Chapter # 6: Cognition and Intelligence
Algorithm
Heuristic
Insight
Prototype
Fixation
Mental Set
Functional
Fixedness
Confirmation
Bias
Representative
Heuristic
Availability
Heuristic
Overconfidence
Bias
Framing
Belief
Perseverance
Belief Bias
Phoneme
Morpheme
Grammar
-systemic, mechanical approaches that guarantee an eventual answer
to a problem
-intuitive rules of thumb
-short cuts in problem solving
-sudden appearance of an answer or solution to a problem
-a model
-“best example” of a particular thing
- Inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective
-Tendency to approach a problem with the mindset of what has
worked previously
- trapped in seeing one particular prescribed use for some object
ex. Looking for a screwdriver when a dime
would turn the screw
-the search for information that supports a particular view
-hinders problem solving by distorting objectivity
-judge objects and events in terms of how closely they match the
prototype of that object of event
-ex: high school athletes are less intelligent
- judged by what events come readily to mind
-the tendency to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and
judgments
-the way a question is phrased
-a person only sees the evidence that supports a particular position
despite evidence presented to the contrary (Stubbornness)
-the tendency for our preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning,
making illogical conclusions seem valid or logical conclusions to
seem invalid
-smallest unit of speech sounds in a given language that are still
distinct in sound from each other
-phonemes combines to create these, the smallest semantically
meaningful parts of language
-a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and
understand others
-ex: “ch”
-ex: review consists of 2 morphemes
Chapter # 6: Cognition and Intelligence
Semantics
Syntax
Stages of
Language
Acquisition
Holophrastic
Speech
Telegraphic
Speech
Critical period
Chomsky vs.
Skinner
Whorf’s
Linguistic
Relativity
Hypothesis
-a set of rules we use to derive meaning from morphemes, words, and
sentences
-set of rules used for appropriate word order
-infants make cooing noises (utterance of phonemes)
-babbling (phonemes within infants’ home language)
- “holophrases” (one word stage)
- two word stage and telegraphic speech
-single terms that are applied by the infants to broad categories of things
-two or three word groups
-sounds like a telegram
-proposes a window of time during which a child is especially ready to
learn language and which further suggests that if that opportunity is
missed that it might be too late to catch up
-intertwined with nature/nurture themes
-refers to a time during which a skill or ability must develop
-Chomsky: Nativist perspective, idea that human brain has an innate
capacity for acquiring language (language acquisition device) possibly
during a critical period of time after birth; born with universal sense of
grammar; “pre wired” for language
-Skinner: nurture view, language learned through a shaping process,
reinforcement, and imitation
-speakers of diff languages develop diff cognitive systems as a result of
differences in language
-language guides and determines thinking; language influences thought
-language determines and limits experiences
Intelligence
Flynn Effect
Stanford- Binet
Test
G-factor
-recent finding that IQ scores in America have steadily risen in the last
half century while SAT scores have declined in that same period
-widely used intelligence test measuring an individual’s “IQ”
(intelligence quotient)
-mental age divided by chronological age times 100
-general intelligence which can be empirically assessed
-“G” is supported by specific abilities (“S”) like mathematical
computation, ability to read and write, etc.
ex. want juice
-ex: people of Burma have many words for rice
b/c it’s critical to way of life, it involves more
categorization and complexity
Chapter # 6: Cognition and Intelligence
Savant
Syndrome
Crystallized vs.
Fluid
Intelligence
Emotional
Intelligence
-individuals with serious cognitive limitations such as mental retardation
who possess a remarkable talent in, for example, music or art
-crystallized: specific knowledge of facts and information
-fluid: ability to think in terms of abstract concepts and symbolic
relationships
-EQ
-builds on interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligence
-ability to perceive, express, understand, and regulate emotions
-suggested by Robert Goleman
-achievement tests: assess knowledge gained
-aptitude tests: evaluate a person’s abilities
Achievement
vs. Aptitude
Standardization -assessments given in same manner, under same time limitations, & with
Normal Bell
Curve
Reliability
identical instructions
- tested on sample before hand
-if we could assess the IQ of every human being and then plot each
score, we would have a perfectly symmetrical distribution with the
largest percentage of individuals falling within 1 standard deviation away
from the mean in either direction
-very small percentage would fall at either extreme
-measure of how consistent test is in measurement provided; likelihood
an individual would get similar score if tested w/ same test on separate
occasions
-test-retest method – give participants a test, later give same test
-split-half – 1 group takes half the test, another group takes other half
-equivalent form - diff but similar tests covering same concepts
-inter-rater – score one grader assigns correlates with score another
grader gives
-intra-rater – score a grader gives on test match score he gave to same
test when he unknowingly grades it again
ex: AP exams (achievement)
ex: SAT (aptitude)
Chapter # 6: Cognition and Intelligence
Validity
WAIS, WISC
Degrees of
Mental
Retardation
Heritability of
Intelligence
Cultural
Bias/Fairness
Alfred Binet
Gardner’s
Multiple
Intelligences
Robert
Sternberg
-extent that test measures what it intends to; calculated by comparing
how well results from test correlate w/ other measures that assess what
test is supposed to predict
-test can be reliable but not valid
-predictive validity: correlation b/t test and future performance
-content validity: does assessment test appropriate content?
-construct validity: degree to which test measures what it is supposed to
-face validity: does test evaluate what it claims to evaluate?
-criterion validity: do results from assessment correlate with results from
other measures designed to assess similar or related things?
-Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children
-Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale
- common intelligence tests
-4 levels
-mild – educable (IQ: 50-70)
-moderate – trainable (IQ: 30-50)
-severe – adult supervision (IQ: 20-30)
-profound – brain dead (IQ: below 20)
-50-60% of intelligence is hereditary
-heritability coefficient: ranges from 0-1, rough measure of proportion of
variation among individuals that can be attributed to genetic effects
-biases that are part of standardized intelligence tests
-peoples' own background is a disadvantage to them for these tests
-father of intelligence testing
-working to build a test that could help French officials identify children
who could not reasonably be expected to thrive in public schools
-7 different types of intelligences: linguistic, mathematical, spatial,
bodily-kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal, and intrapersonal
-currently working on 8th intelligence: naturalistic
-Triarchic Theory: 3 kinds of intelligence: creative, practical, and
analytical
-Triangular Theory of Love: 3 basic possible elements in a “love”
relationship: passion, commitment, and intimacy