Celina Martínez
June 2, 2005
Ethics of Development in a Global Environment
Economic Imperialism & Globalization:
Destroying Mexican Heritage
What they are doing in Teotihuacan is destroying Mexico's deepest roots for
short-term interests like lower prices. This is the flag of conquest by global
interests, the symbol of the destruction of our culture. (qtd. in
www.cnn.com)
The construction of a Wal-Mart store just a mile and a half from the ancient
temples of Teotihuacan in the fall of 2004 exemplifies the modern day clash of passions
and principles at the site of one of earth’s first great civilizations. The opening quote,
stated by an upset activist protesting the construction, expresses the conflict between
preserving cultural heritage and the drive for economic capital. The globalization of
industry and the encroachment of the United States’ commercial enterprise have threatened
the preservation of the Pre-Hispanic City of Teotihuacan, ultimately destroying Mexican
culture and pride. Wal-Mart’s infringement on the ancient site of Teotihuacan
demonstrates the rampant economic imperialism that destroys the universal rights to the
protection of one’s heritage and the rights to an authentic tourist experience.
www.clubmedvillas.com/indexen
.php
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History
Over five hundred years ago, the Aztecs named the mysterious ancient ruins near
the capital Teotihuacan. In Nahuatl, this means “City of the Gods” or “the place where
men become Gods”. Little is known about those who lived in Teotihuacan, where they
came from, what language they spoke, or what accounted for their sudden disappearance in
A.D. 750. However, it is known that from the time of Christ to the destruction of the city,
Teotihuacan was the largest and most populous urban center in the New World (The Fine
Arts Museums of San Francisco 2).
At the height of its existence, Teotihuacan was a stunning city. Dominated by its
temple, pyramids, and brightly decorated buildings bordering wide boulevards, it was the
most influential city for the area extending from northern Mexico to Guatemala, a meeting
point for Mesoamerican traders. By the fourth century, Teotihuacan’s influence was felt
throughout the lands of Mesoamerica. During its greatest time of prosperity, it was the
most populous city in Mesoamerica, containing an estimated 125,000 inhabitants. The
development of the city was seen to have involved religious belief systems, population
movements, an increase in agricultural production, technological inventions, the
establishment of trading systems, and various other social and political organizations (The
Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco 4). Ultimately, it functioned as a fervent urban
center, a human invention to be admired.
The holy city of Teotihuacan was laid out to harmonize with the heavens. The
early builders were able to do this by developing a broad boulevard that intersected
between the huge pyramidal complexes that had been erected. This avenue, known as the
“Street of the Dead”, extends over two miles, containing large concentrations of
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monumental architecture. Traveling down this boulevard, one comes across the Pyramid
of the Sun, the Pyramid of the Moon, and the Temple of Quetzalcoatl (The Fine Arts
Museums of San Francisco 8). Art and mural paintings, apartment compounds, and burials
and offerings are also common to Teotihuacan’s landscape. Explorations of this ancient
city continue to offer new artifacts and knowledge about this mysterious culture.
www.vivamexico.info
Numerous excavations, surveys, and studies have been made in Teotihuacan for
over a century. Manuel Gamio carried out the first scientific study in the years spanning
from 1917 to 1922 (Acosta 10). Since then, several explorations have revealed specific
cultural traits and have aided in linking Teotihuacan’s history with the Mesoamerican
chronological framework. Explorations in the 1960s and 1970s provided useful
knowledge about the social life of the inhabitants in the residential compounds.
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Furthermore, archaeologists from national institutions have excavated monumental
constructions since the beginning of the twentieth century (Acosta 12). Discoveries
continue to be made as scholars learn more about the civilization relevant to the PreHispanic City of Teotihuacan.
In 1987, the Pre-Hispanic City of Teotihuacan was inscribed on to the United
Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization’s (UNESCO) World Heritage
List as a cultural property. The purpose of this organization is to “encourage the
identification, protection and preservation of cultural and natural heritage around the world
considered to be of outstanding value to humanity” (http://whc.unesco.org). In order to be
included on the World Heritage List, properties must satisfy certain selection criteria.
Teotihuacan was accepted as a
masterpiece of human creative genius…[exhibiting] an important
interchange of human values…[bearing] a unique or at least exceptional
testimony to a cultural tradition or civilization which is living or has
disappeared. (http://whc.unesco.org)
It was also viewed as “an outstanding example of a…landscape which illustrates a
significant stage…in human history” and to “be directly or tangibly associated with events
or living traditions, with ideas or with beliefs, or with artistic and literary works of
outstanding universal significance” (http://whc.unesco.org). Equally important was the
authenticity of the site and the plans for which it would be managed and protected. In the
late 1980s, when the site became part of the World Heritage List, advocates were
concerned that the unique Mexican site would become “prey both to heavy development
projects and unbridled urbanization” (http://whc.unesco.org). Furthermore, the
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International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS), aware of the critical nature of
the site, requested the immediate development and implementation of an adequate
management plan that would protect the future heritage of Teotihuacan. Unfortunately, no
such management was ever prepared. Consequentially, the site’s third largest structure, the
Temple of Quetzalcoatl, has suffered severe deterioration. It is now part of the World
Monuments Watch Most Endangered Sites since 1998 (http://www.wmf.org).
Additionally, the “prey” of industrial development, precisely what the conservationists
feared, has now become a threatening reality.
Wal-Mart
On October 6, 2004, the U.S. retail giant, Wal-Mart Stores Incorporated, won the
permit to build their Bodega Aurrera, a branch of the Wal-Mart subsidiary, in a tract of
land less than a mile away from the Pre-Hispanic City of Teotihuacan. The two thousand
year old pyramids are now neighbors to a 71,902 square foot American industry. This
construction, a prime example of economic imperialism, aroused much controversy and
ardent activism.
A diverse group of artists, actors, academics, local merchants, and indigenous
organizations led the protest to stop the construction of Wal-Mart, arguing that such an
enterprise would significantly damage Mexico’s rich cultural heritage. Essentially,
Teotihuacan is a remarkable human accomplishment central to Mexico’s history. It
exemplifies the powerful architectural, historical, and spiritual legacies central to Mexican
culture. Activists fought to preserve this heritage. Through various ceremonies, hunger
strikes, demonstrations, mass organizations (the Civic Front for the Defense of the Valley
of Teotihuacan), petitions to President Vicente Fox, and extensive press coverage, the
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movement to defend the site has been kept in the public eye, creating mixed views.
Demonstrators charged signs that expressed such responses as “Yankee Imperialism” and
“Foreign Invasion, Get Out” (http://commondreams.org). These activists also argue that
the structure of this store will ruin the view from the top of the Pyramid of the Sun that
stands at 230 feet. It will also suffer from urbanization consequences such as increased
traffic, congestion, pollution, and general overcrowding. Opponents to the construction
took their concerns to UNESCO and the Mexican Congress. The American corporation,
however, continued its construction.
The U.S. enterprise fought opponents and won. Wal-Mart’s affiliates argued, “the
store’s site lies outside the area that the United Nations’ chief cultural agency, UNESCO,
declared in 1987 was a World Heritage Site” (http://www.commondreams.com). In
reality, the construction site lies within the secondary archaeological buffer zone specified
by UNESCO. Furthermore, the National Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH)
and the Mexican branch of ICOMOS investigated the construction of this venture. Within
a short time, Wal-Mart was given the proper permits to continue construction even though
Wal-Mart had begun building on the site in the month of May without the presence of a
government mandated archaeologist and prior to attaining or even seeking the required
permission. Regardless, the INAH reasoned, “excavations done in 1984 confirmed that
there was nothing of archaeological value in the area” (www.commondreams.org).
Therefore, the permits were issued and endorsed by local municipal officials and President
Fox. Ironically, in September a small pre-Hispanic altar was found buried at the
construction site. Wal-Mart’s affiliates promised to “[preserve] the small structure under
Plexiglas in what will be the store’s parking lot” (http://www.mindfully.org). This incident
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reiterates the absurdity of modern-day’s intrusion on cultural heritage, heightening the
controversy, and solidifying the protesters’ claims.
Economic Supremacy
When the public first heard about plans to build a Wal-Mart discount store at such
close proximity to the Pre-Hispanic City of Teotihuacan, conservationists and UNESCO
officials were alarmed. The Mexican government had already given permission to begin
construction. In due time, conservation organizations and international agencies concerned
with cultural heritage issued the company the proper permits necessary to continue
construction. How did this corporation win the battle? Why was the retail store given
precedence over the heritage of a 2,000-year-old site? Three definitive factors led to the
decision. They include Mexico’s poor economy, the international agencies’ lack of power,
and the lack of education concerning the world heritage of impoverished countries.
Mexico’s economy is highly dependent on the U.S. market. Mexico’s membership
to the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) in 1994 has increased massive
flows of direct investment, which has strengthened ties between Mexico and the United
States. The Wal-Mart Corporation is Mexico’s largest retailer. It has 664 stores in sixtyfour cities with sales reaching $12 billion in retail goods, reaching over 600 million
customers (Ricker). With statistics such as these, one can easily assess why the Mexican
government gave this corporation permission to build near the world heritage site. Mexico
is a third world country that has suffered from years of economic recession, corrupt
political leaders, and devastating poverty. Therefore, opportunity to bring in another store
from this billion-dollar corporation seems to be the right choice for the betterment of the
Mexican citizens. The newly opened Bodega Aurrera is said to have employed
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approximately 180 workers. However, the exploitation of the workforce becomes evident
with the pay wages. While laborers who work for the U.S. Wal-Mart Corporation earn $9
an hour on average, those who work for Wal-Mart’s Bodega Aurrera in Mexico earn only
$1.50 an hour (Ricker). What’s more is that these workers are forbidden from unionizing;
no such behavior is tolerated. Furthermore, the economic infringement is not only
detracting from Mexico’s cultural pride, but it is taking advantage of the workers, paying
them minimal wages and profiting from the large sales. Additionally, the discount store
will take over all the business that usually contributes to the small local stores and markets
that have been in the area for decades. Others worry that the store, like other Wal-Marts,
will one day be abandoned, welcoming graffiti and other degradation to the area.
However, for short-term goals, the Mexican government only sees the jobs and the revenue
that the company will bring, emphasizing the weight of capital over cultural heritage.
UNESCO’s World Heritage List includes approximately 800 sites from around the
world. When the Pre-Hispanic City of Teotihuacan was inscribed on to the list in 1987,
advocates from ICOMOS urged for the quick development of an adequate management
plan. Again, they felt threatened by the site’s proximity to Mexico City, only about thirty
miles away, and the threat of urban development. Because of the large number of sites
already on the World Heritage List, this one site in Mexico was overlooked and no such
plan was ever developed. The Teotihuacan cultural site is only one of twenty-four sites in
Mexico (http://whc.unesco.org). Therefore, it is easily neglected. Although it is on the
one of the most endangered sites on the World Monuments Watch, the site has continued
to suffer. There just are not enough funds to allocate to each site on the list. The World
Heritage Fund is one of the primary funds for conservation, although it is nowhere near
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enough to provide for over 700 sites. Contributions to this fund come from voluntary
state’s parties donations and donations from other organizations and private sources. The
total amount received each year only amounts to $4 million. The difficulties continue
when the organization must decide how to allocate funding and the degree of urgency
pertinent to the site (http://whc.unesco.org). Furthermore, as was the case with
Teotihuacan, occurrences begin to unfold that affect the site without the knowledge of
UNESCO or ICOMOS. In an interview with Francesco Bandarin, the director of the
UNESCO World Heritage Center in Paris, he expressed his surprise when he heard about
the construction of the Wal-Mart. He stated, “this is an alarming development…I
immediately decided to send a task group to Teotihuacan”
(http://www.theartnewspaper.com). After reviewing the report prepared by INAH,
Bandarin felt that the correct procedures had been followed but was unsure about the
“visual impact, and above all, urban consequences” (http://www.theartnewspaper.com).
Even though the director of UNESCO was uneasy about the construction of Wal-Mart, the
permits had already been given to the corporation. Therefore, there was nothing that could
be done at that point. Organizations such as UNESCO do not hold enough power to
influence the decisions that governments make in their respective countries.
Cultural heritage in countries such as Mexico are not well known. American
education, for example, focuses on the western notion of history, a biased Eurocentric
view. Americans are taught the importance of the Pilgrims, the Roman Empire, and sites
such as Stonehenge, Yellowstone, and the Acropolis. History about the indigenous
peoples from North and South America are often disregarded. Schools should prioritize
their teachings and begin with the rich cultural history associated with the continent.
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Teachings should not rely on various months to teach specific cultures. Hispanic Heritage
Month should not be the only time when students learn about Hispanic culture. Rather,
multiculturalism should be embraced and taught to students in order to gain an
appreciation for the heritage. If Teotihuacan’s rich cultural history were better known, it
would be esteemed as an important site to be preserved by all. Corporations would not be
able to take advantage of this certainty. For example, most would be unaware of the fact
that the pyramids in Teotihucan are the largest in the world outside of Egypt. Due to this
lack of knowledge about the site, however, economic facets are able to dominate the
decisions that will affect the site. Only through awareness will individuals make clear,
responsible decisions pertaining to world heritage.
Consequences
Allowing economic gains to overcome the preservation of Mexico’s cultural site of
Teotihuacan has severe consequences. The infringement of the U.S. corporation alters the
site’s sense of authenticity and its future. Building a Wal-Mart that neighbors Teotihuacan
results in the commodification of the past, destroys the universal rights to an authentic
tourist experience and the right to preserve one’s heritage, and averts any possibilities of
acquiring further knowledge that could have been attained through further discoveries.
Building a twenty-first century corporation adjacent to a two thousand year old site
creates a drastic imbalance, a move towards commercialization and commodification. In
essence, commodification is the transformation of relationships, “formerly untainted by
commerce, into commercial relationships, relationships of buying and selling”
(http://www.marxists.org). Commodification is directly related to the drive towards
capitalism, the act of “[resolving] personal worth into exchange value…for exploitation”
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(qtd. in http://www.marxists.org). The Wal-Mart store will bring an array of consumers to
the area, leading to the degradation of the spiritual and historical atmosphere of the area.
An example of commodification would be the Plexiglas display situated in Wal-Mart’s
parking lot exhibiting an archaeological find. This relic of the past does not belong
amongst the shopping carts and automobile traffic common to the discount store.
Customers will simply disregard the relic, oblivious to its importance and value, and will
continue to make their purchases at the new store. This act in itself denounces the
significance of heritage. The site will lose its intrinsic value in the eyes of the community
members. If the community does not cherish the site, then who will care enough to ensure
the protection and conservation of the site? The construction of the Wal-Mart does not
encourage the preservation of Teotihuacan; it only detracts from its worth.
Every citizen of the world has the universal rights to participate fully in cultural life
and benefit from its achievements. The preservation of a world cultural site should take
precedence over economic opportunities. As ICOMOS suggests, the future possibilities
for urban development must be analyzed and assessed, working to eliminate any
interference. Teotihuacan is a timeless space that should not be hindered by physical
intrusions. Intrusions, such as the Wal-Mart store, detract from authentic viewing
experiences. Furthermore, “cultural tourists” have the right to experience a high quality of
presentation at monuments, ultimately benefiting from their “educational value” (Cleere 9).
Archaeological sites are valued as an “incomparable teaching aid” that allow tourists the
“intangible benefit” to be
influenced by a feeling of respect for the past and for the human
achievement that such monuments represent…and as a result they may well
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be instinctively sympathetic to ‘archaeology’ when they are confronted with
it in their home environments. (Cleere 9)
The visual eyesore will prevent these tourists from experiencing the sentiment and
reverence they would have felt had there not been a sign saying Bodega Aurrera in the
horizon. Members of the immediate community will also experience a decrease in cultural
pride. The site will suffer from this lack of esteem. One of Mexico’s largest economic
means comes from tourist revenues. Teotihuacan is among the most popular sites to visit
in Mexico. If, however, urbanization and change continue to occur near or around the site,
chances are that tourists will lose interest in the site. A tourist seeks an authentic, genuine
relic of the past, not something deeply altered by modernity. Furthermore, individuals and
affiliated organizations may fail to see the need to continue putting effort and money into
preserving the site, damaging Mexico’s heritage and economy.
A cultural heritage site offers great opportunities for discovery and knowledge
about the history of civilization. However, once urban development disturbs the cultural
landscape, there is no way in which the remains can ever be discovered or analyzed. While
those who assessed the land that Wal-Mart would be built on said that there was little of
archaeological value in the area, within a short time, an altar was found. Distinguishing
who has the authority to decide what is of “value” is problematic. And how would this
individual know what the future holds in further discoveries? Ultimately, the decision of a
few will forever eliminate the possibilities for future archaeological finds, research, and
knowledge about the past. A complete view of Mexico’s cultural heritage will be forever
lost.
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Solutions
The economic imperialism must be stopped. Cultural heritage must be preserved.
Reforms to the management of cultural sites must be implemented in order to ensure that
the historical monuments are preserved for future generations. International agencies
affiliated with the world heritage sites must be given more power, archaeologists should
evaluate sites before any interference begins, and educational material must adopt a
multicultural history of the past.
World organizations such as UNESCO and its branch ICOMOS must seize greater
authority over the country’s decisions regarding their respective cultural sites. Increased
funding would significantly increase their power. Countries should pay a larger fine to
ensure that their heritage sites are preserved. Additionally, these organizations must
encourage quick plans of action for the management and preservation of the sites on the
World Heritage List. The management plans and tips for conservation should be as
straightforward as possible. Ambiguities must be avoided at all costs to ensure that precise
actions are taken to preserve the relics of the past. The primary focus should lie on issues
on the anthropology of globalization and the effects that economic quests have on heritage
sites. Heritage sites must be preserved and maintained to resemble its authentic nature.
Archaeologists must be consulted concerning any matters pertinent to the
preservation or alteration of a world heritage cultural site. This is crucial in order to make
knowledgeable decisions. As in the case with Teotihuacan, no archaeologist was consulted
prior to the construction of the large store. This should never happen. Archaeologists are
the most qualified individuals who can accurately assess the influence such a change will
have for the whole of the site. World heritage sites must be respected; the past must be
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respected. Therefore, those who are most qualified should hold the authority to make the
final decisions regarding the heritage sites.
Bringing about cultural awareness and knowledge about the past will create
responsible individuals. If children are taught at a young age about the importance of sites
such as Teotihuacan, they will grow up with a sense of respect and understanding of this
past civilization. They will have a broader perception of world heritage and will be able to
make responsible decisions when they are adults about the future of such sites. In addition,
the tourist experience at a site must be molded to benefit tourists of all ages. This sense of
education will better their understanding and create an inherent sense of pride for the past.
Hopefully, this considerate sentiment will prevent economic trajectories from damaging
the preservation of one’s past.
Future
When Wal-Mart arrives, the identity disappears, said Escarcega Viveros
Juan David (qtd. in www.cnn.com)
Money comes into Patzcuaro from remittances (from immigrants working
in the United States), but it goes right back with Wal-Mart. (qtd. in
www.cnn.com)
More and more, we import lifestyles resembling the American way of life;
we feel seduced, and at the same time threatened. (qtd. in www.cnn.com)
These quotes are in reference to the latest Wal-Mart/ Mexico battleground,
Patzcuaro, Mexico. Patzcuaro is found in the Mexican state of Michoacan. It was home to
the Purepecha Indians who considered their land to be the doorway to heaven, a portal
through which the gods descended to earth. Today, Patzcuaro serves as one of Mexico’s
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most important and popular domestic tourist destinations. This “magic town” lures
thousands of visitors to its picturesque facets with its colonial architecture, cobblestone
streets, and stunning lake high in the mountains of Michoacan. However, the U.S. giant,
Wal-Mart Inc, will soon disrupt this pueblo of only 66,000 people (Orlandi).
www.personal.kent.edu
In 2002, Patzcuaro joined the list of 17 Mexican pueblos named “magic towns” by
the government in a program designed to promote tourism and preservation. Patzcuaro is
famous for its Night of the Dead celebrations that draw sightseers from all over the world
to view the dance, music, and traditional alters of the Purepecha Indians (Orlandi). Locals
are worried, however, that the encroachment of a large U.S. industry will alter their way of
life. Additionally, the presence of such a retailer will damage local businesses, increase
emigration into the United States, and open the borders to other U.S. corporations. This is
a vicious cycle that continues to escalate all over Mexico.
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Patzcuaro resembles the protest that was experienced in Teotihuacan just months
earlier. Because Wal-Mart is the largest retailer in Mexico, it is difficult for locals to fight
its encroachment. Several merchants and community leaders however have united to
openly oppose the project and pressure municipal and state officials to make the decisions
that will be in the best interest of Patzcuaro’s cultural traditions. Additionally, the group
plans to consult the National Front Against Wal-Mart, a Mexico-wide organization formed
in January of this year (Orlandi). However, if the solutions that were proposed earlier in
this paper were implemented, locals would not have to carry the burden of protecting their
heritage. One’s heritage should be protected at all costs. Although those at Teotihuacan
were not successful, hopefully it will serve as a learning basis for situations that arise in the
future, such as the circumstances which have arisen in Patzcuaro. Worries continue to run
throughout Mexico. Hopefully those in Patzcuaro will be more successful at preserving
their way of life.
Conclusion
All individuals hold universal rights to the past. These rights include those to
cultural identity, education, access, knowledge, protection, diversity, leisure, and nostalgia
in reference to the past. The past is something that cannot and should not be forgotten. It
is through history that individuals are able to advance as a society, learning from the past,
and altering their decisions to improve their futures. World heritage sites are crucial to this
evaluation of the past. They present individuals with an array of opportunities for
knowledge, progress, and personal development. Economic drives cannot compete with
such important aspects of human civilization and evolution. The human rights to
preserving one’s heritage and one’s way of life must take precedence.
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