LINGUISTICS 482
Schiffrin
APPROACHES TO DISCOURSE
OVERVIEW OF COURSE
The study of language in text and context is known in Linguistics as "discourse analysis." This course
provides an introduction to eight different approaches to discourse analysis, that have developed from
disciplines as varied as Linguistics, Sociology, Anthropology, Critical Theory, and Philosophy. In addition
to learning about the origins of each approach (what data or problems motivated the approach?), current
theories (how are explanations constructed?) and a range of methods (what's counting, coding,
interpreting?) we will test out each approach to see what kinds of solutions it can offer for the study of
some of the key issues in this field: how do we refer to things? how do we tell stories? how do we organize
conversation? how do we ask and answer questions? how do we get people to do other things for us? how
do we use language to construct our identities? Course format includes lecture, but also allows ample time
for discussion and application of approaches to data (some provided by instructor, some collected by
students). Grading will be based on short assignments, a final project (or take-home exam) and class
participation.
COURSE REQUIREMENTS
(1) tape about 10- 15 minutes of a conversation or other kind of oral discourse;
pick a section (about 3- 5 minutes) to transcribe
(2) recipe for a main dish (last names A-G), salad or veg (H-R) or dessert (S- Z)
(3) exchange from a newspaper advice column (e.g. Dear Abby, Tell me about it)
(4) a brief written text of an “identifiable type” (e.g. a menu, a product label)
DATA
READINGS
Discourse analysis includes the term "analysis" for a reason: it provides methods for examining, taking
apart, and making sense of language in text and context. The linguist Barbara Johnstone notes that
“Discourse analysis is practiced in one way or another by at least some people in most of the academic
disciplines in which human life is the focus: anthropologists…, communications scholars, rhetoricians,
literary and cultural critics, sociologists, psychologists, geographers, and medical, legal, and educational
researchers, among others.” Learning how to analyze discourse, then, is important not just for linguists, but
also for many other people who depend on language in their everyday lives.
The READINGS for the class will reflect the importance of analytical methods as well as the findings of such
analyses. The main reading is my 1994 book Approaches to Discourse (Blackwell). We will also read
some chapters from the (in progress) second edition. Other articles and book chapters will supplement the
book. These materials will be on e-reserve and/or posted on Blackboard (as noted below with the reading
assignments). We will briefly review and discuss readings in class: you will be expected to bring them to
class, so that we can refer to the texts if necessary. Most discussion will focus on what the readings tell us
about the topic of interest, how they continue (or alter) previous work, and how to use the ideas and ‘tools’
to analyze discourse. You will also need to find two articles to critique. (I’ll provide suggestions.)
CLASS STRUCTURE
This is a mid-sized class (large for a graduate class, medium for an undergraduate class) with roughly 4
groups of students: (1) PhD students specializing in sociolinguistics, applied linguistics or theoretical
linguistics; (2) Master’s students in Language and Communication; (3) undergrads who are majors in
Linguistics and (4) others (different majors, continuing ED students).
Mondays will be devoted largely to lectures with some class discussion. I will introduce an approach with
some preliminary illustrations of how it works. Both lecture and discussion will be at a level that everyone
can follow and hopefully learn something from!
Wednesdays will focus on using the tools learned through the readings and through Monday’s lectures. We
will break up into smaller groups to work on exercises from the Chapters in Approaches and/or analyze
data (either that I give out or data from the class corpus).
It will be useful for you to work in class in two kinds of groups: one with your academic cohort (PhD
together, MLC together, etc.) and the other across your levels. Each arrangement has advantages: with your
peers, you share some common knowledge and can move on from that; with those from different levels,
you can be challenged by those above and below your own level (on the latter, it’s often very hard to
convey complex ideas in terms understandable to all…). I’ll put you into these groups.
GRADING
Grades are based on (1) transcription; (2) take-home exercises (to be chosen from 8 options throughout the
semester, length 2-3 pp.); (3) brief ‘response’ paper to 2 research articles, length 2- 3 pp.); (4) final takehome exam (or independent project); (5) and class participation. Late assignments lose half of their
points! Here is a breakdown of points per activity:
Data (and transcript)
Take-home exercises
‘Response’ to 2 extra articles*
PhD, MLC
Undergrad/other
5 points
10 points
50 pts (do 5; 10 pts. each) 44 pts (do 4, 11 pts. each)
10 pts (5 each)
10 pts (5 each)
Take-home exam or project
Class and “work group” participation
30 points
5 points
30 points
6 points
*In (2-3) pages, you will report on the following: What was the problem addressed? What methods were
used? What were the findings? What (if anything) would you do differently? What might you do next as a
follow-up?
SCHEDULE (tentative)
Chapters from the current edition of Approaches will be noted as 94; those from the ‘in progress’ new
edition will be noted as new. The location of other readings will also be noted. Occasionally I will note
which readings are most pertinent to which students.
INTRODUCTION, AUGUST 30
LANGUAGE, LINGUISTICS AND DISCOURSE
September 6
Read
-Chapter 1/new, “Language and Linguistics’ [Blackboard]
-OPTIONAL READING, ESPECIALLY RECOMMENDED FOR PHD STUDENTS Chapter 2/94
Do
tape a brief conversation; review Appendix 1 in Approaches/94 [Blackboard]
WHY DISCOURSE?
September 11
Read
-Chapter 2/new “Language in text and context” [Blackboard]
-Chapter 3/new “Discourse: Early data and analysis” [Blackboard]
September 13
Do
We will discuss transcription systems in class.
Review Appendix 2 in Approaches/94 [on Blackboard].
Bring the following to class:
- the section of the conversation (tape recorded) you’ve chosen to transcribe
- 2 copies of your written data (recipe, advice column, other). I will collect one and
assemble them for an in-class data packet
OVERVIEW OF DIFFERENT APPROACHES
September 18
Read
-Approaches, Chapter 4/new “Different approaches to one example” [Blackboard]
-Approaches, Chapter 5/new “Concepts, tools and comparisons” [Blackboard]
September 20
Due
Finish transcript, bring it to class; post on Blackboard (‘course documents’)
PRAGMATICS
September 25
Read
-Approaches, Chapter 6/94 “Pragmatics”
-Ochs Keenan, E. (1972) The universality of conversational postulates, Language in
Society [e-reserve, Blackboard]
OPTIONAL READING, ESPECIALLY RECOMMENDED FOR PHD STUDENTS
-Schiffrin (2006) Chapter 4 “Reactive and proactive prototypes,”
from In other words (Cambridge) [Blackboard, e-reserve]
- Leech, G. (1983) Chapters 1-2, "Introduction" and "A set of postulates." Principles of
Pragmatics. London: Longman. pp. 1-45. [e-reserve]
September 27
-discuss application of Pragmatics to reference
PRAGMATICS/SPEECH ACT THEORY
October 2
Due
Exercise 1, Pragmatics
October 4
Read -Approaches, Chapter 3/94 “Speech act theory”
OPTIONAL READING, ESPECIALLY RECOMMENDEDFOR PHD STUDENTS
SPEECH ACT THEORY
October 9
No school, Columbus Day
October 11
Read
OPTIONAL READING
-Lakoff, R. (2001) “Nine ways of looking at apologies” In Schiffrin et. al.
(Eds.) Handbook of Discourse Analysis, Blackwell. [e-reserve, Blackboard
OPTIONAL, ESPECIALLY RECOMMENDEDFOR PHD STUDENTS
Searle, John R. Speech Acts. Chapters 1-3, "Methods and Scope," "Expressions,Meaning
and Speech Acts," "The Structure of Illocutionary Acts." pp. 3-71. [e-reserve]
Due
Exercise 2, Speech Act Theory
NARRATIVE ANALYSIS/CONVERSATION ANALYSIS
October 16
Read
-Labov, W. (1972) The transformation of experience in narrative syntax. In Language in the Inner
City. Philadelphia: U PA Press, 354–96. [e-reserve]
- Mishler, E. (1995) Models of narrative analysis Journal of Narrative and Life Story [e-reserve]
OPTIONAL READING
- Narrative as self portrait: The sociolinguistic construction of identity. Lg in Society 25: 2 [ereserve]
October 18
Read
-Ochs, E. and L. Capps (2001), Chapter 1, Living Narrative (Harvard U Press) Chapter 1
[e-reserve]
- Jefferson, G. (1978) Sequential aspects of storytelling in conversation. In J. Schenkein (ed.),
Studies in the Organization of Conversational Interaction. New York: Free Press, 219–48. [e-
reserve]
Due
Optional “response paper” on article on Narrative (TBA) or Exercise 3, Narrative
CONVERSATION ANALYSIS
October 23
Read
- Approaches, Chapter 10/new “Conversation Analysis”
OPTIONAL READING, ESPECIALLY RECOMMENDED FOR PHD STUDENTS
-Approaches, Chapter 7/94
-Sacks, H., Schegloff, E. and Jefferson, G. (1974) A simplest systematics for the organization of
turn-taking in conversation. Language, 50: 696–735. [e-reserve];
-Download and read one article from either Schegloff or Jefferson
(http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/soc/faculty/schegloff/pubs/index.php)
http://www.liso.ucsb.edu/Jefferson
October 25
Due
Optional response paper on another CA article (TBA)
or Exercise 4, Conversation Analysis
INTERACTIONAL SOCIOLINGUISTICS
October 30
Read
- Approaches, Chapter 4/94 “Interactional Sociolinguistics”
- Gumperz, J. (1982) . Chapter 2, "The Sociolinguistics of Interpersonal
Communication." pp. 9-37. In Discourse Strategies (Cambridge U Press)
- Tannen, D. "Oral and Literate Strategies in Spoken and Written Narratives."
Language 58(1982):1-21. [e-reserve]
November 1
Do
Bring conversational data packet to class
INTERACTIONAL SOCIOLINGUISTICS/VARIATION ANALYSIS
November 6
Read
-Approaches, Chapter 8/94 “Variation Analysis”
Due
Optional response paper on another Interactional Sociolinguistics article (TBA)
or Exercise 5, Interactional Sociolinguistics
November 8
-Schiffrin (1985) Multiple constraints on discourse options: A Quantitative analysis of
causal sequences. Discourse Processes 8 (3), pp. 281-303 [e-reserve]
OPTIONAL, ESPECIALLY RECOMMENDED FOR PHD STUDENTS
-Schiffrin (2006) Chapter 1:Variation”; Chapter 5 “Referring sequences,” from In other words
(Cambridge) [Blackboard]
VARIATION ANALYSIS/ETHNOGRAPHY OF COMMUNICATION
November 13
Due
Exercise 6, Variation analysis
Read
-Chapter 12/new “Ethnography of Communication” [Blackboard, e-reserve]
November 15
Read
-Philips (1972), "Warm Springs 'Indian Time': How the Regulation of Participation Affects the
Progression of Events." pp. 92-109. in Explorations in the Ethnography of Speaking [e-reserve]
OPTIONAL, ESPECIALLY RECOMMENDED FOR PHD STUDENTS
-Hymes “What is ethnography?” [e-reserve]
ETHNOGRAPHY OF COMMUNICATION/CRITICAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
November 20
Due
Exercise 7, on Ethnography
Read
-Schiffrin (2005) “Discourse” in P. Trudgill and N. Dittmar (eds), Handbook of Sociolinguistics,
(Mouton) [Blackboard]
November 22
Read
- van Dijk (2001) “Critical Discourse Analysis” In Schiffrin et. al. (Eds.) Handbook of Discourse
Analysis, Blackwell [e-reserve]
Pick one (or more) of the next three readings:
1. Wodak, R. and M. Reisigl (2001) Discourse and Racism in 2001 Handbook [e-reserve]
2. Fairclough, N. (1992) Chapter 3, “A social theory of discourse,” in Discourse and Social
Change (Polity Press) [e-reserve]
3. abridged articles by Giddens, Bourdieu, Foucault [e-reserve]
CRITICAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS/COMPARISONS
November 27
Due
Optional response paper on another CDA article (TBA) or Exercise 8, CDA
Read
OPTIONAL
Wodak, R. "Critical Discourse Analysis at the End of the 20th Century" (source TBA) [e-reserve]
November 29
Read
-Approaches, Chapters 9/94 “Structure and Function”, 10/94 “Text and Context”, 11/94 “
Discourse and Communication”
Do
Be ready to discuss possible final project (alternative to final take-home exam)
CATCHING UP AND WRAPPING UP
December 4 and 6
Read
Approaches, Chapter 12/94 “Conclusion: Language as Social Interaction”
Wodak, R. (2006) Dilemmas of discourse (analysis), Lg in Society, 35:4 [e-reserve]
OPTIONAL, ESPECIALLY RECOMMENDED FOR GRADUATE STUDENTS
Read something about one of the following areas:
Mediated Discourse Analysis, Nexus Analysis, Rhetorical Structure Theory, Discourse
Representation Theory, Corpus Linguistics
Due
If relevant, turn in abstract of final project