Table S1: Empirical cases of species/populations with individual specialization (IS) in diet, foraging behavior, habitat
preferences, or other niche axis documented since 2003.
Species
Genetic
Timescale
Evidence for
basis
consistency
consistency
G
P
G
Trade-offs
Spatial
Summary
Reference
context
Plants:
Zostera marina
(seagrass)
Uptake rates of
Lab
nutrients
Genotypes differ in uptake
Hughes et al. (2009)
rate of ammonium vs.
nitrate
Gastropods:
Lymnaea stagnalis
SI
O
Individuals differ markedly
Doi et al. (2010)
in trophic level
Crustaceans:
1
Species
Asellus aquaticus*
Genetic
Timescale
Evidence for
basis
consistency
consistency
6d
Trade-offs
Spatial
Summary
Reference
context
Lab
(isopod)
Individuals specialize on
different fungus species;
Costantini et al.
(2005)
individual specialization
decreased due to
interspecific competition
from Proasellus coxalis
Daphnia dentifera
S
Populations have a ‘deep’
Duffy (2010)
and a ‘migratory’
phenotype; only the
‘deep’ phenotype
interacts competitively
with D. pulicaria
2
Species
Genetic
Timescale
Evidence for
basis
consistency
consistency
Proasellus coxalis
6d
Trade-offs
Spatial
Summary
context
Lab
(isopod)
Individuals specialize on
different fungus species
Saduria entomon
Reference
O
(isopod)
Exploitative intraspecific
Costantini et al.
(2005)
Svanbäck et al. (2011)
competition causes higher
individual specialization
Arachnids:
Anelosimus studiosus
(spider)
G
P
G
Lab
Colonies exhibit a
behavioral polymorphism
Pruitt & Riechert
(2011)
in which females have
either a
aggressive/asocial
3
Species
Genetic
Timescale
Evidence for
basis
consistency
consistency
Trade-offs
Spatial
Summary
Reference
context
phenotype or a
docile/social phenotype;
the aggressive/asocial
phenotype is more
efficient at capturing large
prey
Insects:
Damaster blaptoides
oxuroides (carabid
beetle)
M
Handling
ability
Lab
Phenotypes at the extreme
of the distribution
Konuma & Chiba
(2007)
specialize on different
phenotypes of snail prey
4
Species
Damaster b. capito
Genetic
Timescale
Evidence for
basis
consistency
consistency
M
(carabid beetle)
Trade-offs
Spatial
Summary
Reference
context
Handling
Lab
ability
Phenotypes at the extreme
of the distribution
Konuma & Chiba
(2007)
specialize on different
phenotypes of snail prey
Nicrophorus
SI
O
Individuals specialize on
investigator (burying
either salmon or
beetle)
shrew/songbird carrion
Sphecodes ephippius
RO
O
(cuckoo bee)
Sphecodes monilicornis
(cuckoo bee)
Each female parasitizes one
Hocking et al. (2007)
Bogush et al. (2006)
single host species
RO
O
Each female parasitizes one
Bogush et al. (2006)
single host species
5
Species
Genetic
Timescale
Evidence for
basis
consistency
consistency
Trypoxylon albonigrum
Trade-offs
Spatial
Summary
Reference
context
O
(hunting wasp)
Population uses 6 spider
genera, but each female
Araújo & Gonzaga
(2007)
prefers one genus
Trypoxylon agamemnon
RO
O
(hunting wasp)
Females vary in their
R. Pitilin, unp. data
preferences for different
spider species
Fishes:
Abramis brama
C
O
(bream)
Blicca bjoerkna (white
bream)
Individuals feed on
different trophic levels
C
O
Individuals feed on
different trophic levels
Sundbom & Meili
(2005)
Sundbom & Meili
(2005)
6
Species
Carcharhinus leucas
Genetic
Timescale
Evidence for
Trade-offs
Spatial
basis
consistency
consistency
context
SI
S
(bull shark)
Summary
Individuals feed either on
Reference
Matich et al. (2011)
estuarine or marine food
webs
Centropomus
SI
O
undecimalis (snook)
Higher interindividual diet
Adams et al. (2009)
variation in less degraded
areas
Dascyllus aruanus
(damselfish)
SI
S
Positive relationship
between diet variation
Frederich et al.
(2010)
and group density; IS is
confounded with
ontogeny
7
Species
Genetic
Timescale
Evidence for
basis
consistency
consistency
context
C
O
Esox lucius* (northern
Trade-offs
Spatial
pike)
Summary
Individuals feed on
different trophic levels
3 mo
RO
S
Three behavioral types that
Reference
Sundbom & Meili
(2005)
Kobler et al. (2009)
differ in habitat use; use
of pelagic areas by the
‘opportunistic’ behavioral
type increases with
population density
Fundulus heteroclitus
SI
O
(mummichog)
Gadus morhua (Atlantic
Individuals differ in their
Fry et al. (2008)
reliance on benthic prey
S
Individuals differ in trophic
Chassot et al. (2008)
8
Species
Genetic
Timescale
Evidence for
basis
consistency
consistency
Trade-offs
Spatial
Summary
context
cod)
level
Gambusia hubbsi
O
Populations under higher
(Bahamian
intraspecific competition
mosquitofish)
show more diet variation
Gasterosteus aculeatus*
Reference
M
O
Experimental populations
M. S. Araújo, unpubl.
data
Svanbäck & Bolnick
(threespined
form discrete diet groups
(2007); Araújo et al.
stickleback)
under high intraspecific
(2008)
competition
SI
O
Positive correlation
between females’ and
Snowberg & Bolnick
(2008)
males’ isotope values in
9
Species
Genetic
Timescale
Evidence for
basis
consistency
consistency
Trade-offs
Spatial
Summary
Reference
context
mating pairs
M
O
Individuals more dissimilar
in trophic morphology
Bolnick & Paull
(2009)
show lower diet overlap
O
Ecological release from cut-
Bolnick et al. (2010)
throat trout led to
increased interindividual
diet variation; release
from prickly sculpins had
the oposite effect
M; SI
B/P
Gill-raker length strongly
Matthews et al.
10
Species
Genetic
Timescale
Evidence for
basis
consistency
consistency
Trade-offs
Spatial
Summary
Reference
context
correlates with reliance
(2010)
on pelagic vs. littoral food
chains and trophic level
M
O
Results suggest that higher
diet variation in
Ingram et al., in
review
stickleback relaxes its
top-down effects on prey
SI
B/P
Plate phenotypes differ in
trophic level
Gymnocephalus cernuus
(ruffe)
C
O
Individuals feed on
different trophic levels
Reimchen et al.
(2008)
Sundbom & Meili
(2005)
11
Species
Genetic
Timescale
Evidence for
basis
consistency
consistency
Haemulon sciurus
Trade-offs
Spatial
Summary
Reference
context
O
(bluestriped grunt)
Seasonal changes in
population niche width
Hammerschlag et al.
(2010)
via BIC†
Herichthys minckleyi
5-7 d
RO; M
O
Papiliform and molariform
Swanson et al. (2003;
morphotypes differ in
2008); Hulsey et al.
feeding behavior and
(2006)
diets
Lepidorhombus
S
whiffiagonis (megrim)
Lutjanus apodus
(schoolmaster
Individuals differ in trophic
Chassot et al. (2008)
level
SI; RO
O
Individuals differ in habitat
use and diet
Hammerschlag-Peyer
& Layman (2010)
12
Species
Genetic
Timescale
Evidence for
Trade-offs
Spatial
basis
consistency
consistency
context
SI; RO
O
Summary
Reference
Individuals differ in habitat
Layman et al. (2007);
snapper)
Lutjanus griseus (gray
snapper)
use and diet; diet
Hammerschlag-Peyer
variation decreases with
& Layman (2010)
habitat fragmentation and
homogeneization
O
Seasonal changes in
population niche width
Hammerschlag et al.
(2010)
via WIC‡
Melanogrammus
arglefinus (haddock)
S
Individuals differ in trophic
Chassot et al. (2008)
level
13
Species
Menidia menidia
Genetic
Timescale
Evidence for
Trade-offs
Spatial
basis
consistency
consistency
context
SI
O
(silverside)
S
(whiting)
Fry et al. (2008)
Individuals differ in trophic
Chassot et al. (2008)
level
Merluccius merluccius
S
(European hake)
Individuals differ in trophic
Chassot et al. (2008)
level
Micropogonias furnieri
O
(croaker)
(Eurasian perch)
Individuals differ in their
Reference
reliance on benthic prey
Merlangius merlangus
Perca fluviatilis*
Summary
Individuals differ in their
diets
SI
B/P
Positive correlation
Mendoza-Carranza &
Vieira (2008)
Svanbäck & Persson
between population
(2004); Svanbäck et
density and
al. (2008); Syvaranta
14
Species
Genetic
Timescale
Evidence for
basis
consistency
consistency
Trade-offs
Spatial
Summary
Reference
context
interindividual diet
& Jones (2008)
variation
B/P
Under low population
density selection favors
Svanbäck & Persson
(2009)
benthic diets, whereas
under high density both
benthic and pelagic diets
are favored
C; SI
O, B/P
Individuals feed on
Sundbom & Meili
different trophic levels
(2005); Quevedo &
and food chains (pelagic
Olsson (2006);
vs. littoral)
Quevedo et al. (2009)
15
Species
Genetic
Timescale
Evidence for
basis
consistency
consistency
E
M
Trade-offs
Spatial
Summary
Reference
context
Growth rate vs.
B/P
predation risk
YOY§ individuals (prey)
retreat to the
Eklöv & Svanbäck
(2006)
microhabitat where the
predator (adult perch) is
absent
E
SI
B/P
Some YOY individuals
Urbatzka et al. (2008)
switch to a piscivorous
diet, causing a bimodal
size distribution
B/P
Under high intraspecific
Huss et al. (2008)
competition larger YOY
switch from zooplankton
16
Species
Genetic
Timescale
Evidence for
basis
consistency
consistency
Trade-offs
Spatial
Summary
Reference
context
to macroinvertebrates
Rutilus rutilus (roach)
C
O
Individuals feed on
different trophic levels
SI
Salvelinus alpinus*
M
B/P
B/P
(Arctic charr)
Interindividual diet
Sundbom & Meili
(2005)
Svanbäck et al.
variation increased with
(2008); Syvaranta &
population density
Jones (2008)
Higher diet variation in
Knudsen et al. (2007)
lakes with fewer
competitor species
P; M
B/P
Individuals feed on either
benthic or pelagic prey;
Knudsen et al. (2008;
2010)
17
Species
Genetic
Timescale
Evidence for
basis
consistency
consistency
Trade-offs
Spatial
Summary
Reference
context
benthic feeders have
higher incidence of
cestodes than pelagic
feeders
G?
M
Lab
In feeding trials naïve fish
preferred either benthic
Garduno-Paz &
Adams (2010)
or pelagic prey; prey type
correlates with fish
morphology
Salvelinus fontinalis*
(brook trout)
RO
O
Population has sedentary
and highly active
Biro & Ridgeway
(2008)
individuals that differ in
18
Species
Genetic
Timescale
Evidence for
basis
consistency
consistency
Trade-offs
Spatial
Summary
Reference
context
feeding parameters
Salvelinus leucomaenis
1 yr
RG
O
(white-spotted charr)
There is both specialist and
Iguchi et al. (2004)
generalist individuals in
the population; the latter
had higher growth rates
Salvelinus namaycush*
2 mo
RO
S
(lake trout)
Individuals vary in the use
Morbey et al. (2006)
of shallow vs. deep water
SI
O
In lakes with anadromous
Swanson et al. (2010)
Arctic charr (one of
trout's prey), trout shows
more interindividual
19
Species
Genetic
Timescale
Evidence for
basis
consistency
consistency
Trade-offs
Spatial
Summary
Reference
context
variation in diet
Scardinius
C
O
erythrophalmus (rudd)
Individuals feed on
different trophic levels
Sphyraena barracuda
O
(great barracuda)
Seasonal changes in
population niche width
Sundbom & Meili
(2005)
Hammerschlag et al.
(2010)
via WIC
Amphibians:
Chiasmocleis
albopunctata (frog)
SI
O
Individuals feed on
Araújo et al. (2009)
different terrestrial
arthropods
20
Species
Elachistocleis ovalis
Genetic
Timescale
Evidence for
Trade-offs
Spatial
basis
consistency
consistency
context
SI
O
(frog)
Summary
Individuals feed on
Reference
Araújo et al. (2009)
different terrestrial
arthropods
Eupemphix nattereri
SI
O
(frog)
Individuals feed on
Araújo et al. (2009)
different terrestrial
arthropods
Ischnocnema
SI
O
penaxavantinho (frog)
Individuals feed on
different terrestrial
Araújo et al. (2007a;
2007b)
arthropods
Leptodactylus fuscus
(frog)
SI
O
Individuals feed on
different terrestrial
Araújo et al. (2007a;
2007b)
21
Species
Genetic
Timescale
Evidence for
basis
consistency
consistency
Trade-offs
Spatial
Summary
Reference
context
arthropods
Leptodactylus sp. (frog)
SI
O
Individuals feed on
different terrestrial
Araújo et al. (2007a;
2007b)
arthropods
Lithobates sylvaticus
S
(wood frog)
Some individuals specialize
on clearcut areas after
Blomquist et al.
(2010)
forest removal
Physalaemus cuvieri
SI
O
(frog)
Individuals feed on
Araújo et al. (2009)
different terrestrial
arthropods
Plethodon cinereus
M
O, S
Individuals differ in diet
Maerz et al. (2006)
22
Species
Genetic
Timescale
Evidence for
basis
consistency
consistency
Trade-offs
Spatial
Summary
Reference
context
(red-backed
within and between
salamander)
upland and lowland
habitats
Proceratophrys sp.
SI
O
(frog)
Individuals feed on
different terrestrial
Araújo et al. (2007a;
2007b)
arthropods
Reptiles:
Ameiva ameiva (lizard)
O
Individuals feed on
Costa et al. (2008)
different terrestrial
arthropods
Anolis auratus (lizard)
Individuals feed on
Costa et al. (2008)
23
Species
Genetic
Timescale
Evidence for
basis
consistency
consistency
Trade-offs
Spatial
Summary
Reference
context
different terrestrial
arthropods
Anolis chrysolepis
Individuals feed on
(lizard)
Costa et al. (2008)
different terrestrial
arthropods
Anolis meridionalis
Individuals feed on
(lizard)
Costa et al. (2008)
different terrestrial
arthropods
Caretta caretta
(loggerhead sea turtle)
124-197 d
RO, SI
S
Females are either
planktonic oceanic
Hatase et al. (2007,
2010)
feeders or benthic neritic
24
Species
Genetic
Timescale
Evidence for
basis
consistency
consistency
Trade-offs
Spatial
Summary
Reference
context
feeders
4-12 yr
SI
S
Females differ markedly in
15N and 13C values
9-424 d
RO
Growth rates
S
Juveniles have either a
vs. survival
neritic or oceanic foraging
rates
strategy; neritic feeders
Vander Zanden et al.
(2010)
Peckham et al. (2011)
show higher growth rates,
but lower survival rates
Cnemidophorus cf.
ocellifer (lizard)
Individuals feed on
Costa et al. (2008)
different terrestrial
arthropods; the degree of
25
Species
Genetic
Timescale
Evidence for
basis
consistency
consistency
Trade-offs
Spatial
Summary
Reference
context
IS correlates negatively
with community
phylogenetic diversity
Cnamidophorus
leminiscatus (lizard)
Individuals feed on
Costa et al. (2008)
different terrestrial
arthropods; the degree of
IS correlates negatively
with community
phylogenetic diversity
Cnemidophorus
mumbuca (lizard)
Individuals feed on
Costa et al. (2008)
different terrestrial
arthropods; the degree of
26
Species
Genetic
Timescale
Evidence for
basis
consistency
consistency
Trade-offs
Spatial
Summary
Reference
context
IS correlates negatively
with community
phylogenetic diversity
Cnemidophorus parecis
(lizard)
Individuals feed on
Costa et al. (2008)
different terrestrial
arthropods; the degree of
IS correlates negatively
with community
phylogenetic diversity
Gymnodactylus
carvalhoi (lizard)
Individuals feed on
Costa et al. (2008)
different terrestrial
arthropods; the degree of
27
Species
Genetic
Timescale
Evidence for
basis
consistency
consistency
Trade-offs
Spatial
Summary
Reference
context
IS correlates negatively
with community
phylogenetic diversity
Mabuya sp. (lizard)
Individuals feed on
Costa et al. (2008)
different terrestrial
arthropods; the degree of
IS correlates negatively
with community
phylogenetic diversity
Micrablepharus
atticolus (lizard)
Individuals feed on
Costa et al. (2008)
different terrestrial
arthropods; the degree of
28
Species
Genetic
Timescale
Evidence for
basis
consistency
consistency
Trade-offs
Spatial
Summary
Reference
context
IS correlates negatively
with community
phylogenetic diversity
Micrablepharus
maximiliani (lizard)
Individuals feed on
Costa et al. (2008)
different terrestrial
arthropods; the degree of
IS correlates negatively
with community
phylogenetic diversity
Tropidurus cf. hispidus
(lizard)
Individuals feed on
Costa et al. (2008)
different terrestrial
arthropods; the degree of
29
Species
Genetic
Timescale
Evidence for
basis
consistency
consistency
Trade-offs
Spatial
Summary
Reference
context
IS correlates negatively
with community
phylogenetic diversity
Tropidurus cf. oreadicus
(lizard)
Individuals feed on
Costa et al. (2008)
different terrestrial
arthropods; the degree of
IS correlates negatively
with community
phylogenetic diversity
Tropidurus itambere
(lizard)
Individuals feed on
Costa et al. (2008)
different terrestrial
arthropods; the degree of
30
Species
Genetic
Timescale
Evidence for
basis
consistency
consistency
Trade-offs
Spatial
Summary
Reference
context
IS correlates negatively
with community
phylogenetic diversity
Tropidurus sp. (lizard)
Individuals feed on
Costa et al. (2008)
different terrestrial
arthropods; the degree of
IS correlates negatively
with community
phylogenetic diversity
Vanzosaura rubricauda
(lizard)
Individuals feed on
Costa et al. (2008)
different terrestrial
arthropods; the degree of
31
Species
Genetic
Timescale
Evidence for
basis
consistency
consistency
Trade-offs
Spatial
Summary
Reference
context
IS correlates negatively
with community
phylogenetic diversity
Birds:
Cerorhinca monocerata
SI
O
(rhinocero auklet)
Females feed at different
Hipfner et al. (2010)
trophic levels
Cinclodes patagonicus
SI
O
(ovenbird)
Some individuals specialize
on the same resource all
Martínez del Rio et al.
(2009)
year round, while others
switch diets seasonally
Corvus moneduloides
At least 9
RO
O
Individuals specialize on
Hunt & Gray (2007)
32
Species
(New Caledonian crow)
Genetic
Timescale
Evidence for
basis
consistency
consistency
Trade-offs
Spatial
Summary
Reference
context
observations
either of two types of tool
to capture food
Diomedea exulans
SI
O
Females differ in their diets
Jaeger et al. (2009)
SI
S
Individuals feed in two
Cherel et al. (2007)
(albatross)
Eudyptes chrysoiopus
(macaroni penguin)
different areas and
segregate into two diet
clusters
Haematopus
26 yr
RO
O
There are generalist and
ostralegus*
specialist individuals in
(oystercatcher)
the population; selection
van de Pol et al.
(2010)
33
Species
Genetic
Timescale
Evidence for
basis
consistency
consistency
Trade-offs
Spatial
Summary
Reference
context
favors generalists in most
years, but favors
specialists in colder
harsher years
Morus bassanus
Several
(gannet)
weeks
SI, RO
O
Individuals differ in their
Votier et al. (2010)
reliance on discards by
trawlers vs. pelagic fishes
Pelecanoides urinatrix
SI
S
(petrel)
Phalacrocorax
Individuals vary in their
Cherel et al. (2006)
feeding areas and diet
4-6 d
RO
O
Individuals feed
Cook et al. (2006)
34
Species
Genetic
Timescale
Evidence for
basis
consistency
consistency
Trade-offs
Spatial
Summary
Reference
context
melanogenis (Crozet
consistently at different
shag)
times of the day and
depth ranges
Phalacrocorax
1-3.5 d
RO
S
pelagicus (pelagic
Individuals are either
Kotzerka et al. (2011)
shallow or deep divers
cormorants)
Procellaria
SI
S
Individuals feed at different
aequinoctialis (white
areas and specialize on
chined petrel)
different resources
Somateria molissima
nigrum (eider)
3 yr
RO
S
Adult females use one of
Jaeger et al. (2010)
Petersen (2009)
each of three migration
35
Species
Genetic
Timescale
Evidence for
basis
consistency
consistency
Trade-offs
Spatial
Summary
Reference
context
stretegies, which vary in
timing and stopover
locations
Somateria spectabilis
SI
O
(king eider)
Uria lomvia (guillemot)
Zenaida aurita (Zenaida
dove)
Females specialize on
Oppel et al. (2010)
different resources
15 yr
2 mo
RO, SI
RO
O
T
Individuals differ in dive
Woo et al. (2008);
parameters and diet
Elliot et al. (2009)
Smaller individuals feed on
Sol et al. (2005)
suboptimal diets
Mammals:
36
Species
Arctocephalus gazella
Genetic
Timescale
Evidence for
Trade-offs
Spatial
basis
consistency
consistency
context
4-5 yr
SI
S
(Antarctic fur seal)
Summary
Individuals vary in feeding
areas and diet
Reference
Cherel et al. (2007;
2009); Casper et al.
(2010)
Balaenoptera
4 mo
RO
O
acutorostrata* (minke
Individuals vary in their
Kuker et al. (2005)
feeding techniques
whale)
Canis latrans (coyote)
2 yr
RO
O, T
High diet variation among
Prugh et al. (2008)
social groups and
moderate variation
among individuals within
groups
37
Species
Canis lupus (gray wolf)
Delphinus sp. (common
dolphin)
Genetic
Timescale
Evidence for
basis
consistency
consistency
context
4-6 mo
SI
O, T
SI
Trade-offs
Spatial
O
Summary
Sub-population in area with
Reference
Urton & Hobson
higher resource diversity
(2005); Darimont et
showed more diet
al. (2009; 2009);
variation
Semmens et al. (2009)
Individuals vary in 15N,
Pinela et al. (2011)
which correlates
positively with rostral
length; not clear if higher
15N values indicate
higher trophic position or
use of offshore waters
38
Species
Genetic
Timescale
Evidence for
basis
consistency
consistency
context
RO
O
Enhydra lutris
Trade-offs
Spatial
Summary
Individuals differ in
Reference
Lee et al. (2011)
optimization rules:
females with pups have a
cost-minimizing foraging
strategy, while females
without pups and males
have an energy
maximizing strategy
Enhydra lutris nereis
(California sea otter)
8 yr
RO, SI
O
Individuals differ in feeding
Estes et al. (2003);
behavior and diet, which
Tinker et al. (2007;
can be vertically
2008); Newsome et al.
transmited; higher IS with (2009)
39
Species
Genetic
Timescale
Evidence for
basis
consistency
consistency
Trade-offs
Spatial
Summary
Reference
context
increasing intraspecific
competition
7 yr
RO, P
O
Individuals feeding on the
Johnson et al. (2009)
preferred resource
(abalone) had very low
risk of infection, whereas
those feeding on the
alternative resource
(marine snails) had high
risk of infection by the
protozoan Toxoplasma
gondii
40
Species
Gracilinanus
Genetic
Timescale
Evidence for
Trade-offs
Spatial
basis
consistency
consistency
context
1 yr
RO
O
Summary
Individuals feed on
microtarsus (gracile-
different arthropods and
mouse opossum)
fruit
Mirounga angustirostris
1 mo
RO
O
(elephant seal)
Females vary in their
Reference
Martins et al. (2008);
Araújo et al. (2010)
Kuhn et al. (2009)
feeding location and
feeding behavior;
different strategies have
different payoffs
Mirounga leoonina
(elephant seal)
2-4 yr
RO, SI
S
Females differ in feeding
location and diet; no
Bradshaw et al.
(2004); Ducatez et al.
41
Species
Genetic
Timescale
Evidence for
basis
consistency
consistency
Trade-offs
Spatial
Summary
Reference
context
correlation between diet
(2008)
and reproductive success
RO
S
Sex and individual
McIntyre et al. (2010)
differences in diving
parameters and foraging
areas
Neotoma fuscipes
SI
O
Individuals are highly
(dusky-footed
specialized on either of
woodrat)
two plant species
Odocoileus hemionus
(black-tailed deer)
SI
O
McEachern et al.
(2006)
Individuals specializing on a Darimont et al. (2007)
rare, more profitable diet
42
Species
Genetic
Timescale
Evidence for
basis
consistency
consistency
Trade-offs
Spatial
Summary
Reference
context
have higher predation
risk than individuals with
the average, less
profitable diet
Orcinus orca (killer
SI
O
whale)
Individuals within a
Foote et al. (2009)
population vary in their
diets
Panthera leo (lion)
Entire
SI
O
lifespan
Some individuals specialize
Yeakel et al. (2009)
on novel prey in periods
of food limitation
Phocarctos hookeri
1-4 yr
RO
O
Females differ in foraging
Chilvers (2008)
43
Species
Genetic
Timescale
Evidence for
basis
consistency
consistency
Trade-offs
Spatial
Summary
Reference
context
(New Zealand sea lion)
sites
2 mo
RO
O
Females have either a
benthic or a meso-pelagic
Chilvers & Wilkinson
(2009)
diving pattern; no
differences in pup growth
or survival between
different strategies
Rousettus aegyptiacus
(Egyptian fruit bat)
SI
O
Stronger interindividual
Herrera et al. (2008)
variation in trophic level
in spring, when diversity
of available resources is
44
Species
Genetic
Timescale
Evidence for
basis
consistency
consistency
Trade-offs
Spatial
Summary
Reference
context
higher
Tursiops sp. (bottlenose
Up to 15 yr
RO
O
dolphin)
Tursiops truncatus
3 yr
RO
O
(bottlenose dolphin)
Individuals have different
Sargeant et al. (2005);
foraging behaviors; three
Mann et al. (2008);
behaviors are maternally
Sargeant & Mann
transmitted to calves
(2009)
Individuals consistently use
Torres & Read (2009)
one of three different
foraging behaviors
Ursus arctos* (grizzly
bear)
SI
O
Population shows three
Edwards et al. (2011)
types of foragers,
45
Species
Genetic
Timescale
Evidence for
basis
consistency
consistency
Trade-offs
Spatial
Summary
Reference
context
herbivores, carnivores,
and mixed-feeders;
carnivore females move
over longer distances
than herbivore females
Zalophus californianus
1 yr
RO
O
(California sea lion)
Zalophus wollebaeki
Adult males differ in their
Weise et al. (2010)
diving parameters
7-11 d
RO
O
(Galapagos sea lion)
Females within colonies
feed at different locations
Villegas-Amtmann et
al. (2008)
and depths
SI
O
Differences in diet between
Páez-Rosas &
46
Species
Genetic
Timescale
Evidence for
basis
consistency
consistency
Trade-offs
Spatial
Summary
Reference
context
three neighbor rookeries
Aurioles-Gamboa
and between females
(2010)
within rookeries
Notes: *Species already documented in Bolnick et al. (2003). †Between-individual component of niche width: the variance in
mean resource use between individuals. ‡Within-individual component of niche width: corresponds to the average of
individual niche widths. §Young-of-the-year. Genetic basis: G, known genetic component; E, known environmental component;
G?, some evidence for heritability. Consistency timescale: when the study documents the duration over which consistency was
observed, we present this duration. When the trait has a genetic basis, we assume that specialization is permanent (P).
Evidence for consistency: C, contaminants; G, genetic basis; M, morphological correlation; P, parasitological; RO, repeated
observations; RG, repeated gut contents; SI, stable isotopes. Spatial context: B/P, benthic/pelagic difference within a lake; Lab,
laboratory tests, field context not reported; O, overlapping, individuals forage in the same location; S, spatial differences,
individuals belong to the same population but forage in different areas, which might differ in scale from microhabitat
47
differences to different feeding areas over large spatial scales; T: territorial organisms, diet differences associated with
territory location.
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