by male-oriented philosophies of management, and had patriarchal organizational approaches. History indicates that organizations were run by men with command, control, and communication leadership style through many centuries. However, recently male and female managers are talked to differently and dealt with in different ways because of the new societal emerging role assumptions and expectations of females in modern organizations.
Johnson’s (1976) gender congruency theory of power views that the sex-role stereotype influences perceptions of power within an organization. Using French and Reven’s
(1959) classification of social power, Johnson theorizes that reward-power is aligned with
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female sex-role stereotypes, while coercive, expert, and legitimate forms of power are aligned with male sex-role stereotypes. Ragins (1989) indicate that the gender typing of referent-power is less straightforward because referent-power is based on perceived identification. Johnson (1976) views it as being open to either sex, but more aligned with female than male sex-role stereotypes due to the personal nature of power. However, in our modern societies an important question that must first be asked is whether male and female managers use the same types of organizational power? Ragins (1989) states that:
“Our reason for this disparity is gender differences in power. While power is a critical factor in upward mobility, females tend to have less power in organizations than males. In recognition of this problem, researchers and practitioners have focused on the need to provide females with equivalent power resources as males”.
Human beings have always had a yearning for utopian paradise and for a society better than their own. In the utopian vision of their hopes and efforts they quest for a better individual life style and collective achievement to fulfill their moral and social obligations. In trying to describe the utopian mentality, men and women realized that their visions have been the constant companion of their societal life.
Thinking about the entrepreneurial opportunities, human beings – both males and females – have to deal with the basic reality of their natures. Historically, entrepreneurship has been conceptualized partially as an economic function. In the early eighteenth century, Richard Cantillion observed that an entrepreneur was one who bore the risk of buying and selling (Higgins, 1991). Economist Adam Smith suggested that an entrepreneur was someone who brought together the factors of production (Ronstadt,
1984). Austrian economist Joseph Schumpeter latter added innovation and exploitation of opportunity as actions by the entrepreneur (Schumpeter, 1934). Stevenson and Sahlman
(1987) point out, however, that entrepreneurs can be identified as those who did not purchase or sell, who did not bring together the factors but followers, and who did not create businesses, but men and women who managed the work of others.
It is simplistic, indeed, to attempt to draw sharp distinctions between characteristic of male and female managers in modern organizations. Distinctive
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perceptual visions of male and female managers raise several questions such as : Why do female managers fail to move up the organization hierarchy as rapidly as male managers?
Why utopian visions of male managers are more upward conceptually and female managers are upward perceptually? Why male managers paradise philosophy is more oriented towards searching for perfection while female managers are demanding towards beautification? Why do male managers practise managerial functions pragmatically while female managers practise them maneuveringly? Why male managers tend to be patient towards tyranny of tolerance while female managers tend to regret the tyranny of powerpressure? Finally, why do female managers earn lower salaries than male managers? This paper hypothesized the inequality in gender power-position by the following hypotheses.
Hypothesis 1: The search for an ideal (utopian) state of visions or a perception by a manager differs from person to person in different cultures – either spaceward or earthward. Primarily, African managers perceive their visions through the Nature in all of its manifestations earthward. They perceive that the fundamental knowledge of organizational cultural life has of itself and of materiality dwells in the subconscious, for it is by subjective direction that all existence is generated. While primarily, Occidental managers perceive their visions through spaceward. Such an extramundane conception lied through the whole entrepreneurial globalized traditions, which tried to find perfect organizations on Utopian Island or in hidden valleys.
Hypothesis 2: Male managers try to conceive their utopian visions through rationalized future wants at times of organizational stress and tension (visionary consciousness). The utopian icon for a male manager is focused on the reference of forwardness (outwards concern – tyranny of tension and stress). While female managers try to perceive their utopian visions through sensational desirable (traditional consciousness) myths as past-oriented experiences. The utopian icon for a female manager is focused on the reference of past experiences – backwardness (inward regrets - tyranny of power-pleasure).
In this study, we first examine the magnitude of the perceptual gap between male and female managers in relation to an entrepreneurial vision. Then, we systematically analyze the perceivable paths of male and female managerial perceptions towards the
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present entrepreneurial career progression. Finally, we analyze the effects of tyranny tolerance of power-tension and stress of male managers and the tyranny tolerance of power-pleasure of female managers. Understanding the causes and effects of inequality of power-perception between female and male managers is important, because it will reveal real differences between male and female entrepreneurial manager’s powerperceptions in organizations.
Although all nations possess distinctive cultural philosophies and valuable patterns of ideologies, it would be a mistake to think that any particular nation has a single, bounded culture. Social scientists have observed that all human groups have multiple cultural perceptions and views about power-perception in different societies at different times. (Gregory, 1983, Louis 1986, and Trice and Beyer 1984 and 1993).
A large body of research indicates that men emerge as leaders much more frequently than do women. There are several views on the analysis of gender differences in management. Researchers and theorists have established viable propositions behind these differences. First, critical scholars have challenged the managerial bias based upon the traditional research by showing that organizations have been viewed as places of domination and exploitation (Deetz and Kersten, 1983; Forest, 1980, Steffy and Grimes,
1986). In an often-cited study, Megargere (1969) examined the effects of dominance on leader emergence and found that men emerged more frequently than women irrespective of dominance levels.
Similarly, Nyquist and Spence (1986) found that 90% of high dominant men became leaders over low dominant women and only 25% of high dominant women emerged as leaders over low dominant men.
Wentworth and Anderson (1984) found that men emerged as leaders in 85% of mixed-sex groups. The above findings are consistent with research in social cognition and stereotyping (e.g. Asmore and Del Boca 1979; Dobbins, et al; 1988). Schein (1973) found a strong concurrence between the ratings of men and the ratings of successful managers and only a weak concurrence between the ratings of women and the ratings of successful managers. Moreover, other researchers found that successful managers were
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viewed as more similar to men than to women on attributes considered critical to effective work performance such as leadership ability; self-confidence, objectivity, forcefulness, and ambition (Heilmen et al; 1989). Much of this research addresses issues of power within the workplace. Second, critical organizational scholars have shown how current theorizing constitutes organizations in particular ways (Knights and Morgan,
1991).
“Do women bring a different managerial style to a workplace? is a question posed to Rosener (1990) by Epstein (1991). In Rosener’s investigation of male and female managers, she asked them to describe the styles they used instead of observing these men and women at work. Rosener (1990) found that men tended to “command and control” while women managers leaned towards “transformational” patterns, using interpersonal skills. Siegel (1991) claims Rosener sends us an important message. “Beware of the danger that lies in attaching “male” and “female” labels to the two leadership style”.
For many years it has been perceived that male models of management were adopted by women to achieve the higher management levels. Epstein, (1991).
However, women participating in the international women’s forum survey for men and women leaders showed that the female managers have significantly grown and developed the self-confidence to drop the traditional command and control leadership style. They learned to manage according to what their own sense and intelligence dictate.
One other important issue is the relationship between job satisfaction and life satisfaction.
According to Tait et al; (1989), in the last 30 years this issue has received considerable empirical investigation through researches in such areas as psychology, sociology, counseling, management and leisure, reporting relationship were found in 34 studies.
Although this correlation was substantially greater for men than for women in studies published before 1974, the difference disappeared in studies published after 1974, probably because of demographic changes among female workers and changes in the relative importance of work to women’s lives.
In spite of the considerable amount of research done on the relationship between job satisfaction and life satisfaction, there are two controversial issues that exist: (1) the gender issue and (2) the extent of the relation between job and life satisfaction.
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Research has been conducted on how men and women form networks. Results show that men were more likely to form homophiles ties or same-sex network relationships across multiple stronger networks while women had a different pattern of networks. Women obtain friendship and social support from women and access what they need from network ties to men. The research on women in organizations gives evidence of barriers women face in organizations. (Miller, 1975; Lincoln and Miller,
1983; Olson and Miller, 1983; Brass, 1985, Miller, 1986). Although homophile does not refer to gender, studies have shown that the prevalence of sex-based homophile has detrimental consequence for women in the workplace (Ibarra, 1992). Rogers and Kincaid
(1981) indicate that:
“A widely cited explanation for women’s purported exclusion or limited access to interactions networks is preference for homophile, i.e. interaction with others who are similar on given attributes such as sex, race and education”.
Organizational leaders often begin their careers doing what comes naturally to them, and they develop their skills and their leadership style over time. Research has found that self-monitoring within a network may be related to the emergence of leaders.
There are several entrepreneurial styles of leadership that men and women use:
Command-and-Control, Interactive, Principle-Centered, Management-by Exception, and
Transactional. Each of these styles is highly successful and basically used by men. But as we move toward information-service economy, in Occidental cultures women have used the interactive mode. Women are less likely to practise management-by-exception, but are about the same as men in making use of contingent recognition (Epstein, 1991).
In reviewing Occidental and African cultures, we can find three imagery philosophies in the evolution of these cultures. The three perceptual past, present and future illustrate a transition from early optimism views of a better society to the more recent pessimism about the future. While cultural images of the Occidental nations view about present and future, they exhibit individualism, humanism, and pervasive optimism.
The traditional African cultural view has been marked by institutionalism, economism
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and technology utopianism. For example, most African cultural philosophies from
African countries have not made a differential pattern of perception between the human and the divine. They have also made a differentiation between women and men.
Etymologically, the moral of cultural philosophy in most Occidental culture means “the love of God” and “the love of wisdom”- the spaceward conceptual imagery movement. However, in most African cultures, cultural philosophies perceive that the way of life has been regarded as originally the way of the spirits of Heaven extended into the material universe, and no other way is considered to exist. African cultural philosophies perceive that “the present and tangible of the broad daylight and plainly visible is the real life” – the earthward perceptual imagery movement.
These two controversial beliefs are differential milestones in both Occidental and
African cultural philosophies. In the literature dealing with cultural images of both
Occidental and African cultures, there are three key concepts which are frequently used interchangeably – cultural ideology, cultural myth, and cultural utopia – and it is necessary to distinguish between them in order to analyze the visionary aspirations of present and future societies (Vlachos, 1978). Ideology is relatively recent concept of the early 20 th
century, which has been defined as “all systems of thoughts that aim at justification and preservation of the status quo” (Mannhiem, 1946). Myth and the millennial vision, on the other hand, are characterized by what may be called traditional consciousness. Here, the emphasis is on the past and on the scarce and timeless understanding of the life. Utopia in its classical sense is similar to myth, in that it often conceptualizes time as recurrent and not historical. However, utopia also includes a vision of things hoped for, the substance of things not seen. Utopias are characterized by visionary consciousness with emphasis on the future.
An entrepreneurial business may be encouraged to imitate another business culture and its commitments. However, by imitating another’s business techniques does not bring about changes in culture. People will be trapped in the swamp-culture if values do not exist. As Covey (1993) states: “People in a swamp culture may think they are independent, but they start going off in the wrong direction, management switches right back into control mode”.
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There are various kinds of companies in today’s environment. Felice N.
Schwartz, president of Catalyst, developed a system for rating companies that are supportive of women’s promotions and titling. Companies were rated from zero (the least cooperative) to five (the most cooperative). Companies not caring about recruiting, training, developing or promoting women are referred to as zero”. “Ones” are companies merely complying with the law. “Twos” want to do what is right. “Threes” are those few companies doing something about family matters or leadership development. “Fours” are truly responsive to women. “Fives” are whether both men and women will begin at the same level. This utopian perceptual vision of the business world will be the ideal environment where the management structure will provide opportunities and challenges with assistance and rewards for all employees on every level of hierarchy. Since there are no “Fours” and “Fives” yet in Schwartz rating, Covey (1993) explains:
“The problem is that most organizations train, they don’t develop. In such an organization, there is not trust – no common idea of ‘true north’. In other words, the organization is a swamp.
Swamp cultures are cold societies in which citizens work without any privileges such as an educational and training opportunities. They just follow the political policies and remain in the dark. How can a swamp culture be turned into an attractive oasis?
What steps should be taken for the transformation process? In order to transform a swamp culture into an oasis, where people will be educated, trained, and developed, work and be with people, entrepreneurial managers need to build a sense of internal security so that employees will be able to adapt to the real market place. A swamp culture converted into an attractive oasis can become a productive business through principle-centered entrepreneurial management system. The information’s process requires patience, time, work and tolerance. As Covey (1993) indicates: “Such a change also required long-term commitment to four principles of transformation: Trustworthiness, Trust, Empowerment, and Alignment”.
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With all the research done throughout the history of mankind, because of the complex nature of women, no definite conclusions are made as to why female managers differ so much from male managers. Descriptions of women in general are still far less congruent with descriptions of successful managers than are descriptions of men in general. Heilman et al; (1989) indicate that: characterizations of successful managers thoughts, styles, potency, health, all were found to be more similar to characterization of men managers than to characterization of women managers. However, the substantial growth of women in management has coincided with a widening of the gender gap in salaries and no widening of the gender gap in power-exertion. More empirical research is needed to figure out why women conceive their managerial roles through their past experiences (backward), while men managers conceive their managerial roles through future prosperity and risk taking (forward).
Two major sets of conclusions could be drawn from this paper: 1) both male and female managers in Occidental cultures conceive their roles toward utopian visions, while
African managers perceive their roles toward earthward perceptions. 2) there are similarities between male managers and female managers and dissimilarities between male management and female management styles.
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