Eclectic approaches by worker-learners to authentic work-based
learning and assessment
Hilary Timma
Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, Australia
Abstract
Current literature on workplace learning focuses, in part, on the impacts of individual
agency, the socio-cultural contributions of the group to learning and the ways in which
these facets of learning can and do inter-relate. Less is known about socially-generated
work-based learning activities/interactions with work-based others, who contribute to an
individual’s learning in some way. These interactions might include another person/s in
the workplace whose experience and/or intuition indicate that it is time to say or do
something to assist, encourage or comment on what is taking place. Equally, interactions
may be initiated by worker-learners, who identify a work colleague or a learning
opportunity from which they could benefit in some way.
This paper reports on a qualitative research study, currently in progress, which is
investigating how authentic work-based learning experiences might contribute to better
practice. A small group of 13 mature-aged learners from a variety of workplaces, who
have completed VET-based studies by distance education, demonstrate an eclectic
approach to managing their learning, as well as to the ways in which they identify
learning opportunities and engage with others to enhance their learning. By examining
how these people learn and are assessed, this study seeks to contribute to understanding
about how working knowledge is developed through work-based social and individual
contexts.
Introduction
Drawing on a small-scale study, designed to investigate how authentic work-based
learning experiences, which includes work-based assessment, may contribute to better
practice, this paper reports on some preliminary findings from the questionnaire-phase
(part A) of the study. Authentic experiences include: learning on-the-job, applying skills
and knowledge acquired on the job; and, completing formal assessment tasks based on
actual work practices, including work-based projects. The focus is on a cohort of 13
mature-aged worker-learners who have recently completed distance-based studies in the
Certificate IV in Training and Assessment (Cert IV TAA) through a registered training
organisation (RTO) and who have directly experienced and applied their learning and
assessment in work-based settings. These learners all studied with support from an RTO
learning facilitator/assessor and some also had work-based mentors or coaches available
for guidance. While these distance-based learners may undertake their studies in relative
isolation from one another (Lewis, 2010), their own workplaces are direct sources of
practical opportunities to complete authentic tasks including work-based projects, which
also contribute to formal assessment and to develop working skills and knowledge in a
number of ways (Boud & Garrick, 1999), including from: observation, questioning,
trial-and-error, feedback and their everyday work activities (Billett, 2001; 2006). These
1
worker-learners generally (but not exclusively) initiate and manage a number of their
own learning opportunities for both formal and informal purposes; and, this study seeks
to explore the things that they value from their workplace learning, how these things are
developed and applied, who was/is involved in the learning and how critical is that
involvement. In this paper, the focus is on how individuals respond to work-based
learning opportunities in the sociality of their workplace environment while undertaking
formal studies by distance-based education.
Literature review
Learning at and through work is not a new concept, as skills development through
practicing the occupation, is how people have traditionally learned (Billett, 2010). More
recently, work-based (or integrated) learning arrangements in higher education include
internships and work placements, to produce graduates who are more ‘workplace-ready’
(Goulter, 2011). The vocational education and training (VET) sector also employs a
variety of work-based learning practices, through workplace-based traineeships and
apprenticeships, as well as through on-the-job and off-the-job programmes and courses,
that integrate formal studies (at Institutes, through RTOs and/or in workplaces) with
learning through work-based practice. Indeed, everyday work involves the practice and
development of skills to construct knowledge.
Work-based learning theory can be viewed through a variety of prisms and it is the
social constructivist perspective that is most relevant to this study. The complex
relationship between individual and socially-located contributions to learning in the
workplace occurs in a constantly evolving learning environment (Billett, 2006); and, this
view of the sociality of work-based learning identifies and examines how learning is
complex and multi-faceted. Furthermore, it assists in enhancing our understanding about
how and what learners ‘learn’, by their engaging with a variety of work-based learning
and formal assessment experiences, as active participants in communities of practice
(Wenger, 1998). By interacting socially, at and through work, worker-learners construct
meaning and develop understanding (Vygotsky, 1978). The construction of knowledge
through social interaction includes collaborative decision-making, discussions and
problem-solving on-the-job, impromptu chats, as well as from formal activities
including assessment practices. While workplaces provide multiple and varied learning
experiences (Boud & Garrick, 1999), worker-learners also demonstrate their individual
agency (Billett & Pavlova, 2005; Billett, 2006) by initiating their own learning
opportunities and making sophisticated decisions and discerning choices about what
they will learn, when they will learn and who they will engage with at work, to enhance
and support their learning. It follows that, in socially-determined work-based practices,
individuals decide how they participate and what they learn from their experience
(Billett, 2004, p.316). Others in the workplace, such as colleagues, supervisors and
mentors, through experience or intuition (or both) may also identify opportunities where
they may act or intervene in some way to assist, guide or comment on what is taking
place for an individual. These are all social acts and it is this social engagement (and
intervention) that is most relevant to this study.
Acquisition of knowledge and practical skills is intertwined through social interactions
and social participation in the workplace (Lave & Wenger, 1991; Wenger, 1998; Boud
et al., 2006) and there is a relational interdependence between social and individual
2
agency in learning throughout working life (Billett, 2006; Lewis, 2010), of which workbased learning and assessment practices form a not insignificant part. While work-based
learners, who study and are assessed by distance education, are usually physically
distanced from their formal facilitator/assessor and from other learners (many distancebased learners neither communicate with, nor know one another), they are socially
located in their workplace, where they move between learning socially from everyday
work experiences and interactions, to making decisions individually (and also with
others), for both work-based activities and for formal studies. These individual and
social contributions to learning have multi-faceted dimensions and complexities (Billett,
2006) and workers demonstrate the ability to negotiate between the social and individual
in an eclectic fashion, that is, they select from and utilize a variety of sources and
supports to manage their learning. Socio-cultural and individual contributions to
learning clearly differ significantly from one another, yet these ways of learning may
also share common aspects that change in response to individual, as well as situational
and social influences (Lewis, 2010).
Work-based assessment activities can be most effective when they provide significant
learning opportunities, by not only enabling judgments to be made about the learning,
but also requiring substantial involvement over time and engagement on appropriate
tasks (Boud & Associates, 2010). For example, work-based projects, as formal
assessment events, provide real-time learning that builds on worker skills and abilities
and can also contribute to the work of the organisation. These projects provide
reciprocal (two-way) learning opportunities and, when the worker-learner is engaged in
participating in these learning activities, their involvement can support the development
of both formal and informal work-based learning knowledge.
Workers are expected more and more to self-manage and to take responsibility for their
own learning (Mackeracher, 2004) and workplaces require workers to learn quite
specific tasks and skills for their job, which includes informal on-the-job application and
formal learning for the acquisition of skill sets and qualifications. Some workplaces may
appoint an experienced worker to act as a mentor to guide and assist co-workers in their
learning, which can have decided benefits (for both the learner and the mentor) and also
negative implications (Billett, 2003). When a mentor is ‘imposed’ on a worker-learner,
or is not amenable to the task – the mentoring role may be intimidating, too demanding,
unwelcome, or unrewarding – then the learning experience may be diminished, or even
rejected by the worker-learner. Recognizing the ways that workers determine what is
advantageous for them to learn, including identifying when, how and who can assist
them with their learning; and, how they might select and engage with opportunities to
learn in the workplace (expressing their individual agency), can add to our
understanding about how working knowledge is developed.
Research methodology
A small-scale qualitative research study using ethnographic approaches (Creswell,
2007), commenced in September 2011 and is being conducted with the co-operation of
CSU Training, which is the registered training organisation (RTO) of Charles Sturt
University. The sole researcher is completing the research study in her own time. Initial
data has been gathered and reduced from responses to a questionnaire (part A of the
study) returned by a small sample of distance-based learners, who completed the
3
Certificate IV in Training and Assessment (Cert IV TAA) through CSU Training in the
past two years. Initially, 25 past-students (from a cohort of approximately 100 who
have completed the Cert IV TAA) were approached by letter to be involved in the study.
Thirteen respondents, comprising 7 males and 6 females, agreed to participate and
entered the research project voluntarily. All of the respondents are mature-aged learners,
with the majority aged between 31 to 45 years of age. A variety of work sectors are
represented: horticulture, health, hospitality, education, trades, community
services/development and policing/law enforcement. The principal job role in their
organisation for 5 of the respondents is in education/learning and development. The 8
remaining respondents provide some training and/or assessment as part of their overall
work role. Twelve of the respondents completed their Cert IV TAA by distance
education in 2010/2011 and 1 completed in late 2009. On average, it took each of them
between 12 to 18 months to complete the qualification. The highest level of formal
education achieved by the respondents ranges from Cert IV level to degree level, with 2
respondents holding post-graduate degrees. The main motivations for the 13 respondents
to undertake the Cert IV TAA were: career development (6); to maintain currency of
their VET teaching qualification (6); as a requirement of their organisation/workplace
(5); to improve current practice and update skills (4); and, because the opportunity was
offered to them (2). Respondents reside mainly in Australia (10 from urban and
regional/rural NSW and 1 from Western Australia) and 2 live and work overseas. Due to
considerable geographical distances from the RTO and the researcher, a questionnaire
was considered to be the most practical way to obtain initial feedback from participants.
The questionnaire contains five work-based learning topics with sub-questions:
1. Personal and work details including: age, gender, work sector, years in their
current organisation, current job role, time taken and motivation/s to complete the
Cert IV TAA
2. Learning methods and preferences that helped respondents to learn best (a) in
their work; and (b) in their Cert IV TAA studies
3. Assessment methods and preferences that (a) helped respondents to learn best in
their Cert IV studies; and (b) why these methods helped them to learn best
4. Learning through work and formal studies
 what the learning facilitator/assessor did that was (a) most helpful (if
anything) in their studies; and (b) why these things were helpful
 the most (and least) helpful things in their workplace that impacted on their
studies; and (b) why these things were most/least helpful
 what (if anything) were the benefits to the organisation/workplace in their
undertaking the Cert IV TAA
5. Social interaction in the workplace
 the importance of sociality in the learning process
 networks/social contacts utilized during their Cert IV TAA studies
 the most useful/helpful forms of social interaction for their studies
 the usefulness of peer support in work-based learning
This paper focuses mainly on the data relating to topics 4 and 5 above, that is, how
respondents learn through their work and studies, including from authentic work-based
assessment and the social nature of their learning.
4
Part B of the study, currently being arranged, comprises semi-structured telephone
interviews, with 6 of the 13 respondents. The questions for the telephone interviews are
guided by the analyzed data from part A of the study. The 6 respondents have been
identified, due principally to their availability to participate in the telephone interviews
and also to encompass a range of ages, gender, geographical location, work sectors and
motivations for undertaking their studies. Face-to-face interviews (part C of the study)
will be undertaken with 3 CSU Training staff members, who facilitate and assess
learning in the Cert IV TAA by distance education mode, as part of their work roles.
Pseudonyms are used in the study to maintain anonymity for the participants and for the
companies for which the respondents work/have worked. Limitations of the study
include it being on a small scale, being conducted by one researcher, as well as work
commitments encroaching on/scarcity of time for, respondents to participate in
telephone and/or face-to-face interviews. The preliminary findings discussed in the
following section are drawn from questionnaire responses made by the 13 respondents.
Findings and discussion
The preliminary analysis and findings reported here are based on data that were gathered
and reduced from the questionnaire (part A of the study) conducted with the 13
respondents. The focus in the discussion is on the social nature of work-based learning
and assessment practices, through interactions with colleagues, experienced others and
RTO learning facilitators, who engage with the worker-learner in their everyday work
practices and/or for formal learning and assessment events for the Cert IV TAA.
Support ‘at a distance’ during studies
A variety of support mechanisms, provided by the RTO and also identified within
workplaces, assisted and guided respondents to undertake their studies by distance
mode. The RTO provided each learner with a learning facilitator, whose role it was to
guide and support the learner during their studies (principally by email and telephone
discussions) and to provide written reports and feedback on assessment tasks. Seven of
the respondents did have some limited face-to-face contact with a learning facilitator
(though not necessarily with one another) in occasional Workshops, but this was not the
major means of communication used. Responses indicate that this facilitator support
was invaluable to all 13 respondents and included the facilitator, ‘being readily available
so I could contact her to progress through my studies’ and ‘answering all questions in a
timely manner, no matter how small’. Having the learning facilitator provide
‘constructive feedback and consistent motivation’ throughout the learning and
assessment ‘guided the learning process’, while ‘the provision of samples of work was
very handy in giving me an idea of what was expected’, as well as ‘pointing me to
references and resources when I needed them’. Learning by distance mode, where firsthand social contact and interaction with the learning facilitator is not readily (or
consistently) available, could diminish or hinder the learning experience for workerlearners. Yet, the mechanisms put in place by the RTO are identified by respondents in
this study as being very supportive and welcome. Harry voiced the sentiment of others
in the study, regarding the importance of time, which is needed to learn new things well
‘Learning new skills takes time and it was great having someone (facilitator) who would
give you ample practice and time so you could have a good understanding of what skill
5
you had to learn’. Tom found that ‘distance learning often feels isolated and it is
difficult to ‘bounce’ ideas with others or to check if one is heading in the right direction,
so facilitator support was crucial for me’. In Tara’s case, she ‘dearly missed the
classroom experience to be able to throw ideas and concepts around, to be able to
discuss problems and confusions with fellow students and the teacher, so, my regular
contact with my facilitator and our discussions compensated for this lack of classroom
interaction’. These responses all highlight the significance of socially-located learning
support, whether by means of distance-based communication from the RTO facilitator
via emails and telephone conversations, or from limited/irregular face-to-face meetings.
The respondents demonstrate a capacity to develop their working knowledge to their
best advantage by utilizing and negotiating those social support mechanisms that are
available to them. The types of learning experiences that assisted respondents to learn
best will now be discussed.
Authentic learning experiences
Undertaking work-based studies for the Cert IV TAA had both positive and negative
implications for the respondents in the study. Having support from work colleagues
(including from management) and that assessment tasks were work-related and had
practical application, were of most benefit to respondents. James ‘had already been
doing most tasks on a daily basis’ and Harry found ‘that the work-based studies were
designed to fit into my workplace and specific jobs I was performing’. For Ned, this
‘practical application on-the-job helped learning’ coupled with ‘peer support which was
very helpful. Some of the officers at work devoted their personal time for this cause.
They volunteered for project work’ and Maddy’s ‘manager got involved in job activities
that I needed to do in order to complete the TAA’. Tara also had support from a number
of sources, as ‘my workplace supported my studies financially which was wonderful and
my manager supported my studies as well. My work colleagues were excellent and also
supported me throughout my studies’. For Trish, ‘co-operation by my workplace
colleagues and enthusiasm to try something new’ proved to be very helpful in getting
through her studies. It is evident that there is a meshing between the support elicited and
received from colleagues (for all respondents) and management (for some respondents)
and also the relevance of the learning and assessment tasks. Having assessment tasks
that are based on authentic work-based activities supports the engagement of colleagues,
as it is part of their everyday work, rather than detracting from or interfering with, that
work. Most significant for the respondents was their ability to apply and practice the
learning in the workplace which ‘helps reinforcement of the knowledge’ and ‘you could
understand how to apply new knowledge in what context’. Lee found this helpful
because ‘it enabled me to complete many of the assessment tasks in a real environment
rather than a simulated one’. Ongoing support from work colleagues and management
also enabled the learning to go more smoothly for Nadine and Trish ‘It’s really
important to be able to feed off ideas and share your thoughts with colleagues to make
sure you are on the right track’ and ‘they embraced the opportunity to contribute ideas
and input’. Surprisingly and quite unexpectedly, management ‘provided a sense of
support which is rare’ and this was a real eye-opener for Tom. These authentic learning
experiences enabled respondents to view their colleagues (and also management) in a
different way and to appreciate the support and encouragement that they were given for
6
their studies. This demonstrates learning as social participation, through engaging in and
contributing to, real practices in their work-based communities (Wenger, 1998).
Having said this, workplaces were also a source of frustration for respondents, who were
trying to fit formal studies in and around their job. Lack of time to undertake studies
while at work was an issue for the majority of the respondents and Lee was frustrated
that ‘there was no time allocation towards studies – it all had to be done in my own time
despite the fact that I was required to do it’. ‘Finding time to collect evidence during
work time’ was a problem for Anne and, for Tara, her ‘work environment is very busy,
so whilst I had time allowed to study it was very difficult to put the time aside’. This is
similar to Harry’s concern because ‘my other duties were not put on hold’ to allow for
study. Naturally, work requirements take precedence over studies and this was
exacerbated for Ned because ‘staff shortages and frequent fluctuations of roster meant
that there was a paucity of time’ available for dedicated learning for the Cert IV TAA.
Lack of time for studies and assessment is an ongoing issue in VET (see for example
Dickson & Bloch, 1999). For several of the respondents there was also ‘lack of direct
support from the manager’ and one respondent complained that ‘while the workplace
agreed to contribute to education expense, in the end, they did not’. Lack of time to
study at work affected Anne in quite a curious way ‘To have time to study at work
sounds good, but my brain cannot switch over from work mode to study mode. I need a
quiet home environment to concentrate’. Sandra also found that she has ‘only so much
brain space’ to devote to her studies while trying to work as well. These comments are
of interest because the respondents view learning, on the one-hand, as being supported
to some degree by their workplaces and colleagues. Yet, on the other-hand, they
distinguish between those opportunities to engage in real work tasks to support their
learning and assessment and lack of time and support to engage in ‘their studies’. This
demonstrates a possible distinction, or delineation, between how they perceive their
formal studies and those workplace practices that contribute to their formal learning.
Respondents were asked to select from a list, those assessment methods that helped
them to learn best for their Cert IV TAA and to explain why these methods were best.
Methods listed were: verbal questioning, written questioning, self-assessment,
interview, questionnaire, verbal/written examinations, work samples or products, workbased projects, role play, case study, problem-solving, making a presentation to a group,
portfolio of documents, portfolio of products e.g. work samples, journal/log book,
information about life experience, third party feedback, recognition of prior learning
(RPL), observation of real work tasks, observation of simulated work tasks, faultfinding/problem-solving. The most preferred assessment method (10 respondents) was
work-based projects and a variety of responses demonstrates their usefulness and
practicality ‘these (projects) helped me innovatively apply theoretical knowledge in
practical situations’ (Ned) and ‘guided you through your learning’ (Harry). Importantly
for James, they ‘give real problems to solve’ and they were time efficient for Sandra
because ‘it was easier to find time for work-related projects’. Undertaking real projects
also meant that the final results ‘can be used in the job afterwards’ (Maddy), while
projects also provided better understanding and ‘helped contextualize the learning’ for
Tara. This feedback demonstrates a general preference for authentic assessment
practices that relate directly to the work and contribute in a real way to the respondents’
learning, as well as to the work of their organisation. While space does not allow for
7
further discussion in this paper on other assessment preferences, half or more of the
respondents also preferred: work samples or products (9), third party feedback (7),
portfolio of documents (7), verbal questioning (6) and making a presentation to a group
(6). Interestingly, 9 of the respondents had a preference for written questioning and this
is due mainly to the ability of respondents to answer written tasks at their own pace and
in their own time. All of the respondents clearly expressed the benefits of applying their
learning and being assessed on real work-based tasks and Sandra’s response
encapsulates this well ‘It was easier to understand what you were learning, as you could
put it into practice straight away and so consolidate your learning’. Anne was
appreciative because she ‘did not have to make up a project and could use real facts’
when preparing assessment evidence and this is echoed by Maddy, as it was ‘not just a
lot of theory in your head. Having the practical side of it covered helped and it is exactly
what is needed in my job’. ‘The fact that it, the assessment, was REAL (own emphasis)
– I am over scenarios’ suited Tom’s pragmatism well. Nadine also found that she ‘can
contextualize what you are learning which helps fasten (speed up) the learning process
and make it more enjoyable’. The majority of respondents also acknowledged real
benefits to their organisation in their undertaking authentic work-based learning and
assessment activities for their studies. Lee’s organisation (horticulture business) ‘has
more qualified workers with training that is relevant to their field of work’, as a direct
result of Lee completing the Cert IV TAA and Eric, who is involved in community
development, identified that ‘other staff benefited from my studies as I improved the
overall skills and knowledge base of my immediate colleagues’. Tara’s workplace (part
of a multi-site organisation) ‘has recently undergone a restructure and this presents a
huge need and opportunities within the training arena, which in turn, should assist the
workplace in meeting its goals and development plans’. Likewise Anne, who works in
the health sector as a nurse educator, was able to ‘improve current practice in the place
and update and improve any processes’ as a direct result of her Cert IV TAA studies.
Sandra is involved in community services education and ‘was able to immediately
improve my practice when training other staff – I was more aware of how I needed to
contextualize learning and had more methods in my toolbox of how to train others’.
Trish is employed in the Hospitality industry in ‘areas of food safety, OHS, disaster
management, general safety, threat and security. I now can share my skills and
knowledge with my colleagues in a coordinated, consistent manner’. Organisations
have benefited directly from respondents completing their Cert IV TAA and this is
important because it demonstrates the reciprocity of the learning and the ways that
individual agency (Billett & Pavlova, 2005) responds to and is shaped by, sociallylocated learning practices.
Identifying social contacts and creating alliances
All of the respondents utilized work-based networks and/or social contacts to some
extent to support their Cert IV TAA studies. As previously identified, work colleagues
were accessed by all 13 respondents (to a greater or lesser degree) to assist with study
requirements and this could be due, partly, to colleagues being readily available in the
immediate work area, as well as colleagues being sought out (or targeted) by
respondents for a specific purpose. Three of the respondents ‘also consulted others who
were already qualified’ and ‘who had studied this programme (Cert IV TAA) before’.
So, respondents show resourcefulness when it comes to creating alliances with
8
individuals they identify as useful to their formal learning. Outside the immediate
workplace, 3 respondents identified their learning facilitator as a valuable social contact
to assist with their learning and 1 respondent, who worked overseas during her studies,
thought laterally by using ‘contacts in Australia for surf life-saving’ to assist her. While
contact with the RTO learning facilitator for 6 respondents, in the form of email
communication and phone calls, was the most valuable form of indirect social
interaction for the Cert IV TAA studies, it was a different story for 5 other respondents,
who preferred informal discussions in the workplace. Tara ‘found talking to my
colleagues very handy, as they offered ideas and insights into issues I had or were a very
handy sounding board for ideas and notions I had and was developing’. For Tom ‘some
discussions with colleagues in departments based in other areas provided crosspollination of ideas’ and Trish engaged other workplace sources, including ‘with the
training arm of my (organisation) they shared some of their processes and information
with me’ as well as ‘other Certificate IV TAA graduates, my friends, who shared their
(learning) experiences with RTOs’. Sandra took a pragmatic approach ‘working on joint
projects with work colleagues was beneficial as it was easy to get together’. So, while it
is evident that social interaction assisted respondents with their Cert IV TAA studies,
judgements were made about the most useful others in the workplace and also from the
RTO who might benefit them most in their learning. Peer support for all respondents
assisted in other interesting ways, as Nadine found that peer support for her studies
‘provides a common goal in the workplace’, while Harry recognized that peer support
not only ‘helps encourage your progress (it also) generates a good social network in the
office workplace’. ‘Learning teams, where team members can share their experiences
and make strategies to overcome impediments’ with the studies assisted Harry and the
opportunity for colleagues ‘to give encouragement to complete the studies (through)
small chats’ assisted Anne the most. These responses suggest that respondents not only
identify colleagues in their workplace who may benefit their learning and take steps to
initiate alliances with these colleagues; they also appreciate that their work-based
learning is not all about their Cert IV TAA studies and that there are useful outcomes (or
by-products) of the learning that contribute directly to the development of their
communities of practice.
Conclusions
This paper reports on the preliminary analysis and tentative findings from part A
(questionnaire) of a 3-part qualitative data-gathering methodology, for a small-scale
study investigating ways that authentic work-based learning and assessment may
contribute to better practice. Thus far, respondents in this study demonstrate their
individual agency and social engagement in their workplace by taking an eclectic
approach to their learning and assessment; and, by making discerning choices about
engaging in learning opportunities that are presented to them and also initiating
opportunities to enhance their learning. These preliminary findings from part A of the
study, guide the direction of the questions for part B, which involves semi-structured
telephone interviews with 6 of the respondents. Topics identified for part B of the study
are:
 Identifying three things they value from their work-based learning
 How these things are developed/learned and applied
9


When, how and who else is involved in the learning
How critical is that involvement
References
Billett, S. (2001). Learning in the workplace: Strategies for effective practice. Crows
Nest NSW, Allen and Unwin.
Billett, S. (2003). Workplace mentors: Demands and benefits. Journal of Workplace
Learning, 15:3, 105-113.
Billett, S. (2004). Workplace participatory practices: Conceptualising workplaces as
learning environments. The Journal of Workplace Learning, 16:6, 312-324.
Billett, S. (2006). Relational interdependence between social and individual agency in
work and working life. Mind, Culture and Activity, 13:1, 53-69.
Billett, S. (2010). The practices of learning through occupations, 59-81. Billett, S. (ed).
Learning through practice: Models, traditions, orientations and approaches. Dordrecht,
London, Springer.
Billett, S. and Pavlova, M. (2005). Learning through working life: Self and individual’s
agentic action. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 24:3, 195-211.
Boud, D. and Garrick, J. (eds). (1999). Understanding learning at work. London,
Routledge.
Boud, D. Cressey, P. and Docherty, P. (2006). Productive reflection at work: Learning
for changing organisations. New York, NY, Routledge.
Boud, D. and Associates (2010). Assessment 2020: Seven propositions for assessment
reform in higher education. Sydney: Australian Learning and Teaching Council.
Creswell, J.W. (2007). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five
approaches (2nd edn). Thousand Oaks, CA, Sage publications.
Dickson, M. and Bloch, B. (1999). Not just falling over the line? A snapshot of
competency-based assessment. Leabrook, SA, NCVER.
Goulter, I. (2011). Keynote presentation at The 2011 Practice-Based Education Summit.
Sydney, CSU. April 7.
Lave, J. and Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation.
Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
Lewis, J. (2010). VET provisions for learning in the changing road transport industry.
Paper presented at the 13th Annual AVETRA Conference, Surfers Paradise, Queensland.
April 8-9.
Mackeracher, D. (2004). Making sense of adult learning (2nd edn). Toronto, University
of Toronto Press.
Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Mind in society. M. Cole, V. John-Steiner, S. Scribner & E.
Souberman (eds). Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press.
Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of practice: Learning, meaning and identity.
Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
10