ARID AND SEMI- ARID LANDS FOUNDATION
ASALFO
FIELD OFFICE:
ASALFO, MWATATE,
P.O. BOX 1094,
WUNDANYI, COAST.
OFFICE FOR ALL COMMUNICATION:
P.O BOX 74004, City Square, NAIROBI, KENYA
TEL.630491/211739.
FAX.226673.
Email:mwangombe@kenyaweb.com
IMPROVEMENT OF FOOD SECURITY AND ECONOMIC EMPOWERMENT OF THE SMALL
SCALE FARMERS IN COASTAL ARID AND SEMI- ARID LANDS THROUGH TECHNOLOGIES
FOCUSING ON PIGEONPEA AND ONION PRODUCTION USING TC SOIL CONDITIONER.
AGNES W. MWANG’OMBE (PhD)
21ST MARCH 2002.
Introduction
Despite more than two decades of food security policies in most African countries, it has proved impossible to
eradicate the causes of food crises. The main causes continue to be poverty, crises (economic, wars and natural
disasters such as drought), constraints imposed by macro-economic globalization on the weakest countries and
the ineffectiveness of national food security policies. All these factors affect the rural small-scale farmers most
especially those in Arid and Semi- Arid Lands (ASAL) whose farming options are greatly restricted by frequent
droughts.
Kenya is divided into six agro-ecological zones based on rainfall and moisture indices. In this classification,
zone 1 is the wettest and zone VI is the driest. Arid and Semi-Arid Lands (ASAL) covers zones IV, V and VI
with a mean annual rainfall ranging between 200 to 800 mm and a moisture index of 57 - 30. These areas cover
473,000 Km2 (82% of Kenya’s land area) and can be grouped as follows:1.
10% of zone IV (Semi-arid) with an area of 58,000 km sq, rainfall range of between 500 and
800 mm/year and moisture index of between - 30 and- 42.
2.
49% of zone V (arid) with an area of 283,000 Km2, rainfall range of between 350 and 500
mm/year and moisture index of between - 42 and - 51.
3.
23% of zone VI (very arid) with an area of 132,000 Km2, rainfall range of between 200 and
350 mm/year and moisture index of between - 51 and - 57.
The ASAL districts of Kenya have been ranked into four categories and Taita-Taveta district falls under
category B where 85% of the land area is composed of zones IV, V and VI and have a 80% of the district’s
population. ASAL in the district is located in the lowlands. Agricultural activities mainly livestock production
dominate the ASAL economy. While crop farming covers maize, sorghum, cassava, beans, cowpea and
pigeonpea is grown at terrace benches to stabilize the terraces. Crop farming is greatly affected by weather
hazards such as drought or unreliable rainfall, unavailability of drought tolerant crop cultivars, wild life menace
among other constraints. Food insecurity characterized by frequent famine is very common in this area.
Pigeonpea is an important drought tolerant legume in Eastern province and to a lesser extent, Central and Coast
provinces of Kenya.In the late 1980’s the area and annual production was estimated at about 100,000 ha and
over 50,000 tons respectively. Over 95% of this production is in the semi-arid districts of Eastern province
where the crop, with 17-28% protein content, is an important source of protein in the diet and cash income for
resource poor households . It is important to note that while 95% of pigeonpea is grown in Eastern province the
local markets for dry grain pigeonpea are in the Coast province where the grain is boiled and mixed with roots
of tuber crops or green bananas or pound dry maize. The resultant foods are known as Kimanga and Pure. In
coastal towns, the dry grain of pigeonpea is boiled in coconut extract and forms part of the breakfast in homes
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or in local hotels. Thus, the Coast province provides the local market and highest point of utilization for dry
grain pigeonpea although the cultivation of the crop is less than 5% of the total grown in Kenya. In addition,
export markets for this crop exist both as processed and unprocessed dry grain or as green pods.
Pigeonpea being a legume improves soil fertility. Also at mid-podding, pigeonpea heavily defoliates thus giving
the soil a high organic matter content.
In Kenya, Pigeonpea is the third most important pulse crop after common bean and is mainly grown in the semiarid areas where it is most important legume and food crop. Pigeonpea is one of the most drought resistant crops
found in Africa. This is due to the existence of some particular morphological and physiological characters. On
one hand, the particularly deep and well-developed root system of pigeonpea permits the plant to fetch water
where other crops usually fail. On the other hand, during drought the plant is able to reduce its water loss
through osmotic adjustment of its cells, allowing photosynthesis to continue longer and enabling roots to keep
growing and exploiting soil water. This process also permits pigeonpea to maintain its photosynthetic functions
despite the drought conditions and to continue its reproduction stages . Economical yields may also be obtained
in poor rainfall conditions (380 mm/year) provided that soil moisture is adequate or it is grown under irrigation.
A wide range of soil types are suitable for pigeonpea growth provided that they are well drained and contain
sufficient lime and that the soil texture permits the root system to develop in depth. Root nodulation can be
inhibited by high soil acidity. A soil pH of 5-7 is suitable for pigeonpea husbandry. A deficiency in phosphorus
or manganese may also inhibit root nodulation. Short-duration varieties are particularly sensitive to excessive
soil moisture .
Pigeonpea can be planted in a rough seedbed provided that weeding has been correctly done and seeds placed at
the correct depth. A rough seedbed encourages water infiltration and reduces erosion. On the other hand a fine
seedbed and a relatively weed-free environment encourage rapid and even germination.
The recommended seed rate in Kenya is about 20 kg/ha in pure stand and 7.5 kg/ha for intercrops. Two to three
seeds are usually planted per hole and one or two plants remain after thinning.
In general, small sized, early maturing varieties of pigeonpea are grown in closer spacing than lager, longduration, tall ones. The recommended spacing pattern for pigeonpea in Eastern Africa is 1.5x1.2 m for pure
stands of landraces. This spacing becomes 0.75x0.30 m for medium to long-duration varieties in pure-stand and
0.9x0.30 m for intercrops. The recommended spacing for short-duration varieties in pure stand is 0.4x0.10 m
(222,222 plants/ha) in ASAL areas. In the traditional intercropping systems of the ASAL areas of Kenya, the
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current plant densities observed range from 20,000 to 40,000 plants/ha with an average of 25,000 plants/ha.
However, in pure-stand this density can increase upto 400,000 plants/ha.
Weeds are a serious problem for pigeonpea during its vegetative stages as they compete for moisture, soil
nutrients, and light and reduce the yields.
Pigeonpea does not usually require any fertilizer application. However, on sandy loam, poor nitrogen and poor
organic matter soils a starter dose of 20 to 25 N kg/ha increases yields. Nevertheless, a systematic application
of nitrogenous fertilizer may lead to foliage increase without increase in pod production. Moreover, in this case,
nodulation and nitrogenase activity can be inhibited .In phosphorus deficient soils, an application of 40 to 60 kg
P2O5 is recommended. Pigeonpea cropping improves soil fertility. As a result, maize yields on a former
pigeonpea plots are generally higher than in monoculture.
Like other important legumes in the country (beans, cowpeas, grams, peas and dolichos bean), its production is
greatly affected by infestation of insect pests, both in the field and during storage. Among these legumes the
largest number of insects pests have been recorded on pigeonpea . A wide range of insects visits the pigeonpea
plant. Over 200 species have been recorded on pigeonpea, most of them are sporadic in their distribution and
are not regarded as economic pests. Those that are pests feed on the pigeonpea plant from seedling stage to the
time of harvest, but the most economic damage is caused by pests that feed on flowers and pods. This is because
their direct feeding affects the harvestable part of the plant. In addition to those insect pests that continue to feed
on the harvested grain in the store are also of great importance in the production of pigeonpea in Kenya. These
groups directly worsen the food security situation in dry areas of the country. The important field pests that
occur in Kenya include; podsucking bugs (Acanthomia (clavigralla) spp, Riptorous spp, Nezara spp and
Anaplocnemis spp); pod borers (Helicovepa armigera Hubner, Maruca testulalis Geyer, Lampides boeticus (L)
and Etiella zinkenella Traits); Podfly (Melanogromyza spp) and Thrips (Megalurothrips spp). Recent survey
work) has confirmed the importance of podfly, podsucking bugs and pod borers as pests in pigeonpea
production in Kenya. These are able to inflict a seed damage of up to 27%. Other insect pests that have been
found feeding on pigeonpea in the field include; Flower beatles (Mylabris and Coryna spp), Flower thrips
(Megalurothrips and Frankimella spp.), Aphids (mainly Aphis crassivora), Leaf hoppers scale insects (Icerya
purchasi and Ceropastes spp). Mites (Tetranychus spp). Stem borers (Alcidodes spp.) and Termites (Microterms
and Odontotermes spp.)
Bruchid beetles are know to attack legume in the field before harvest. Pigeonpea seed gets infected in the field
by storage bruchids (Callosobruchus analis, C. rhodesianus and C. chinensis .
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More than 100 diseases attack pigeonpea even though a small number of them cause economic losses. They
include Fusarium wilt (Fusarium udum BUTLER), Cercospora leafspot (Mycovellosiella cajan RANGER ex.
TROTTER), powdery mildew (Leveillula taurica (LEVI.) SALMON and rust (Uredo cajani SYND.).
In 1983, the Kenyan program released NPP 670 short duration variety as well as Kioto and Muna medium/long
duration varieties. Kat 60/80 was released from KARI NDFR station, Katumani in the early 1990’s. Best
pigeonpea varieties now available in Kenya are NPP 670, Kat 60/8, ICPL 87091, ICPL 90028, ICPL 90029 and
87 W (short-duration varieties). Local varieties mature in 9-12 months. Pod maturity does not occur
simultaneously and harvesting has to be done two to three times. Dry pods are picked by hand, leaving the
immature ones on the plant. Harvest may also be done by cutting the pod-bearing tops. After harvest, the crop is
threshed by beating it with sticks. Once the grain is separated from pods, it is winnowed by hand-woven trays to
remove chaff. When the crop is harvested by cutting branches, these may be allowed to dry in the sun for a few
days before threshing. Until now, no efficient mechanical harvesting device exists for long-duration varieties
due to the large size of the plants, their variable maturity, the distribution of pods on the plant, and due to the
lack of suitable technology. Several successive harvests are possible in the right conditions. Yields of pigeonpea
in farmer’s field are usually very low. The grain yields for local varieties in traditional farming systems average
from 450-670 kg/ha in East Africa. However, those yields can rise up to 1,300 kg/ha by the use of improved
varieties, management of pests and diseases, reduced moisture and drought stresses, improved soil fertility,
improved agronomic practices and other socio-economic factors. Improved varieties in research field station can
produce more than 2,000 kg/ha.
Pigeonpea is mostly meant for home-consumption. Dry grains are usually stored in gunny bags, drums, earthen
pots or plastic containers. Ashes and chemicals (Actellic) are commonly used to protect the stored produce from
storage pests and fungal infection. Properly packed, the grain can be kept in reasonable conditions for up to five
years although there is loss of culinary quality.
Utilization and Nutritive Value
Pigeonpea has a wide range of uses, which vary with the environment and ecological zone in which the legume
is grown. Green plants may be used for grazing or harvested as fodder while the woody branches can be used
for firewood or as construction wood. The plant can also be used in soil conservation measures for improving
soil fertility or as windbreak. Green immature pods may be consumed as a vegetable although consumption of
dry grains is most common . The dry seed of pigeonpea typically contains 20-23% protein of moderate quality
(Table 1) with fair and low concentration of methionine, cystine and tryptophan. Time of cooking that may be a
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constraint in pulse and appreciation ranges from 18 to 60 minutes according to the variety, the season and the
maturity stage of grain. Average cooking time is 25 minutes.
For human consumption, the whole dry seed in Kenya is usually boiled with maize, sweet potatoes, bananas or
cassava or fried and eaten as a vegetable with maizemeal (‘ugali’). Green seeds are also cooked and eaten with
other foodstuffs in rural areas while in urban areas dhal (split and dehusked grain) is consumed by the Asian
community.
Table 1:
Average composition of whole pigeonpea dry seed.
Component
Dry grain
Green grain
Dhal
Moisture
10%
67.4%
-
Protein
21.3%
7%
23.1%
Soluble Carbohydrates
63.7%
20%
-
Fat
1.7%
0.6%
1.4%
Ash
4.1%
1.3%
3.6%
Fibers
-
3.5%
1.1% (crude fiber)
Starch
-
-
56.5%
Soluble sugars
-
-
4.8%
The consumption of pigeonpea in Kenya varies from place to place. In some parts of the country, pigeonpea is
not consumed at all either because it is not available or it is not a common food in these areas. The main
consumption areas of pigeonpea are Eastern, Coast and Central Provinces. Swahili people at the Coast Province
consume a lot of pigeonpea without growing it .
Marketing of Pigeonpea in Kenya:
From 1980 to 1991, the estimated land surface under pigeonpea in Kenya rose from 66,650 ha to 95,000 ha
while its production rose from 20,645 to 56,500 t showing some intensification of the production in ten years.
A great marketing potential exists for pigeonpea production although no organized marketing systems for this
crop has been really developed, possibly due to the fact that pigeonpea is considered as a minor crop as is
grown in ASAL compared to high value such as coffee, tea, maize, wheat and barley .However export markets
for this crop exists both as processed and unprocessed dry grain or as green pods . In Kenya in the past, the
official prices were set by quasi-government organizations as the National Cereals and Produce Board (NCPB).
6
Those official prices were usually lower than those offered in open-air markets. Most of the crop was then
handled by the informal markets (approximately 40,000t of the grain per annum).
Since pigeonpea was rescheduled in December 1990 (legal notice no 509) its prices are determined by the
forces of supply and demand. The main determining factors for demand are taste and preference, prices of the
commodity, substitutes and complementary commodities. Supply is determined by the price of the commodity,
costs and availability is dictated by factors of production, weather changes, climate, profit margin for alternative
crops that can be grown on the same land and market availability. Prices may also vary from region to region
depending on distance and accessibility to markets. The time of selling has an important influence on the prices.
Immediately after harvest prices are low because of the surplus available while they rise to very high levels just
before the planting season.
Shopkeepers and local markets are the principal market outlets for pigeonpea. Traders visit farmers’ farms
mostly during the harvest time. Those traders ensure transportation of the products because most of the farmers
encounter some problems for pigeonpea transportation to market. Farmers, especially women, sell small
quantities of dry pigeonpea in the local markets, particularly during market days. On these days, women often
carry some grain (this could be bean, pigeonpea, cowpea and even maize) in their basket to sell. They sell small
quantities in order to get some money to meet their needs, e.g. to buy salt, sugar, tealeaves among other items .
Exports of pigeonpea from Kenya in 1990 are presented in Table 2. Substantial export potential of the crop
exists, mostly in India, USA and Europe. Since a few years, green pigeonpea pods have emerged as a
commodity for export. The main market for this product is in Makindu and in Nairobi where exporters, mostly
Asians, buy it. The greatest potentiality may be to export pigeonpea production to the London market where it
will be re-exported to the Asian community of the Commonwealth. In Frankfurt and in North America, green
pigeonpea in now considered as a luxurious dish . The most appreciated products are large sized well green
pods like those of ICPL 87091 variety.
Main exporters in Kenya are NCPB and private traders. Export prices are determined by the world market
forces of demand and supply. In 1989/1990 these prices were about US$ 250/t in India and US$ 255/t in Cape
Verde. In 1991, NCPB exported 4900 t of pigeonpea to these two countries.
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Table 2:
Exports of Pigeonpea from Kenya by Private Traders in 1990.
Destination
Kg
India
19.821.233
Angola
237.185
UK
200.000
USA
115.360
Canada
100.000
Kuwait
24.000
Sudan
2000
Cameron
50
Aircraft and ship stores
73
Pigeonpea can be exported either as whole grain, dhal or as canned green pods . According to export data
earnings have been rising and since pigeonpea has attracted foreign markets, the ASAL of Kenya could be
developed at a faster rate to meet the increasing export demand.
The two main processor cum-exporters in the country are Kenya Millers and Kenya Spices Ltd, in Nairobi.
According to the estimations, Kenya exported, in 1991, about 5-t dhal and 1500 t of whole grain. The price
ranged from KSh. 3.00 to KSh. 6.00/kg .At the same time, four large-scale and 6 small-scale millers were
having adequate capacity to process and market additional pigeonpea produced in the country. Green peas were
not canned but marketing potential was also existing for this kind of product.
Millers prefer clean, medium large-sized grain for processing, irrespective of grain color. However, white grains
received premium prices in the export market. Milling of small-seeded types (8-12 g/100 seed mass) is not
considered as a handicap.
Diffusion and Adoption of improved technologies ( Transfer, Utilization and Impact of Improved
pigeonpea and practices):
Agriculture has for a long time been a dominant sector in Kenya in terms of output, employment, and foreign
exchange, and in ensuring food security to the nation. Thus, over the years, the Kenya government with
significant donor support has invested considerable resources to the development and transfer of improved
technologies. The development and transfer or dissemination of improved technologies such as improved crop
cultivars and improved disease and pest control practices, are widely recognized as effective ways of raising the
8
productivity of agriculture. It is also being increasingly realized that the favourable improved technologies,
especially in terms of raising the wellbeing of farmers, is often dependent on other factors such as input and out
marketing outlets.
Much of the past efforts in research on development and of technologies have focused on high value crops such
maize, coffee, tea and livestock enterprises such as dairy which are produced mainly in areas with high
agricultural potential. However, with the continued rise in population and the accompanied growth in demand
for food, a lot of attention is now being given to the need to improve the productivity of marginal areas, which
make up about 80% of the country.
Among the earlier attempts to draw attention to give serious consideration to the marginal areas can be traced to
the Sessional Paper Number 1 of 1981 on Food security (ROK, 1981) and the Sessional Paper Number 1 of
1986 on Economic Management for Renewed growth (ROK, 1986). The latter in particular stressed the fact that
scarce productive land is the reality of Kenya's agriculture and that increasing the productivity of the ASAL
areas, focusing on the development of drought resistant crops should be given more emphasis.
In recent years, importance of improving productivity of farmers in marginal areas is restated in the Agricultural
strategy paper (MoALDM, 1996) and also in the Eighth National Development plan (ROK, 1997). The latter, in
particular, recognizes the fact that farming communities in ASAL areas have increased significantly over the
years due to migration into these areas following sub-division of land in high potential areas. Thus, the policy
markers state that:
`The use of low cost and appropriate technical packages is [the] key to improved dryland
farming in ASAL areas--[and]-cultivation of drought resistant but high yielding crops will be
intensified paying more attention to sorghum, millet, pigeon peas, green grams and beans''
(ROK, 1997).
Both the national and international agencies involved in agricultural research, technology development and
transfer, such as the Kenya Agricultural research Institute (KARI), the ICRISAT and as well as IDRC in
collaboration with the University of Nairobi have also recognized the need for technologies to improve the
utilization of the ASAL land. Over the last the last decade or so, these research bodies among others have
invested substantial efforts in the development, evaluation and transfer of improved technologies for ASAL
areas. Among these, are technology packages aimed at improving the production of pigeon peas. These
packages range from improved varieties, such as NPP 670 developed at the UoN and popularly Known as
Katumani'', KAT60/8 ICPL87/W and improved agronomic and crop protection practices. However, in order for
these efforts to achieve the desired goal of raising productivity of ASAL's farming community and enhancing
9
food security in general, the diffusion and intensified utilization of the improved technology packages is crucial.
This calls for appropriate mechanisms for the evaluation and dissemination of the technologies to farmers and
wider adoption.
It is acknowledged that the MoALDM and to some limited extent various non-governmental organizations
(NGOs) have engaged in technology transfer in various ASAL districts, particularly distribution of seed
varieties. However, farmers in these areas still continue to realize poor yields and are food insecure, which
makes them perpetual recipients of relief food.
Just as research and technology development has in the past concentrated on technologies suited to high
potential areas, studies on technology transfer and adoption have also focused more in these areas. Very little
comprehensive research has been done in the area of technology transfer adoption, with emphasis on improved
crop cultivars suited to the ASAL areas, such as pigeon peas.
This work has to include women gender variable and, who cultivate the crop, as user perspectives influence the
effectiveness of technology transfer and adoptionThis project will be involved with the dissemination and
adoption of improved technologies in ASAL areas focusing on improved pigeonpea varieties in Taveta in
Kenya.
Onions
Onions are very important crop for income generation at family level. The crop performs well under both rainfed and irrigation cultivation. Irrigation is very important in ASAL as it helps non-arable areas become very
productive. However, if not managed well the irrigated soils can become very unproductive due to salinity. TC
soil conditioner is known to improve the productivity of soils suffering salinity.
This work will be initiated with the following objectives:(1) Initiate seed production focusing on improved pigeonpea cultivars at village level to ensure regular
supply of high quality planting seed thus establishing local markets for seed, which will economically
empower the farmers
(2) To improve food security at farm and village levels through enhanced production of pigeonpea using
improved seeds and production packages.
(3) To improve the water retention capacity of ASAL soils using TC soil conditioner.
(4) To reduce soil salinity in irrigated soils using TC soil conditioner.
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MATERIALS AND METHODS:
Three pigeonpea production technologies will be selected and include: 1. Short duration pigeonpea to be grown as a mono-crop
a) cv. ICPL 87091
b) cv. NPP 670
2. Medium duration pigeonpea to be grown as a monocrop
a) cv. Kat 60/8
b) cv. ICP 6927
c) cv. ICEAP 00068
After testing using TC soil conditioner, farmers will be trained separately according to technology to avoid
confusion in production packages. The training will cover land preparation; planting with great emphasis on
spacing as these new cultivars have very close spacing; weed control; insect pest control using pesticides as
well as using cultural control measures; harvesting; threshing and storage insect pest control.
On-farm Seed Production:
Availability of high quality seed in the ASAL is a major production constraint as seed companies neglect the
ASAL farmers needs due to their low buying power. This is also a major constraint. During PRA
(Participatory Rural Appraisal) the farmers will elect 6 pigeonpea seed producers each from one of the six
villages using the criteria to be provided by the PRA team. The selected farmers have to allow farms to be used
as demonstration plots; have access to spray pumps for control of insect pests and on harvesting sell the seed to
farmers participating in PRA at reasonable price. Each farmer will bulk one genotype. Seeds of cultivars namely
ICPL 87091, NPP 670, ICP 6927, ICEAP 00068 will be bulked. Each farmer will receive 10kg of seeds treated
with fungicide (benomyl).
All the six seed producers will be trained in seed production and provided with insecticide for control of pod
borers pod fly and pod sucking bugs. Their fields will be routinely inspected for off types and fusarium wilt and
will also be utilized as demonstration plots for other PRA farmers.
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BUDGET:
Items
Personnel
2002(Kshs)
2003(Kshs)
10,000x12 months =
10,000x12 months=
120,000
120,000
15,000x8 months =
15,000x8 months =
120,000
120,000
and 588,000
588,000
Regular labour
costs
Casual labour
Upkeep
accommodation
:3persons
Program
facilitation/ 21000x 8 months =
co-ordination.
21000x 8 months =
168,000.
168,000.
2. Land preparation
30,000
30,000
3. Transport
390,000
390,000
4. Farm inputs: seeds, fertilizers, 40,000
40,000
pesticides
5. Stationary + harvesting materials
20,000
20,000
6. Subtotal Kshs:
1,476,000
1,476,000
7. 15% Administration
221,400
221,400
8. Overall total (Kshs)
1,697,400
1,697,400
9. Overall total (US$)
22,044
22,044
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