Cross-Cultural Perspective
Poster Presentation at the Annual Meeting of the American Psychological Association
Toronto, August 2003
Running Head: CROSS-CULTURAL PERSPECTIVE
Looking for Love:
A Cross-Cultural Perspective Teaching Module
Bernardo J. Carducci
Indiana University Southeast
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Cross-Cultural Perspective
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Looking for Love: A Cross-Cultural Perspective Teaching Module
In an attempt to promote an appreciation for diversity among individuals in general and within the study of
psychology in particular, there is an established trend in the teaching of psychology for the inclusion of the crosscultural perspective. A particularly important lesson to communicate to students is the value of the cross-cultural
perspective as both a research tool and a framework for achieving a greater understanding of the differences among
people (cf. Jahoda & Krewer, 1997). As a research tool, cross-cultural comparisons are important as a means of
testing and verifying the generalizability of psychological processes, principles, and dynamics found in one culture
to others (cf. Triandis, 1994). As a framework for achieving a greater understanding of the differences among
people, the cross-cultural perspective “… makes visible the systems of meanings and practices—the language, the
collective representations, the metaphors, the social scripts, the social structures, the policies, the institutions, the
artifacts—within which people come to think and feel and act” (Cross & Markus, 1999, p. 380). In support of this
reasoning, the purpose of the present teaching activity is to provide instructors with an in-class demonstration and
the necessary supporting lecture material to introduce a discussion of the cross-cultural perspective.
Procedures
Supplementary Lecture Material: Getting Started
Instructors can start this activity by introducing students to two fundamental concepts in the study of the
cross-cultural perspective: individualistic and collectivistic cultures. Such introductory remarks should include a
brief definition of the individualistic and collectivistic cultures and examples of their characteristics features. The
following information, along with the references provided, can be used to help instructors begin to development
some supplementary lecture material on individualistic and collectivistic cultures.
Individualistic vs. Collectivisitic Cultures: Two Fundamental Frameworks for Understanding Diversity
Individualistic Cultures: “The Squeaky Wheel Gets the Grease.” Individualistic cultures, such as
North American and Western European countries, tend to be characterized by a cultural perspective that
emphasizes the uniqueness of the individual’s personal characteristics, needs, and motives as the focal point
of predicting and understanding the individual’s actions (cf. Cross & Markus, 1999). In contrast to
collectivistic cultures, individualistic cultures place more emphasis on the expression and satisfaction of the
individual’s needs than on conformity to public norms (Triandis, 1989, 1995, 1996, 1997, 2001). These
cultures might be described as “complex” societies because people have considerable societal flexibility to
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join many different groups and exercise a wide range of choices in the expression of various social roles. For
example, in American societies, while parents might have certain expectations of t heir children to go to
college, the children are relatively free to choose a major that reflects their personal needs and interests. Such
complex, individualistic cultures are exemplified by the proverb “The squeaky wheel gets the grease.”
Collectivistic Cultures: “The Nail that Stands Out Gets Pounded Down.” Collectivistic cultures, such as Japan,
India, and China and other Asian cultures, tend to be characterized by a cultural perspective that places less
emphasis on the uniqueness of the individual’s personal characteristics as the focal point of predicting and
understanding the individual’s actions and more of an emphasis on the person’s identification with a group, such as
family, country, occupation, or caste, and the expectations, duties, and roles associated with being a member of a
group as the principal source for understanding the individual (Cross & Markus, 1999). These cultures might be
described as “tight” societies because of the high expectations they place on people to conform to societal
values, roles, and norms (Carpenter, 2000; Triandis, 2001). For example, even though she may not like studying
economics, a young Japanese college student may pursue a career as an economist to fulfill the wishes of the elder
members of her family. Such tight, collectivistic cultures are exemplified by the proverb “The nail that stands
out gets pounded down.”
Looking for Love: The Investigation of Personal Ads as a Cross-Cultural Research Tool
After discussing the characteristic features of the individualistic and collectivisitic cultural perspectives, the
instructor can initiate a discussion of cross-cultural research. An interesting example of a cross-cultural comparison
is the examination of “personal ads” as a research tool to illustrate how the cultural characteristics of individualistic
and collectivistic cultures serve to influence the nature of information people include in these ads (Cross & Markus,
1999, p. 378).
The first two ads were placed in the San Francisco Chronicle, a typical general daily newspaper appearing
in a large, metropolitan city:
28 SWM, 6’1”, 160 lbs. Handsome, artistic, ambitious, seeks attractive WF, 24-29, for friendship,
romance, and permanent partnership.
Very attractive, independent SWF, 29, 5’6” 110 lbs., love fine dining, the theater, gardening and
quite evenings at home. In search of handsome SWM 28-34 with similar interests.
These second two ads which were placed on the same day in the India Tribune, a California newspaper
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with a readership of primarily immigrant families from India.
Gujarati Vaishnav parents invite correspondence from never married Gujarati well settled,
preferably green card holder from respectable family for green card holder daughter 29 years,
5’4”, good looking, doing CPA.
Gujarati Brahmin family invites correspondence from a well cultured, beautiful Gujarati girl for 29
years, 5”8”, 145 lbs. Handsome looking, well settled boy.
Interpreting the Ads: A Cross-Cultural Comparison. The first two ads reflect the characteristic features of
the Western, individualistic cultural perspective by focusing on the uniqueness of the individual and emphasizing
the individual’s personal characteristics (e.g., independent, ambitions) and personal interests (e.g., enjoys theater and
gardening). The second set of ads reflects the collectivistic perspective by focusing on information emphasizing
group membership, such as placing the name of the family instead of the individual in the ad, indicating the family’s
region of origin in India (e.g., the state of Gujarati), and the caste of the family (e.g., Vaishnav, Brahmin).
Facilitating In-Class Discussion: Some Suggested Questions
Instructor can use the following questions to facilitate some in class-discussion on various aspects of life in
individualistic and collectivistic cutlures (references in parentheses are source material for the discussion question):
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In which culture would you expect a greater degree of happiness? Why? (Diener, Diener, & Diener, 1995)
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In which culture would you expect a higher crime rate? Why? (Triandis, 1994)
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How might students in such cultures react differently to personal success and failure? (Lee & Seligman, 1997)
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How and why might individuals in these two cultural have different orientations to dealing with time? What
would be an easy way to examine cross-cultural comparisons to time orientation? (Levine & Bartlett, 1984)
Discussion
This teaching activity poster is designed to provide a self-contained teaching module to illustrate the cross-
cultural perspective in psychology. It can be used to illustrate how the concepts of individualistic and collectivistic
cultures can serve as conceptual frameworks for understanding cultural differences among individuals and as a
simple example of cross-cultural research. This activity can be used in such courses as introductory psychology,
social psychology, personality psychology, and psychology of adjustment, as well as any other course where the
cross-cultural perspective in psychology is discussed.
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Estimated time for lecture, cross-cultural research illustration, and class discussion: 20 to 30 minutes
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References
Carpenter, S. (2000). Effects of cultural tightness and collectivism on self -concept and causal
attributions. Cross-Cultural Research, 34, 38-56.
Cross, S. E., & Markus, H. R. (1999). The cultural constitution of personality. In L. A. Pervin &
O. P. John (Eds.), Handbook of personality: Theory and research (2nd ed., pp. 378-396). New York: The
Guilford Press.
Diener, E., Diener, M., & Diener, C. (1995). Factors predicti ng the subjective well-being of nations.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 851–864.
Jahoda, G., & Krewer, B. (1997). History of cross-cultural and cultural psychology. In J. W. Berry,
Y. H. Poortinga, & J. Pandy (Eds.), Handbook of cross-cultural psychology: Vol. 1. Theory and method (2nd
ed., pp.1-42). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Lee, Y., & Seligman, M. E. P. (1997). Are Americans more optimistic than the Chinese?
Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 23, 32-40.
Levine, R. V., Bartlett, K. (1984). Pace of life, punctuality, and coronary heart disease in six
countries. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 15, 233-255.
Triandis, H. C. (1989). The self and social behavior in differing cultural contexts. Psychological
Review, 96, 506–520
Triandis, H. C. (1994). Culture and social behavior. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc.
Triandis, H. C. (1995). Individualism vs. collectivism. Boulder, CO: Westview.
Triandis, H. C. (1996). The psychological measurement of cultural syndromes. American
Psychologist, 51, 407–415.
Triandis, H. C. (1997). Cross-cultural perspectives on personality. In R. Hogan, J. Johnson, & S.
Briggs (Eds.), Handbook of personality psychology (pp. 439-464). San Diego, CA: Academic Press
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