Sports Stimulation Initiatives for Underprivileged Youth
in Flanders (Belgium)
Paul De Knop
Marc Theeboom
Faculty of Physical Education and Physiotherapy,
Free University of Brussels, Belgium
Reference:
De Knop, P., & Theeboom, M. (1999). Sports stimulation initiatives for underprivileged youth
in Flanders (Belgium). Journal of Education and Training, 20, 1, 4-48
2
Abstract
Sport can be regarded as an important leisure time activity for underprivileged youth,
based on a number of social meanings of sports participation (instrumental-functional,
expressive, symbolic and social-interactive). This paper discusses the possibilities of sports
stimulation initiatives in schools, youth welfare work and sports clubs. It describes a
number of existing initiatives sponsored by the Belgian King Baudouin Foundation.
3
Sports Stimulation Initiatives for Underprivileged Youth
in Flanders (Belgium)
Sport as one of the most popular leisure activities for youngsters (De Knop, Engström,
Skirstad, & Weiss, 1996) has become increasingly important as a means of social
integration for underprivileged youth. In recent years, it has become a valuable
instrument among pedagogues and welfare workers in their work with socially deprived
youth. Based on four specific social meanings of sports participation, the present paper
describes several sports stimulation initiatives for underprivileged youth that have been
introduced during the last decade in Flanders, the northern Dutch-speaking part of
Belgium.
Underprivileged Youth
The term "underprivileged youth" is used to refer to those youngsters that often live in
families with material and relational problems (Walgrave, 1992). In most cases, these
families live in socially deprived urban neighbourhoods. Their social perspective is poor
and their expectations on their children are often low. Being unsuccessful and being
confronted with negative experiences is often evident and confirmed from generation to
generation. Due to the marginal situation, stigmatization and exclusion, underprivileged
youngsters miss valuable social contacts and thus look for compensation in their peer
group, often resulting in delinquent behaviour.
This description also applies to young immigrants (De Knop & Walgrave, 1992).
However, there are still some other elements that make the situation of these young
immigrants even more complicated. When during the sixties the Belgian authorities, like
several other Western European governments, encouraged the immigration of workers
from Mediterranean countries such as Morocco and Turkey, they did not foresee the social
problems that would occur during the economic recession that started some 20 years later.
Many of the migrant workers and their families which sought prosperity and better living
4
conditions, soon found themselves in conditions that were far more worse than those of
the native population. Low education, high unemployment, delinquency, low paid jobs
are a few of the many problems most of these (Islamic) immigrants still face today.
Because of these very unfavourable conditions, today most of the second and third
generation immigrants are facing many problems. Moreover, most of these youngsters
face problems with regard to their cultural identity (Naeyaert, 1984). They live between
two cultures, without considering one or the other as their own. They often do not
understand their original culture, since they have never lived in their parents' native
country. They are also reminded by many that they should never consider themselves as
part of the Flemish culture. Their culture as well as their language constitute barriers for
social integration.
Leisure and Sports Participation of Underprivileged Youth
Kruissink (1988) described three dimensions in leisure and sports participation: (1)
free of obligations (e.g., going to an amusement park, a disco,…), (2) average (e.g.,
cooking, reading, …), and (3) structured (e.g., sportive, musical engagement in an
organization). These dimensions have to do with the grade of organization (and thus
obligations) and the level of individual involvement. On the one extreme, an unstructured,
consumptive and passive leisure pattern can be distinguished, while on the other end, a
structured, productive and active pattern can be found. The leisure pattern of
underprivileged youth can be situated within the first extremes.
As underprivileged youth can be regarded as a very heterogeneous group, it is
difficult to make general statements about the degree of leisure and sports participaton of
these youngsters. As a result, research data are scarce.
Sport is one of the most popular leisure activities for youngsters (Kruissink, 1988;
Manders & Kropman, 1979; Naeyaert, 1984). There is no difference between the sports
participation of Belgian and young immigrants. It is also for immigrants the most
preferred leisure time activity. Research in Flanders has indicated that the most popular
5
sports for immigrants are soccer and martial arts (De Knop, De Martelaer, Theeboom, Van
Engeland, & Van Puymbroeck, 1994).
Although many underprivileged youngsters have a lot of leisure time because of
skipping school or unemployment, this youth is rarely engaged in organized leisure
activities (De Knop et al., 1994). Teachers and youth welfare workers often have great
difficulties in motivating underprivileged youth to take part in organized activities.
Dealing with rules, standing by agreements and taking responsibility are some of the main
problems involved. One of the ways to influence their situation has proven to be through
sports participation.
Social Meanings of Sports Participation
Sport appears to be an appropriate way to attract many underprivileged youngsters. It
has gained popularity among members of this group. Many agree that, apart from being a
meaningful leisure activity, sport also has an educative character which can be of use to
improve the social integration of underprivileged youth (Ruottinen, 1982; Nickolai, 1982;
Middleton, 1982, 1984; Adolph-Volpert & Böck, 1984; Harms, 1984; Meiburg, 1985;
Bergmann, 1986; Böck, 1986; Van Ancum & Meiburg, 1987; Van Dijk, 1987; Van der
Gugten, 1988; Theeboom, De Knop & Bollaert, 1989; Theeboom, De Knop & Gittenaer,
1990; De Knop & Theeboom, 1992). It has been indicated that sport can help teachers and
youth welfare workers to get in contact with this youth. Participating in sport can improve
their relationship with these youngsters, which is necessary in order to start working at
their difficult situation. In this way, sport becomes a means of social integration instead of
an end in itself.
Vanreusel and Bulcaen (1992) identified four social meanings of sports participation:
(1) instrumental-functional, (2) expressive, (3) symbolic and (4) social-interactive meaning.
Instrumental-functional Meaning
According to Vanreusel and Bulcaen, socialization and integration are the two most
important functional contributions of sport. Socialization has to do with a relationship of
6
individuals with society and its values and norms. Sport can be considered as a way of
social control, whereby the efforts will be oriented towards socialization of these
youngsters.
Integration means growing up with different entities (cultures) in society as a whole.
Sport is an easy activity for integration in contrast with the desintegrating complexity of
society. Integration through sports activities can be considered acccording to the level of
sport. For top level athletes it means a climbing at the social-economical ladder that
causes, together with a growing popularity, a greater social acceptance and appreciation.
On the other hand, lower level sport must be seen as a worthwhile and socially accepted
leisure activity for underprivileged youth. In contradiction with top level athletes, these
youngsters would not get special attention.
Expressive Meaning
Youngsters are either aware or unaware that they are looking for expressions of
competence. Underprivileged youth has less domains in which they can show
competence. During sports participation, aspects such as fulfilling a task on one's own,
and experiencing succes are important expressions with a general value, especially for
underprivileged youth. Besides, sport gives an opportunity to express the need for
"excitement" of youngsters. Society does not offer many possibilities for youngsters to
unload tension.
Symbolic Meaning
Symbols, material (e.g., hair style, clothes, means of transport) or non-material (e.g.,
use of language, attitude and interest) are important to build an identity so that
youngsters can distinguish themselves from others. These and other social basic needs,
such as status, prestige and appreciation can be realized during sports participation. Sport
is a more accessible symbol for underprivileged youth compared to other forms.
7
Social-interactive Meaning
The role of sport as a meeting place is one of the most recognizable. Social contact is
often one of the most important reasons to participate in sport. Interactions in sport can be
translated as sociability, friendship and affiliation. For underprivileged youth, this socialinteractive role is important for two reasons, namely sport offers an interesting meeting
place where social interactions are stimulated, and secondly the social-interactive role can
be used to improve social learning processes in society.
Youngsters normally get in contact with organized sports activities through different
ways (parents, friends, teachers, community sports services, youth organizations, ...) (De
Knop, Engström, Skirstad, & Weiss, 1996). However, as already indicated, the leisure
pattern of underprivileged youth can often be characterized as unstructured, consumptive
and passive. Therefore, specific promotional initiatives have to be set up to stimulate
regular sports participation among these youngsters.
Sports Stimulation
Since 1988, the King Baudouin Foundation, has initiated a "youth and sport"
programme in Flanders, in which they try to raise the awareness with regard to the
problems concerning the relationship between underprivileged youth and sports. This
programme is very practice-oriented and its objective is to actually test what is possible to
realize and to stimulate other organizations to continue these projects on their own. The
working of the Foundation is based on practical suggestions and examples of experiments
on the one hand and contacts for further co-operation between several institutions, on the
other.
It has been the intention of the programme from its inception onwards to also try to
stimulate various structures to eventually start taking their own specific sports
promotional initiatives. Consequently, projects were set up in cooperation with as many
structures as possible, such as schools, sports clubs, youth welfare work and
8
municipalities. Next is an overview of the most important sports stimulation initiatives
that have been set up by the Foundation.
Schools
Sports stimulation through schools has been considered from a prevention
perspective. By introducing pupils to a variety of sports, it can encourage them to become
involved in organized activities on a regular base, which is otherwise not likely to happen
(Theeboom, De Knop, & Gittenaer, 1992). In schools every child can be reached and thus
the participation would not depend on the goodwill of parents. Especially for immigrant
girls, schools are often the only way through which they come in contact with sports (De
Knop, Theeboom, Wittock, & De Martelaer, 1996). In fact, the presence of underprivileged
youth must be seen on three levels: (1) primary and secondary schools with a high
concentration of immigrants, (2) technical and vocational education and (3) part time
education.
The effect of an intensive school sports programme was tested in two Flemish schools,
where a majority of pupils were immigrants between 12 and 18 (Theeboom et al., 1990,
1992). The programme was organized in co-operation with the local school sports
federation and sponsored by the King Baudouin Foundation. Before the start of the sports
programme, the pupils were asked about their sports participation. Young immigrants
appeared to have a limited variation in the number of practised sports compared to their
Belgian school mates. Pupils were then offered a variety of different sports. They were
also informed about the existing possibilities to practise sports on a regular base
(addresses of local sports clubs, regular school sports programmes, etc.).
Results showed that all pupils were very interested in the sports programme. A
majority of them indicated they would like to practise these sports on a regular basis and
explicitly asked for similar sports programmes in the future. According to the pupils, the
school can play an important role in the organization of these programmes. Furthermore,
school sports activities helped to diminish the aversion older pupils often have for school,
9
because absence rates, which were usually high among the older pupils, dropped clearly
during the time the programme was organized. Results indicated that sport can be a way
to improve the relationship between pupils and their teachers, because it creates an
opportunity to get to know each other in a more informal way.
The King Baudouin Foundation also supported a pilot study in a technical and
vocational training programme for 16 to 18-year-olds (Musch, Mertens, Browaeys, &
Laporte, 1992). The aim of this project was to stimulate social competence through a
programme of co-operative physical activities in group with an accent on social
interaction. Sports such as basketball offer a lot of possibilities to pursuit the same aim, to
succeed a task together, to communicate and take decisions in group. Van Oost and
colleagues (1988) described social competence as knowing and controlling strategies by
which one can have and maintain successful relations with others. These strategies refer to
social-cognitive processes as well as to actions, so that it not only involves the ability to
detect the rules and norms in situations but also to adapt one's own behaviour.
By means of video pictures and an adapted version of Harter's questionnaire on self
perception profile for students and teachers (Harter, 1989), the social competence was
evaluated. Results indicated positive effects on the social effects of the pupils involved
(Musch et al., 1992).
The King Baudouin Foundation has also been involved in part time education in a
number of Flemish schools, where youngsters could take a basic course in sports
guidance. This programme, which was included in the regular curriculum, was set up to
provide youngsters with learning experiences which were related to sport and at the same
time included more general educational aspects (such as taking responsibility and sharing
decision-making).
Youth Welfare Work
10
Youth welfare work, which is often the only formal institution these youngsters come
in contact with during their leisure time, can also be used as a way to stimulate sports
participation for underprivileged youth.
The King Baudouin Foundation set up an inventory study to identify sports
programmes for underprivileged youth in Flanders (Theeboom & De Knop, 1992). The
data were collected through a written questionnaire from all municipal sports and youth
services and to special youth welfare work. Results showed that there were only a limited
number of specific sports initiatives. Most of the programmes that were organized occur
within the youth welfare work. However, these organizations often deal with many
problems concerning the availability and the use of sports facilities. Constant occupation
by regular sports organizations and high rent make it difficult for organizers, who usually
only have limited financial resources, to offer these youth an interesting sports
programme. It is therefore necessary to provide equal chances for all to make use of the
existing local sports infrastructure.
Experiences show that, within the youth welfare work there appears to be a good
knowledge of the problems of the target group, but a lack of "sports competence"
(Theeboom & De Knop, 1992). It is therefore necessary to give youth leaders basic
information concerning the organization of sports activities (knowledge of different sports
games, organizational principles, information of sports structures, ...). However, this kind
of training can only be regarded as a first step towards the improvement of the sports
organizational and technical aspects in working with underprivileged youth. Because
while youth welfare workers should know more about the organization and
pedagogically sound guidance of sports activities, sports leaders can learn more about the
specific approach in working with underprivileged youth. Consequently, the King
Baudouin Foundation started organizing basic sport training courses for youth welfare
workers and encouraged the Flemish Training School (VTS) of the Government Sports
Administration (BLOSO) to also pay attention to specific pedagogical guidelines in
working with specific youth groups (such as young immigrants). With regard to sports
11
training courses for youth workers, a number of practical sessions have been organized
during weekends in which a variety of topics were introduced (e.g., games, rules and
organization, teaching methods in sport, etc.) (De Knop & Theeboom, 1992).
These weekends have also stimulated several youth welfare workers to enrol in the
regular training courses for recreational sports leader organized by the Flemish Sports
Administration. The King Baudouin Foundation has also sponsored training courses for
pedagogues working with juvenile delinquents who are placed in special institutions.
Sports Clubs
One of the advantages of sports participation in sports clubs is the regularity of the
activities. When sport becomes a regular activity for underprivileged youth, the
possibilities for positive social influence will increase. Furthermore, sports clubs have the
sports technical expertise as well as the required sports infrastructure.
However, not many underprivileged youngsters take part in organized sports
activities. Several studies have indicated that this is especially true for young immigrants,
where the participation is compared with the native population (Beaujon, 1986; Böck,
1986; Vanreusel, Renson, & Wijnands, 1986; Hoolt, 1987; Dequeecker, 1988). Research has
indicated that 54% of the 12 to 15-year-old immigrants in Belgium compared to 31% of
Belgian youngsters of the same age group has never had a membership in a sports club
(De Knop et al., 1994).
Many of the first generation immigrants that live in Flanders, originally came from the
countryside and, as a result, have little experience with formal leisure organizations
(Dequeecker, 1988). Consequently, most of these parents are not encouraging their
children to participate in organized sports activities. Moreover, young immigrant girls are
almost excluded from organized sports. They spend distinctly less hours on sports,
compared with the autochtonous girls (De Knop et al., 1994). Already from an early age,
they are required to spend most of their free time within their family's household. And
even if they have some time off, their sports participation is very restricted because of
12
Islamic rules, that forbid them to become involved in sports activities together with boys
(De Knop, Theeboom, Witock, & De Martelaer, 1996).
Dutch experiments have shown that specific sports stimulation programmes for
immigrant youngsters in sports clubs often fail (Van Geelen, 1988). Therefore, some
believe that sports clubs do not have a role in the sports stimulation of these youngsters,
especially because clubs are not often confronted with these problems (Terp, 1984).
However, several others still consider a sports club as an appropriate social structure for
the sports stimulation of young immigrants (Koolen, 1992; Van Dijk, 1987; Van Der
Gugten, 1988; Kruissink, 1988). According to these authors, sports clubs can play an
important role in the sports stimulation of immigrant youngsters, if some modifications
are taken into account: (a) an understanding of the cultural differences that exist between
young immigrants and native club members (Abel, 1986), (b) a clear non-discriminant
policy, which not only refers to club membership, but also to equality in chances to
participate as members of the board (Hoolt, 1987), (c) support and guidance from the local
government for the "own" (immigrant) clubs (Hoolt, 1987).
The "Fan Coaching" project can be regarded as an example of a sports stimulation
inititiative within a sports club (Van Welzenis, 1992). This project was launched in cooperation with Royal Antwerp Football (soccer) Club, Belgium's oldest soccer team. A
meeting-place was provided on the territory of the club, where young (underprivileged)
fans could meet the players of the club. Because of this kind of recognition and the attempt
to create ties between underprivileged youth and the club, they tried to take away the
young fans from the hard core of the soccer hooligans. Moreover, working this way, the
energy of the youngsters could be directed towards involvement in work and leisure
activities. After a number of succesful years with the support of the King Baudouin
Foundation, the Belgian Ministry of Internal Affairs has enclosed the Fan Coaching
projects as a part of their general policy, towards increasing security in the major urban
areas. Other similar fan coaching initiatives have started with more first division soccer
teams.
13
Finally, the Foundation has also launched a number of campaigns in which sports
clubs are encouraged to attract more young immigrants (Bossaerts, 1998). Also, youngsters
are financially supported when they are involved in sports technical or pedagogical
training courses.
Other Initiatives
Next to specific initiatives in schools, youth welfare work and sports clubs, the King
Baudouin Foundation has also started projects aimed at involving several organizations
and structures at once.
Sports infrastructure. After the realization in 1987 of a publication on the adaptation of
infrastructure and sports equipment to be used when working with underprivileged
youth, the Foundation has supported several local initiatives through two campaigns (De
Knop, Theeboom, & Loos, 1997). Each youth club, youth organization, youth service,
community work or municipality could make an application for the realization of "light
sports infrastructure" or acquisition of sports equipment. When a project complied with
the criteria, it received financial support. The criteria for infrastructure and equipment
were: (a) to be of a good quality, simple and light, (b) with the intention of activities for
underprivileged youth and an emphasis on continuation, (c) related to a project that aims
personal development and social integration, (d) a co-ordination or a consultation with
those concerned, (e) a guiding programme provided by good monitors. After a positive
evaluation of these campaigns, a third campaign was launched under the name "local
sports initiatives". This time, financial support was provided not only for infrastructure or
sports material but also for the activities themselves (De Knop et al., 1997).
Outward Bound School. The Outward Bound School is based on physical effort in
nature (Vanreusel & Laga, 1992). The activities consist of a hike of several days, climbing,
exploring caves, make bivouac, … . These activities create ideal situations for the
14
youngsters to learn more about themselves and to create a good team spirit. Such a
programme is a possible way to stimulate social integration for underprivileged youth. In
co-operation with different Flemish youth organizations, a training was organized for
mixed groups of 12 youngsters. Each training lasted for several days and was split up into
a period of some months. The individual results were evaluated during the training by a
guiding commitee with the support of the Foundation. Outward Bound School is relative
expensive and intensive, thus not always easy to realize. Because of these practical
reasons, some welfare workers have followed a course, in order to be able to organize
activities with the same methodology of Outward Bound School on their own.
"Neighbourhood Soccer". This initiative, in co-operation with the Belgian Football
(soccer) Federation (KBVB), has a tripled aim: (1) offer an equal chance for every
youngster to play soccer (while not being affiliated to a club), (2) to stimulate the provison
of better sports accommodation within easy reach and (3) to enable good teamwork with
different municipal services and youth associations (Goyvaerts, 1994). Neighbourhood
soccer is promoted by the Institute of Sports Management (ISB) and the Association of
Flemish Youth Services and Consultants (VVJ). Recently, with the support of the
federations, two more sports were included in the programme (Basketball and volleyball)
(Instituut voor Sportbeheer - Vereniging Vlaamse Jeugddiensten en -konsulenten, 1999).
Consequently, the name has been changed into "Neighbourhood ball".
Conclusion and Recommendations
Different studies and experiments show the importance of sports participation for
underprivileged youngsters. Experiences seem to indicate that, through sports,
possibilities are offered to improve the problematic situation of these youngsters. Not only
because of the intrinsic values of sport itself (effects on health, character building, etc.), but
especially because sport appears to offer an accessible way for youth workers, teachers
15
and others to get in contact with these youth. These contacts which are otherwise very
difficult to make, are an important step towards an improvement of the situation of these
youngsters.
Because of the low participation level in organized sports of underprivileged
youngsters (girls in particular), an active policy towards sports stimulation for this group
is necessary. Based on the experiences of the initiatives that have been set up by the King
Baudouin Foundation, it becomes clear that several institutions can play a role in this kind
of stimulation. All possible efforts can be useful, which means that schools, youth welfare
work, sports clubs, municipalities and others can be involved in this kind of sports
stimulation. For each separate institution can only have a limited impact. Schools have the
advantage that they can reach all pupils (especially the youngest). However, their
influence during after school hours is restricted. Youth welfare work often has a good
insight in the specific problems of the youngsters and their families. However, limited
resources make it hard for them to work on a permanent base. Sports clubs, which have
the sports technical knowledge and the appropriate infrastructure, often have difficulties
in dealing with these youngsters.
It has been the objective of the King Baudouin Foundation to encourage other
structures to take over the co-ordinating role in the organization of sports stimulation
initiatives. Here, municipalities can play an important role. Especially the municipal
sports services can be regarded as a central agent in the sports stimulation of
underprivileged youth. They can:
(1) co-ordinate all initiatives of the different structures, (2) plan and organize specific
courses for underprivileged youth, to become more instructed and involved in the
guidance of youngsters in sport and / or the policy of a sports club, (3) set up or
participate in a campaign for stimulation of (organized) sports for underprivileged youth,
especially for girls, (4) organize sports initiation sessions and competitions, (5) make
infrastructure available and (6) provide adequate sports equipment.
16
Finally, based on the experiences of the existing initiatives in Flanders, a number of
critical points can be described which appear to be important to assure a successful sports
programme for underprivileged youth. These are: (1) programmes must be adapted to the
specific situation of this youth, in other words, these projects must take advantage, on the
one hand, of the needs of the youngsters and, on the other hand, of the link with existing
social institutions, (2) the offer of sports possibilities has to be concrete and realistic, (3)
there has to be a follow up to the engagement of new participants, (4) youth welfare
workers need to have enough knowledge about sports, while those who are in charge of
sports guidance need to have insight in the specific approach of underprivileged youth,
and finally, (5) there must be a structural co-operation between the organizations of the
different initiatives in order to secure the continuity of these programmes.
17
References
Abel, T. (1986). Ausländersport und Kulturkonflikt [Sport for foreigners and cultural
conflict]. Sportunterricht, 35, 134-137.
Adolph-Volpert, H. & Bock, F. (1984). Sport ohne Grenzen. Oder wie die Integration
ausländischer Mitbürger zur Realität werden kann [Sport without frontiers. Or how the
integration of foreign fellow-citizens can become reality]. Olympische Jugend, 2, 10-13.
Beaujon, E. (1986). Minderhedensport in perspectief [Minority sport in perspective].
Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Instituut voor Sociale Geografie,
Bergmann, B. (1986). Der Stellenwert des Sports im Freizeitverhalten türkischer Jugendlicher
[The importance of sport in the leisure time of Turkish youth]. Sportunterricht, 35, 138145.
Böck, F. (1986). Sport Ohne Grenzen. Uber die Möglichkeiten des Sports bei der sozialen
Integration ausländischer Migrantenkinder [Sport without frontiers. About the
possibilities of sport in the social integration of children of foreign immigrants].
Sportunterricht, 35, 146-149.
Bossaerts, N. (1998). "Sportclubs bekennen kleur" ["Sports clubs admit color"]. Brussels,
Belgium: Koning Boudewijnstichting.
De Knop, P., De Martelaer, K., Theeboom, M., Van Engeland, E., Van Puymbroeck, L. (1994).
Sport als integratie voor migrantenjongeren. Brussels, Belgium: Vrije Universiteit Brussel
- Koning Boudewijnstichting.
De Knop, P., Engström, L.-M., Skirstad, B., & Weiss, M.R. (1996). Worldwide Trends in youth
sport. Champaign, IL.: Human Kinetics.
18
De Knop, P., & Theeboom, M. (1992). Sport als integratiemiddel voor maatschappelijk
kwetsbare jongeren [Sport as a means of integration for underprivileged youth]. In G.
Knops (Ed.), Sport als integratie: kansen voor maatschappelijk kwetsbare jongeren (pp.
37-58). Brussels, Belgium: Koning Boudewijnstichting.
De Knop, P., Theeboom, M., & Loos, M. (1997). Zeven jaar later. Een tweede evaluatie van de
campagne "Lichte sportinfrastructuur in de buurt" (1989) [Seven years later. A second
evaluation of the campaign "Light sports infrastructure in the neighbourhood"]. Brussels,
Belgium: Koning Boudewijnstichting.
De Knop, P., Theeboom, M., Wittock, H., & De Martelaer, K. (1996). Implications of Islam on
Muslim Girls' Sport Participation in Western Europe. Literature Review and Policy
Recommendations for Sport Promotion. Sport, Education and Society, 1, 147-164.
De Knop, P. & Walgrave, L. (Eds.), Sport als integratie: kansen voor maatschappelijk
kwetsbare jongeren. Brussels, Belgium: Koning Boudewijnstichting.
Dequeecker, G. (1988). Sport en vrije tijd van veertienjarigen. Vergelijkende studie bij
jongeren uit een begunstigd en achtergesteld milieu [Sport and leisure among fourteen
year olds. Comparative study among youngsters from a favored and a deprived
environment], Sport, 3, 17-20.
Goyvaerts, W. (1994). Buurtvoetbal. Een doelpunt voor integratie [Neighbourhood soccer.
A goal for integration]. Brussels, Belgium: Koning Boudewijnstichting.
Harms, H. (1984). Die soziale Zeitbombe ist noch längst nicht entschärft: Zur möglichen
Funktion des Sports bei der Integration der ausländischen Arbeitsnehmer und ihrer
Familien [The social time bomb is still not deactivated: The possible function of sport
for the integration of foreign workers and their families], Olympische Jugend, 12, 6-7.
19
Harter, S. (1988). Manual for self perception profile for adolescents, Denver: University.
Hoolt, J. (1987). We willen wel, maar... . Onderzoek naar sportdeelname van ethnische
minderheidsgroepen [We would like to, but ... . Study on the sports participation among
ethnic minority groups]. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Bestuursinformatie - Afdeling
Onderzoek en Statistiek - Afdeling Sport en Recreatie.
Instituut voor Sportbeheer - Vereniging Vlaamse Jeugddiensten en -konsulenten. (1999).
Buurt Voet/Basket/Volley Bal [Neighbourhood Soccer/Basket/Volley Ball]. Brussels,
Belgium, Belgium: Koning Boudewijnstichting.
Koolen, R. (1992). De meest gestelde vragen over allochtonen en sport [The most posed
questions with regard to immigrants and sport]. Arnhem, The Netherlands: Nederlandse
Sport Federatie.
Kruissink, M. (1988). Van padvinderij tot pretpark, van vechtsport tot volleybal [From
scouting to lunapark, from martial art to volleyball], Justitiële Verkenningen, 14, 66-85.
Manders, Th., & Kropman, J. (1979). Sportdeelname : wat weten we ervan? [Sports
participation: what do we know about it?]. Nijmegen: Instituut voor Toegepaste
Sociologie.
Meiburg, H. (1985). Twee sportprojecten met Rotterdamse randgroepjongeren [Two sports
projects with Rotterdam underprivileged youth], Landelijk Contact, 5, 16-17.
Middleton, C. (1982). Uphill Work: the story of the professor who stops crime with cricket,
Sport and Leisure, 23, 14-15.
Middleton, C. (1984). Settled out of court: Chris Middleton visits a scheme aimed at
channeling young offenders into sports, Sport and Leisure, 25, 54-55.
20
Musch, E., Mertens., B., Browaeys, B., & Laporte, W., (1992). Bevorderen van sociale
competentie bij jongeren uit het beroepsonderwijs via cooperatieve spelen
[Improvement of social competence among youngsters form vocational schools
through co-operative games]. In P. De Knop, & L. Walgrave (Eds.), Sport als integratie:
kansen voor maatschappelijk kwetsbare jongeren (pp. 98-106). Brussels, Belgium:
Koning Boudewijnstichting.
Naeyaert, D. (1982). Acculturatie van immigranten en hun vrijetijdsgedrag [Acculturation of
immigrants and their leisure behavior], Vrijetijd en Samenleving, 1, 23-48.
Nickolai, W. (1982). Sport und Sozialpädagogik mit Randgruppen. In W. Nickolai et al.
(Eds.), Sport in der sozialpädagogischen Arbeit mit Rand-gruppen (pp. 41-47).
Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany: Lambertus-Verlag.
Ruottinen, E. (1982). Olympic experience teaches how to become best: programme led by
champions for disadvantaged minority youth instills positive attitudes, WLRA Journal,
24, 20-23.
Terp. (1984). Een verkennend onderzoek naar sportscholen in Nederland [An exploratory
study of sports schools in the Netherlands]. In Redaktie: Over bloed, zweet en ... te
weinig banen. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Landelijke Contactraad.
Theeboom, M., & De Knop, P. (1992). Inventarisatie binnen het jeugdwelzijnswerk in
Vlaanderen [Inventarisation witghin the youth welfare work in Flanders]. In P. De
Knop, & L. Walgrave (Eds.), Sport als integratie: kansen voor maatschappelijk
kwetsbare jongeren (pp. 119-128), Brussels, Belgium: Koning Boudewijnstichting.
21
Theeboom, M., De Knop, P., & Bollaert, L. (1989). Sportstimulering voor kansarme
jongeren te Antwerpen [Sports stimulation for underprivileged youth in Antwerp],
Sport, 31, 26-33.
Theeboom, M., De Knop, P., & Gittenaer, M. (1990). Schoolsport-initiatie van voor
kansarme jeugd: een experiment te Antwerpen [Schoolsport initiation for
underprivileged youth: an experiment in Antwerp], Sport, 32, 10-15.
Theeboom, M., De Knop, P., & Gittenaer, M. (1992). Sport in het deeltijds onderwijs: een
actie-onderzoek te Antwerpen [Sport in part time education: an action research in
Antwerp]. In P. De Knop, & L. Walgrave (Eds.), Sport als integratie: kansen voor
maatschappelijk kwetsbare jongeren (pp. 91-95), Brussels, Belgium: Koning
Boudewijnstichting.
Van Ancum, R., & Meiburg, H. (1987). Doelgroepenbeleid: zoekt en gij zult vinden? Randgroepjongeren en sport [Target group policy: seek and you shall find?
Underprivileged youth and sport], Recreatie, 25, 8-11.
Van der Gugten, M. (1988). De sport als aangrijpingspunt voor criminaliteitspreventie [
Sport as an attraction pointfor crime prevention], Justitiële Verkenningen, 14, 86-112.
Van Dijk, J.J.M. (1987). De rol van sportbeoefening bij de preventie van criminaliteit [The
role of sport participation in the prevention of crime]. Paper presented at the work
conference: Sport, agressie en vandalisme: Bestrijdend? Bevorderend? Noord-wijk aan
Zee, The Netherlands: Landelijke Contactraad.
Van Geelen, W. (1988). Hedendaagse ontwikkelingen binnen het sportbeleid in Nederland
[Contemporary developments within the sport policy in the Netherlands], Handboek
22
lichamelijke opvoeding en sportbegeleiding (2). Deventer, The Netherlands: van Loghum
Slaterus.
Van Oost, P., Braem, M., De Ruyck., H., & Mommerency. G. (1989). Bevorderen van
sociale competentie bij kinderen [Improvement of social competence among children].
Leuven, Belgium: Acco.
Van Welzenis, I. (1992). "Fan-coaching": De preventieve aanpak van het voetbalgeweld en
-vandalisme ["Fan-coaching": The preventive approach of soccer violence and
vandalism]. In P. De Knop, & L. Walgrave (Eds.), Sport als integratie: kansen voor
maatschappelijk kwetsbare jongeren (pp. 159-171). Brussels, Belgium: Koning
Boudewijnstichting.
Vanreusel, B. & Bulcaen, F. (1992). De sociale betekenis van sportdeelname [The social
meaning of sports participation]. Leuven, Belgium: SOCK.
Vanreusel, B., & Laga, G. (1992). Natuursport als vormingsmiddel voor maatschappelijk
kwetsbare jongeren: initiatieven in Vlaanderen [Outdoor sports as a means of
education for underprivileged youth: initiatives in Flanders]. In P. De Knop, & L.
Walgrave (Eds.), Sport als integratie: kansen voor maatschappelijk kwetsbare jongeren
(pp. 137-158). Brussels, Belgium: Koning Boudewijnstichting.
Vanreusel, B., Renson, R., & Wijnands, B., (1986). Sport participation and social
integration: a case study among young immigrants. In R. Delbaere et al. (Eds.), Free
Time in Cities (pp. 209-210). Vienna, Austria: European Leisure and Recreation
Association.
Walgrave, L. (1992). Maatschappelijke kwetsbaarheid van jongeren als opdracht [Social
vulnerability of youngsters as an assignment]. In P. De Knop, & L. Walgrave (Eds.),
23
Sport als integratie: kansen voor maatschappelijk kwetsbare jongeren (pp. 19-36),
Brussels, Belgium: Koning Boudewijnstichting.