Shier/Grammar and Editing
The English Verb System: Overview
Time and Aspect Definitions
Time Frame = When the event takes place: now, at some time in the past, or at some time in the
future (3 time frames) The time is the reference point from which the writer or speaker is addressing
the action or aspect.
Aspect = The way we look at an action or state (expressed by a verb); whether it occurs at a certain
point in time or lasts for a period of time.
ADD NOTES TO THE CHART TO HELP YOU UNDERSTAND THESE CONCEPTS
Aspect
Present
Time Frame
Past
Future
Simple
(finished action at a
point in time)
simple present
simple past
simple future
Progressive
(in progress at a
point in time)
present progressive
past progressive
future progressive
Perfect
(before point in
time)
present perfect
past perfect
future perfect
Perfect Progressive
(in progress before
a point in time)
present perfect
progressive
past perfect
progressive
future perfect
progressive
Shier/Grammar and Editing
Verbs and verb usage for academic writing.
1. The 40 Most Essential Verbs in Academic Discourse (that aren’t on the AWL or aren’t common
simple verbs such as make, give, take, use and show.)
affect
allow
appear
apply
(a)rise from
assume
cause
change
consider
constitute
contain
determine
develop
emerge
find
follow
form
include
increase
indicate
investigate
involve
lack
leave
matter
obtain
occur
produce
prove
provide
reach
reduce
reflect
relate
remain
represent
require
result (in)
seem
tend
2. Frequency of Different Kinds of Verbs
“Biber’s, et. al (1999) found that lexical verbs (e.g., walk, sign, talk) are far less common in academic
prose than copula be in all its forms. Other verb types common in academic prose in order of
frequency from most to least are linking verbs (e.g., appear, become, seem), intransitive verbs, and
transitive verbs that require direct objects (e.g, read a book, write a paper).” (Hinkel, 2004)
3. The Most Common Linking Verbs in Academic Writing and Their Adjective Collocates
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
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become + apparent / clear / difficult / evident / familiar / important
remain + closed / constant / intact / uncertain / unchanged / unknown
seem + clear / likely / obvious / possible / reasonable / unlikely
4. Action Verbs with Inanimate Subjects
In academic writing, certain action verbs often have inanimate subjects. Three major types of
inanimate subjects are very common:
1. texts (e.g., reports suggest, this article explains)
2. subject areas, abstract ideas, actions or processes (e.g., new fields of study have developed, complex
decisions take time)
3. research work (e.g., studies have found, evidence comes from…)
Most Common action verbs that have inanimate subjects:
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come
explain
find
give
indicate
lead
need
provide
show
suggest
take
Passive & Active Voice
Advanced Curriculum Vocabulary
student handout
Discovery Verbs
Discovery verbs (e.g., discover, find) frequently are in the present perfect, but
they can also occur in the simple present tense and simple past tense in
academic writing. In the present perfect, they tell the results of past research or
studies, and they emphasize that the results continue to be important or relevant.
When they are in the simple present tense, they emphasize that the results are
currently true. In the simple past tense, they suggest that the findings are not as
important or relevant now.
Most Common Discovery Verbs in Academic Writing
have discovered
have found
have revealed
have shown
have uncovered
8. Existence Verbs
Existence verbs (e.g., represent, consist of) usually are NOT in Present perfect.
They are usually in simple present tense and describe a current state or logical
relationship.
Most Common Existence Verbs in Academic Writing
comprise
consist of
constitute
contain
correspond
denote
depend on
illustrate
include
represent
Darby Smith and Monika Mulder, Winter 2011
Passive & Active Voice
Advanced Curriculum Vocabulary
student handout
1. Four Reasons to Use the Passive in Research Writing
Passive is especially common and useful in research writing, where omitting the
agent of an action is effective for 4 reasons:
1. Readers already know the agent (often the researchers)
2. Using passive allows the object of the research be the subject of the
sentence, giving more importance to it than the researchers.
3. It contributes to sense of objectivity because human actions are not
mentioned.
4. It can be used to create more cohesion in the text.
2. Two Functions of Passive in Research Writing
Passive verbs commonly have 2 functions in research writing:
1. Describing methods and analyses (be analyzed, be calculated, be carried
out, be collected, be measured, be observed, be obtained, be prepared,
be set, be tested, be used
2. Reporting findings, or interpreting their meaning and connection with other
research (be determined, be expected, be found, be seen, be shown, be
associated with, be believed to be, can be interpreted as)
3. The Most Common Passive Verbs in Academic Writing
(in order of frequency)
made
given
seen
used
found
done
considered
shown
4. Verbs that are always (or almost always) used in the Active Voice:
appear
come
die
consist
fall
lack
happen
occur
remain
last
rest
seem
Darby Smith and Monika Mulder, Winter 2011
resemble
wait
stay
belong
arrive
Passive & Active Voice
Advanced Curriculum Vocabulary
student handout
5. By-Phrase with Passive
A vast majority of passive sentences in formal academic writing do not include
the by-phrase.
The by-phrase is used with the passive for 3 reasons:
1. The agent noun-phrase is long.
2. The agent is NEW information.
3. The main verb belongs to a special group of verbs that are often used with
non-human by-phrases.
The by-passive is especially common with particular verbs in academic writing.
These verbs are special because they by-phrase usually identifies a kind of data
or evidence, rather than a human agent. (Ex. The amount of profit in the
economy is determined by the amount of surplus value…)
SOME Passive Voice Verbs that Commonly Occur with a Non-Human By-Phrase
in Academic Writing (in alphabetical order)
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




be caused by
be defined by
be described by
be determined by
be explained by
be found by
be given by
be illustrated by
be influenced by
be measured by
be obtained by
be replaced by
be represented by
be shown by
be supported by
Darby Smith and Monika Mulder, Winter 2011
Passive & Active Voice
Advanced Curriculum Vocabulary
student handout
In academic writing, it is more common to report what someone wrote rather than what
someone said. Usually general ideas or the overall findings of a study are reported, rather
than a single statement. Reporting verbs indicate how certain the information is. (Of course,
the specific meaning of each word is important.)
1. Common Reporting Verbs in Academic Writing
2. Three Common Grammatical Patterns for Reporting Verbs
3. Reporting Verbs and Noun Clause Chunks for Summary Making
1. Common Reporting Verbs (organized by certainty level; * = most common)
conclude
Very certain
Less certain
demonstrate
find*
mention
report
show*
point out
state
discuss
present
claim
contend
hypothesize
imply
indicate
maintain
postulate
questions
explain
prove
write
argue
propose
2.
note
describe
suggest*
Three Common Grammatical Patterns for Reporting Verbs (please look at “Noun
Clauses” for more information about grammatical patterns for noun clauses)
1. Reporting verb + that noun clause (most common)
2. Reporting verb + noun phrase (as direct object)
3. As + subject+ reporting verb
3. Reporting verbs and noun clauses chunks for summary making:
 The author goes on to say / state / show that xxx
 The author further argues / explains / shows that
 The article further states that
 (Smith) also states / maintains/ argues / asserts that
 (Smith) also believes / concludes / feels that
 The article / report concludes that
 In the second half of the article / report, (Johnson) presents xxx to show / explain that
Darby Smith and Monika Mulder, Winter 2011