Policy Gaps in addressing Household energy, Indoor air pollution and Health issues in India
Dr Uma Rajarathnam, Enzen Global Solutions Pvt Limited, 90, Hosur Road, Bangalore.
Introduction
Indoor air pollution due to solid fuel usage is one of the major environmental risk factors for ill
health in developing countries. In India a large population still continues to be dependent on
biomass energy, according to the Census of India 2001 about 70% of all households and 90%
rural households still continue to use fuel wood, cow dung cake and crop residue for cooking
while 56.4% do not have access to electricity (RGCC, 2001)
Combustion of solid fuels in traditional, low efficiency devices emits considerable quantities of
pollutants such as particulates, carbon monoxide (CO), polycyclic organic matter and
formaldehyde. In poorly ventilated households, concentrations of some of these pollutants are ten
to hundred times of health related standards/guidelines. The resulting health implications are
reported to be high among women and children. As per the reported burden of diseases estimate,
indoor air pollution is the third most important risk factor (next to poor water and sanitation and
malnutrition) of ill health and responsible for 17% of all deaths among children under five in
India (Smith KR, Mehta S, Feuz M. 2004).
Switching from solid unprocessed biomass fuels to more efficient clean fuels such as LPG and
biogas can reduce indoor air pollution levels substantially and improve health for many poor
people. However the switch towards cleaner fuel is taking in slow pace. In addition to the clean
fuel options, interventions such as improved cook stoves with high efficiency, improved
ventilation, behavioural change etc. can help in reducing the exposure to indoor air pollution
levels. Implementation /promotion of these interventions need to be supported through suitable
policies at national and local level. This paper review the existing national policies to address the
indoor air pollution issues in India and to identify the gaps in existing policies and to make
suitable recommendations/ strategies to address them.
Current status, trend and projected demand for household energy use in India
Traditional fuels, which are also known as non-commercial sources of energy are important
sources of energy especially in rural areas. It is estimated that about 90 % of the rural household
energy demand is met through non commercial fuels such as fuel wood, dung cake and crop
residues (Pandey 2002). These fuels dominate the domestic sector and are primarily used for
cooking.. In terms of quantity, biofuel consumption for cooking at national level during 2001
was about 379 million tonnes/year. Among various biofuels used for cooking in rural
households, share of fuelwood was relatively high; share of various biofuel was about
74:16:10%, respectively, of fuelwood, dung cake and crop waste, at a national level (Habib et al
2004).
With urbanization and economic development, people tend to move up in energy ladder. However
the shift is more in urban areas. As shown in the Table 1.1, LPG usage in urban areas has increased
from 26.9% in 1991 to 48% in 2001. However in rural areas the decline in use of solid biomass fuels
(Firewood, crop residues and dung cake) is marginal. Yet with the population growth, the actual
number of households using solid fuels have gone up from 101.8 million in 1991 to 124.4 in 2001
(RGCC, 2001).
Table 1. Percentage of households by primary fuel for cooking
Type of fuel
Firewood
Crop residue
Dung cake
LPG
Kerosene
Coal, lignite, charcoal
Any other
Biogas
No cooking
Electricity
Rural
1991
71.7
Urban
1991
32.7
2001
64.1
13.1
12.8
5.7
1.6
1.1
0.8
0.5
0.2
0.1
19.6
1.2
1.3
2.0
3.6
0.4
0.2
3.5
26.9
23.6
10.7
1.0
0.7
0.7
2001
22.7
2.1
2.1
48.0
19.2
4.6
0.2
0.3
0.6
0.3
Source: RGCC (2001, 1991)
Table 2 shows the likely changes in demand patterns for fuels used for household consumption
in India. Projected energy demand shows considerable increase in LPG demand for household
cooking. However there is no decrease in fuelwood demand.
Table 2. Projected energy demand for household consumption in India (in MTOE)
Year
Growth
rate
2000
2006
Firewood&chips
7%
8%
Electricity
7%
8%
Dungcake
7%
8%
Kerosene
7%
8%
74.58
88.46
12.13
17.10
19.95
36.55
9.56
12.58
74.58
88.64
12.13
18.17
19.95
36.97
9.56
12.68
Quantity by MTOE
LPG
7%
8%
7.08
14.86
7.08
15.85
2011
2016
2021
2026
2031
87.81
92.31
96.10
99.04
101.36
87.90
92.59
96.85
100.01
102.08
28.68
38.50
49.65
60.95
70.78
31.13
42.58
54.89
66.19
74.82
30.67
32.58
32.62
31.34
30.12
31.03
32.21
31.45
30.00
29.14
13.17
13.98
14.29
14.23
14.06
13.18
13.82
13.98
13.88
13.76
23.12
31.28
39.35
46.20
51.16
25.27
34.30
42.45
48.55
52.49
Source: Planning commission, 2005
Environmental and health implications of solid fuel usage
Combustion of solid biomass fuels in low efficient cookstoves releases significant amount of fuel
carbon as product of incomplete combustion that includes particulate matter, carbon monoxide and
volatile organic chemicals. Figure 1 shows the thermal efficiency and CO and particulate emissions
of solid fuels and clean fuels. When people move up in the energy ladder (from dung- crop-woodkerosene-Gaseous fuel), efficiency increases with emission reduction.
Figure 1. Thermal efficiency and emission levels of particulates and carbon monoxide from solid
60
140
50
120
100
40
80
30
60
20
40
10
20
0
0
Dung
Crop
residue
T hermal efficiency
Wood kerosene
CO Emissions per meal (g/MJ-d)
LPG
Biogas
CO and particulate emission
per meal (g/MJ-d)
Thermal efficiency (%)
biomass fuels, kerosene and gaseous fuels
Particulates emission
Source: Adopted from Smith Uma et al 2000
In addition to local impacts due to emissions of health damaging pollutants, emissions from solid
fuels can contribute to global warming due to emissions of non-CO2 greenhouse gases such as
methane and N2O, which are product of incomplete combustion (PIC) (Smith Zhang et al 2000).
Recent studies have reported that a large fraction of particulates emitted from solid biofuels are
of black carbon that could add to global warming (Venkataraman, Habib et al. 2005).
In poorly ventilated households, concentrations of some of the pollutants are ten to hundred
times of health related standards/guidelines. Most of the studies on indoor air pollution done in
the past were focusing on two major pollutants namely particulates and carbon monoxide (CO).
Summary of reported concentration and exposure levels of particulates from selected studies
carried out in India is shown in Table 3.
Table 3 Concentration of particulates as reported in recent studies in India
Place
Fuel
Concentration
of particulates
(ug/m3)
4500
400-520
2860
1370
3470
2630
1190
520
500
500
Garhwal (Hilly area)
Urban slums
Urban poor household
Delhi
Ahmedabad
Rural Tamilnadu
Wood
Biomass
Biomass
wood
Cattle dung
wood
Coal
Kerosene
Gas
Wood
Andrapradesh
Agricultural waste 2000
Biomass
325-850
RSP
RSP
Haryana
Biomass
RSP
4500
TSP/RSP
Reference
TSP
RSP
RSP
RSP
TSP
TSP
TSP
TSP
TSP
RSP
Saksena et al. 1992
Smith 1996
Smith 1996
Saksena et al, 2003
Raiyani et al., 1993
Balakrishnan et al,
2002
Balakrishnan et al,
2004
TERI, 2002
Above table shows that the levels of particulate matter are alarmingly high when compare to 50
g/m3 of 24-h mean air quality guidelines recommended by the World Health Organization
(WHO 2005). Exposures to such high levels of indoor air pollution have serious consequences
for health, particularly among women and children as they spend more time in indoor
environment.
Health effects of indoor air pollution
Though epidemiological studies linking health impacts of indoor air pollution carried out in India
are limited by number, considerable numbers of studies from other developing countries have
reported health risk of exposure to indoor air pollution. More than a dozen studies reported the
relative risk of exposure to indoor air pollution with Acute Lower Respiratory Infection (ALRI):
Pneumonia in young children and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in adult women. Few
published studies reported significant impacts of use of solid fuels on tuberculosis and cataracts.
Exposure to pollutant in biomass smoke can be linked to low birth weight and adverse pregnancy
outcomes. The major diseases associated with solid fuel usage and summary of the evidences are
shown in Table 4.
Table 4: Health effects of the use of solid household fuels in developing countries
Health Outcome
Acute lower
respiratory
infections (ALRI)
Chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease
(COPD)
Blindness
(cataracts)
Lung cancer
(coal only)
Population
affected
Relative risk (95%
confidence interval)
Strength of
evidence
2.3 (1.9, 2.7)
<5 years
Females >15
years
Strong
3.2 (2.3, 4.8)
Females >15
1.3 – 1.6*
years
Females >15
1.9 (1.1, 3.5)
years
Females >15
1.5 – 3.0 *
Tuberculosis
years
* - Range of results in published studies
Source: Smith et al 2004
Strong
Intermediate/
moderate
Strong
Intermediate/
moderate
According to the reported burden of diseases estimate, indoor air pollution is the third most
important risk factor (next to poor water and sanitation and malnutrition) of ill health and
responsible for 17% of all deaths among children under five in India (Smith KR, Mehta S, Feuz
M. 2004). Considering the impact it is important to take action to alleviate the adverse health
impacts of indoor air pollution.
Role of key stakeholders in policy formulation process to address indoor air pollution
issues in India
Indoor air pollution is a multi-dimensional problem. Many agencies including ministries in the
state and central government, planning commission, Research Institutes, Non Governmental
Organisations (NGOs), multinational organizations and other donor agencies are involved in
managing household energy, indoor air pollution and health issues in India.
The planning commission established by the government of India in 1950 is responsible for
assessment of all resources of the country and preparation of development plans for the most
effective and balanced utilisation of resources and determining priorities. However agreement to
the plan is the responsibility of the Prime minister and Chief Minister of the States, meeting in
the committee. Ministry of Finance allocates funds to various ministries to support /implement
various development plans. The Energy Policy Unit in the Planning Commission studies and
analyses the inter-sectoral issues on energy. They coordinate with various ministries, local
authorities and NGO’s to integrate their views in preparing development plans and allocation of
funds to various ministries.
Indoor air pollution issues have linkages with various sectors namely health, environment, rural
development, renewable energy sources, housing, poverty alleviation, oil and natural gas,
women and child development; hence addressing indoor air pollution issues cut across several
ministries. Table summarises role of various ministries involved in addressing indoor air
pollution issues in India.
Table 5 Role of various ministries involved in addressing indoor air pollution issues in India
Ministry
Ministry of Health and Family Welfare
(MoHFW)
Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF)
Ministry of New and Renewable Energy
(MNRE)
Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas
(MoPNG)
Role
Nodal agency dealing with health related issues.
Sponsored few research on health risk assessment of
indoor air pollution
Responsible for implementation of policies and
programmes relating to conservation of Forests, wildlife;
afforestation and regeneration of degraded area;
prevention and control of pollution and protection of the
environment.
Support research, design, development, demonstration,
commercialization and deployment of new and renewable
energy systems. Ministry has implemented three major
programme namely Biogas development, National
Programme on Improved Chulhas (NPIC) and Integrated
Rural Energy Programme (IREP) for meeting the rural
energy needs, particularly cooking energy.
Responsible for production, supply, distribution,
marketing and pricing of petroleum products
Ministry of Rural Development (MoRD)
Ministry of Women and Child Development
(MoWCD)
The ministry is promoting panchayat raj institutions as an
effective forum for decentralized planning, formulation
and implementation of rural development programmes.
The MoWCD supports several programmes such as
training for employment and income generation,
awareness generation and gender sensitization which are
directed toward empowerment of women.
While all ministries have some policies/initiatives to address indoor air pollution issues directly
or indirectly, integrated approach/coordination between various ministries is still missing.
Analysis of existing Government policies to address indoor air pollution issues in India
A wide range of interventions can help in reducing indoor air pollution. These interventions can
be grouped under four major categories namely
(i) Shifting to clean fuels particularly LPG
(ii) Technical interventions such as improved stoves, Biogas, Biomass gasification
(iii) Improved ventilation though use of hood and building design
(iv) Behavioral change.
Suitable policy measures are required to promote these interventions.
Shifting to clean fuels:
Switching from solid unprocessed biomass fuels to more efficient clean fuels such as LPG,
biogas, kerosene and electricity can reduce indoor air pollution levels substantially and improve
health for many poor people. Compare to other clean fuels, electricity for cooking is expensive
and also access to electricity is uneven. About 57% of rural households and 12% of the urban
households (total of around 84 million households) in India remain unelectrified in 2000 (UNDP
2004). Even in the electrified villages, erratic power supply is a problem. Hence use of
electricity is not widely accepted option for cooking.
Cooking with LPG is convenient and also produces less emission. It has been reported that if a
household shift from crop residues to LPG, indoor air pollution levels could be reduced by 95%
(Smith, Zhang, Uma et al 2000). Recent cost effective analysis done by WHO reveals that by
providing LPG, biogas or modern biofuels to 100 million homes would reduce the exposure
levels of harmful indoor air pollution levels among 473 million people and save 282 000 pre
mature deaths due to respiratory diseases per year (WHO 2006).
The Government of India has taken several measures to encourage the use of LPG and kerosene
to meet household energy needs. Liberalisation of LPG market improved the availability of LPG
and kerosene. Till early 90’s, the supply of LPG was limited, as a result very few households
used LPG for cooking. Waiting list to get a new LPG connection was long; some times it took
one or two years to get a LPG connection. In 1993, the government liberalized the LPG market
by allowing the private markets to sell LPG and kerosene at market price. Retailers have been
authorised to sell imported LPG, while the custom duty has been reduced in a phased manner.
Public sector under takings (PSUs) have taken measures to increase the availability in rural
areas. Extension counters were opened in rural areas. As a result, the number of LPG
connections increased from 18.1 million in 1992 to 79.6 million by 2004 (Teddy 2004/2005).
Subsidy on LPG and kerosene is another important measure to promote the clean fuels for
cooking. The subsidy on LPG is universal and not restricted to poor or low-income group. Also
the subsidy is not restricted to number of connections per household. The distribution of
connection and consumption of LPG between the poor and rich and between rural and urban
suggest that urban middle and high income category enjoy the maximum benefit of subsidy.
Analysis carried out by TERI indicates that 76% of LPG subsidy goes to urban areas with 25%
of population, and that too among top 27% of households (TERI 2005). The LPG and kerosene
subsidy imposes high opportunity costs. For example, the central governments total bill for
subsidies to kerosene and LPG together for the year 2002-03 was about Rs 63 billion, which was
higher than the budget allocation by the government for primary education and allocation for
rural employment programmes.
Despite the fuel subsidy, poor often have difficulties to access LPG because of the high initial
cost. In order to help overcome this barrier, the state government of Andra Pradesh (AP)
launched the Deepam Scheme in July 1999. In this scheme, the government pays the LPG
connection fee for women who belong to self-help groups and whose households are classified as
Below Poverty Line (BPL) indicated by the possession of white ration cards. The Deepam
scheme differs from traditional fuel subsidy in two respects (i) It is targeted for poor and (ii) it is
one time capital subsidy in that it subsidizes LPG connection fee rather than the operating cost –
the purchase of fuel itself by providing a price subsidy. Evaluation of the Deepam scheme
revealed that though it helped in greater penetration, it couldn’t eliminate the biomass or
kerosene usage completely. It suggests that the usage of LPG is strongly income elastic at low
income levels. As far as free or biomass is available, households will continue to use traditional
fuels. In addition, implementation bottlenecks such as limited choice, inability of suppliers to
supply equipments on time, co-ordination problems at local level contributed to dissatisfaction
among the recipients. (World Bank 2003).
Kerosene subsidy
Till early ‘90s, kerosene was supplied through public distribution system (PDS) only and the cost
was subsidized. In 1993, the government allowed private firms to import and sell kerosene
however the price is higher than those being sold through PDS. In 1999 –2000, 61 percent of
rural households purchased kerosene from PDS only and 20 percent holds depend on kerosene
sold through private markets, whereas 19% of households bought kerosene from PDS and
market. Where as in urban areas, 46% of households relied only on PDS and 32% of households
bought kerosene only from markets and 22% households used both PDS and market for kerosene
(Gangopadhayay et al 2004). Kerosene in rural areas is primarily used as a fuel for lighting,
whereas in urban areas its primary use is for cooking. Numbers of reports suggest that kerosene
subsidy is misused by way of illegal diversions. The diverted supply could be for household use
(at higher prices than the subsidy price) or for adulteration in transport sector mainly for diesel. It
has been reported that the diversion in kerosene supply could be as high as 50% (UNDP/ESMAP
2003).
Considering the misuse of subsidy and heavy burden on the Government’s expenditure, it is time
to reconsider the existing subsidy scheme. It has been suggested to revise the existing subsidy
scheme by targeting the subsidy for lower economic strata. For this, coupon or smart card based
subsidy with efficient administrative scheme could be explored. (TERI 2005, Planning
commission 2006). As a long term policy recommendation, complete electrification of rural
households and elimination of kerosene subsidy will provide a way to switchover to LPG.
Improved technologies
Historically, the renewable energy program in the country can be traced back to late 1940’s
involving biogas plants and improved cook stoves programs, but system-wise it was the oil-
shock of 1973 that institutionalized the drive for renewable energy. To provide focused attention
to the development of renewable a separate DNES (Department of Non-conventional Energy
Sources) was set up in 1982, which a decade later culminated into a full-fledged MNES
(Ministry of Non-conventional Energy Sources) in 1992. Recently it has been renamed as the
Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE).
In a little over two decades since its institutional inception, India’s renewable energy program
has become one of the largest in the world. The MNRE today offers the legal, financial and
administrative framework for promotion and investment for a range of environmentally benign
renewable energy technologies (RETs) be it biomass, solar, wind or water. The potential of
various technologies implemented and the achievement is given in Table 6.
Table 6 Potential and achievement of renewable energy devices
Source/Technology
Potential
Cumulative
India’s position in
achievement
the world
As on 31.03.2005
Biogas plants
12 million
3.7 million
II
Improved Chulhas
120 million 35.2 million
II
Biomass gasifiers
-----66.23 MW
I
Solar PV
20 MW/sq
264 MW
V
km
Solar water heating
1,40 million 1 million
--sq. m
collector area
collector
area
Wind pumps (water
-----1015
--pumping)
Solar PV pumps
------6818
-----(water pumping)
Source: Website:http://mnes.nic.in
The important government programmes addressing the energy conservation and indoor air
pollution are the National programme for improved Chulhas (NPIC), National Project on Biogas
Development (NPBD) and the solar energy programme. The National programme for improved
Chulhas (NPIC) was introduced in 1986-87 and as per the coverage; it is second largest in the
world after that of China. Under this program about 35 million improved cookstoves were
disseminated through state nodal agencies and NGOs. However, with just about 25% of the
potential population covered by the NPIC in about two decades of operation and with mud IC’s
having a life span of 5-8 years considerable challenges remain in scaling up of these
technologies. The current IC dissemination rate of 1.7 million /year, as per project achievements,
would require another 48 years to cover the remaining potential population. Another setback is
since 2002, central government discontinued its support but directed state government to
continue the program. As a result many technical backup units were closed. Only few states are
taking up actively. Considering the two decades of implementation it is worth reviewing the
experience of government supported NPIC programme. Following table compares the
international experience with the Indian NPIC programme.
Table 7 Characteristics of the NPIC (National Programme on Improved Chulhas) compared to
international experience
International practices in stove
dissemination
There is focus on need-based users
NPIC practices
There is a target-based approach; stress on number of
villages to be covered rather than number of
households. Demand for chulhas is not taken into
consideration
There is minimal subsidy for the stove
Subsidy on chulha accounts for the largest share
from government or donors
(50%) of government support. Users may be willing
to pay more for better chulhas
There is maximum support for R&D
The programme funds technical back-up units, but
(research and development), production
funds R&D and NGOs inadequately. Support for
and distribution of stoves, credit, capacity capacity building and awareness generation is also
building, and public awareness
insufficient.
There is close interaction between
There is adequate interaction between producer and
designers, producers, and users of stoves user, but negligible between designer, producer and
user
There is a dependence on centralised
For fixed chulhas, there is no scope of centralised
production of stoves and its parts to reach production as these are built at user’s homes. There
more people, because cost of production
is mass production of chuha parts (chimney, cowl,
is less.
etc.) undertaken by private manufacturers, but no
mass production of firebox is in existence.
There is onus on the producers and
Consumer needs met by self employed
designers to meet the needs of consumers workers/NGOs through changes in chulha design,
low inputs from designers
There is provision for long term funding
There is long term target based funding by the
government, routed through nodal agencies and
disbursed through NGOs for implementation
Source: Fire without Smoke, Learning from the National Programme on Improved Chulhas, TERI publication,
2004
The Government of India’s decision in 2002 to transfer the responsibility of NPIC to states
provides both a risk and opportunity for developing new state level programmes based on the
lessons learnt. Efforts towards commercialization of cookstoves have to be taken up for large
scale dissemination of the stoves to be adopted by rural households. The government could also
consider on setting technical standards, providing credit facilities and encourage promotional
support to chulha manufacturers. Need to reorient the collaboration between designers,
manufactures and consumers. Innovative approaches are required to promote improved chulhas.
One such approach is to emphasize health benefits to convince the non users. Effective
communication and awareness creation program will help in this regard. Coordination of
information on Chulhas and capacity building activities should be strengthened at national level.
Based on the past experiences (both problems and achievements) active measures need to be
taken to revive this programme. In addition to the Government’s role, NGOs and international
organization play an important role in promoting improved cookstoves (Box ).
Commercialization approach: Way to promote improved cookstoves on sustainable
manner
Shell foundation in partnership with USEPA’s initiative on Clean Indoor Air awarded pilot
grants to two non governmental agencies namely Development Alternatives and
Appropriate Rural Technology Institute (ARTI) to promote reliable, affordable and efficient
improved cookstoves and compact biogas systems that reduce people’s exposure to indoor
air pollution by adopting ‘part-commercialized’, market-driven approach. This involve
multi-disciplinary stakeholders in implementing a social marketing campaign, access to
micro-credit through self help groups, promotion of micro-enterprises for decentralized
production of improved technologies and awareness creation for large scale promotion.
During the pilot programme, ARTI sold about 80,000 improved stoves in the state of
Maharashtra and DA sold 1500 improved stoves during 2005. Both these agencies plan to
sell about one million improved cookstoves each in next five to seven years (Source:
http://www.shellfoundation.org; http://www.pciaonline.org/about.cfm).
Government of India has promoted biogas plant through National Project on Biogas
Development (NPBD). In spite of subsidy the biogas programme has gained limited success.
Affordability, Lacunae in implementation strategy and technical barriers are some of reasons for
the limited success of this programme.
Improved Ventilation
Improved ventilation arrangements in households through hoods, adding windows and creating
gaps between the top of the wall and roof can help in eliminating the smoke, their by reducing
the exposure levels to indoor air pollution. In India very few households have this practice.
However there is no policy initiative to promote such intervention.
Behavioral Change
Promotion of behavioral changes is one of the effective interventions to reduce exposure levels.
For example use, keeping the children away from stove during cooking, reducing the time spent
near fire, placement of stove in a better ventilated place and use of dry fuels for cooking can
reduce the pollution/smoke levels. Awareness creation and educating rural people about the
benefits of behavioral changes can help in promoting them.
Recommendations
Addressing indoor air pollution in India would mean making clean fuels and better technologies
more popular in rural areas. Recommendations for dealing with this issue are:

Need for an integrated policy: Effective strategies to reduce the burden of indoor air
pollution require commitments from different sectors. Though different ministries aim to
address the issue, their efforts stand isolated. There is a need for integrated approach and
policy to manage this issue.

Increase in supply of modern fuels such as electricity, LPG, etc. in rural areas: Supply of
LPG in rural areas should be augmented through increase in lability of modern energyusing devices such as electrical appliances, gas stoves, etc. in rural markets, which can be
done through: Development of means of transportation and communication in rural areas
and establishment of better distribution channels for modern fuels in rural areas

Provision for targeted government subsidies: Considering the merits of LPG in reducing
indoor air pollution levels, their usage needs to be promoted in large scale, particularly in
the rural areas. The demand for LPG is found to be low due to low purchasing power of
rural people. Thus providing government subsidies, that reduce the market price of the
commodity, would imply increase in demand for modern fuels in rural areas. Though the
LPG price subsidy exists in India, it benefits more of urban and high income categories.
Considering the Government’s huge expenditure on subsidy and its beneficiaries, there is
a case for targeting the subsidy for poor. Smart card or coupon based delivery mechanism
can be used to effectively target the LPG subsidy.

Given the fact that kerosene subsidy is not reaching the targeted end users and diverted
towards adulteration, Government should consider elimination of kerosene subsidy with
other policies to support lighting needs of poor. Provision of subsidy for solar lantern as a
short term policy and on the long term expansion of rural electrification net work will help
in meeting this goal.

Promotion of improved Chulhas, biogas plants, etc: The use of such devices would ensure
that the traditional fuels such as fuelwood, crop residue, etc. are utilized optimally.
Innovative approaches are required to promote improved chulhas.

Better awareness creation is required to promote these interventions.
Refernces
1. Annual Report, 2004-2005, Ministry of Non- Conventional Energy Resources.
2. Registrar General, Census of India, 2001. Houses, household amenities and assets: India, States
and Union Territories – 2001 Census, Office of the Registrar General, Census of India,
Government of India, New Delhi, available at
www.censusindia.net/2001housing/housing_tables_main.html
3. D’Sa, Antonette and K V Narasimha Murthy (2004) “PLG as a cooking fuel option for India”,
International Energy Initiative, (http://ieiglobal.org/ESDVol8No3/LPGindia.pdf)
4. Eva Rehfuess. Fuel for Life: Household Energy and Health. Geneva, World Health
Organization, 2006
5. Fire without Smoke, Learnings from the National Programme on Improved Chulhas, TERI
publication, 2004
6. Gangopadhyay, Shubhashis; Bharat Ramaswami and Wilma Wadhwa (2004), “Reducing
subsidies on Household Fuels in India: How Will it Affect the Poor?”
7. Habib,G., Venkataraman,C., Shrivastava, M., Banarjee, R., Stehr, J.W and Dickerson, New
methodology for estimating biofuel consumption for cooking: Atmospheric emissions of black
carbon and sulphurdioxide from India, Global Biogeochemical Cycles, Vol 18, 2004.
8. Kirk R. Smith, Jamesine Rogers, and Shannon C. Cowlin. Household Fuels and I11- Health in
Developing Countries: What improvements can be brought by LP Gas?United Kingdom,
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