Draft
New Trends in Diplomacy and Foreign Policy
Indonesian Diplomacy towards Denmark;
The Jylland Posten Case
Sukawarsini Djelantik
Introduction
Publication of Prophet Mohammed’s caricature in Danish’s Jylland Posten media
in late 2005 had created protest from Muslim countries including Indonesia. The
controversy started in early 2006 when several national media initially published the
caricatures. Media publications followed by demonstrations in Jakarta and other parts of
Indonesia protesting and condemning the Danish government and Jylland Posten.
Demonstrations mostly organized by extremist Islamic groups and in some places turned
violent. Following demonstrations, Danish citizen were “swept”, Danish’s products were
boycotted, and they as well strongly pressed the Indonesian government to severe
diplomatic relations with Denmark. The Jylland Posten case had demonstrated strong role
of media to formulate public opinion as well as the role of pressure group in influencing
Indonesian diplomacy. Media enabled to internationalize marginal issue into worldwide
catastrophe. This paper is analyzing contributive factors to this catastrophe firstly by
discuss differences of the role of media within two countries political system. As media
culture is the reflection of country’s political system, the discussion will be started from
the position of media with the government in both Indonesia and Denmark. Secondly, the
paper will analyze Indonesian diplomacy to overcome the issue and to neutralize
diplomatic relations with Denmark. The question to be answered is: “How is the
effectiveness of Indonesian diplomacy?” Because the issue strongly related to the role of
media and interest groups (in particular religious organization) within Indonesian society,
public diplomacy theories will be used to explain the conduct of Indonesian diplomacy
towards the Danish’s government.
1. Background and Internationalization of Prophet Muhammad Cartoon
Controversy
Danish’s
book
upon
author,
Prophet
Kare
comprehensively
to
Jyllands-Posten
published
Mohammad’s
Bluitgen
non-Muslim
wanted
children
twelve
in
editorial
caricature
to
started
introduce
Denmark.
Danish
Muhammad
Islam
when
more
newspaper
cartoons
that
1
depicted
the
Islamic
prophet
Muhammad
on
September
30th,
2005.1
Bluitgen plan to publish children’s story book entitled: “Koranen
Og
Propeten Muhammads Liv (Al-Qur’an and the life of Muhammad) confronted by
problem to find an illustrator. In Islam, visualizing Muhammad is prohibited. In October
2005, the Danish daily Politiken polled thirty-one of the forty-three members of the
Danish cartoonist association. Twenty-three said they would be willing to draw
Muhammad, one had doubts, one would not be willing because of fear of possible
reprisals and six cartoonists would not be willing because they respected the Muslim ban
on depicting Muhammad.
Flemming Rose, Jyllands-Posten’s cultural Editor supported Bluitgen’s project
by publishing caricature under the title "Muhammeds ansigt" or "The Face of
Muhammad" on September 30th edition. The article illustrated by 12 cartoon : the
Prophet wearing a turban shaped as a bomb with a burning fuse, the prophet between two
veiled women, Prophet Muhammad in the middle of dessert, prophet Muhammad and his
troop prepared to war, and prophet Muhammad shouts: ”we run out of virgin”.
Danish Muslim organizations, who objected to the depictions, responded by
holding public protests attempting to raise awareness of Jyllands-Posten's publication.
The controversy sharpened when further examples of the cartoons reprinted in
newspapers in more than fifty other countries. This led to protests across the Muslim
world, some of which escalated into violence with police firing on the crowds (resulting
in more than 100 deaths, altogether), including setting fire to the Danish Embassies in
Syria, Lebanon and Iran, storming European buildings, and desecrating the Danish,
Dutch, Norwegian and German flags in Gaza City in Palestine. While a number of
Muslim leaders called for protesters to remain peaceful, other Muslim leaders across the
globe, including Mahmoud al-Zahar of HAMAS, issued death threats. Various groups,
primarily in the Western world, responded by endorsing the Danish policies, including
"Buy Danish" campaigns and other displays of support. Danish Prime Minister Anders
1
http://www.indonesia.faithfreedom.org/forum/viewtopic.php?t=5818&view=previous&sid=d3f53c5e247c
c505697604d88e58f8f1 diakses tanggal 30 Mei 2007.08.43
2
Fogh Rasmussen described the controversy as Denmark's worst international crisis since
World War II.
Those who criticize the cartoons publication described the supporters as Islam
phobic or racist, and argued that they are blasphemous to people of the Muslim faith, are
intended to humiliate a Danish minority, or are a manifestation of ignorance about the
history of Western imperialism. On the other hand, supporters have said that the cartoons
illustrated an important issue in a period of Islamic terrorism and that their publication is
a legitimate exercise of the right of free speech, explicitly tied to the issue of selfcensorship. They claim that Muslims were not targeted in a discriminatory way since
unflattering cartoons about other religions are frequently printed.
On February 19, Flemming Rose further explained his intention in the
Washington Post:
The cartoonists treated Islam the same way they treat Christianity, Buddhism,
Hinduism and other religions. And by treating Muslims in Denmark as equals
they made a point: We are integrating you into the Danish tradition of satire
because you are part of our society, not strangers. The cartoons are including,
rather than excluding, Muslims.
2. Internationalization of Issue
A Danish Islamic leader Imam Raed Hlaylel, demanded Danish government to
apologize to the Moslems society. Jyllands Posten refused to apologize argued that the
caricature is part of the freedom of expression in Denmark. Jylland Posten further argued
that if Islam prohibited visualizing Muhammad, that unnecessary for non-Islam to follow
Islamic faith.
Because of disappointed by the Danish government’s attitude towards Jylland
Posten, two Danish imams made a trip to Egypt, Syria, and Lebanon. They are Imam Abu
Laban from Islamisk Trossamfund and Akhmad Akkari, speak person of Danish-based
3
European Committee for Prophet Honoring.2 The aim of the trip was to gain supports
from outside world since their voices was not heard in Denmark. They created a fortythree-page document entitled "Dossier about championing the prophet Muhammad peace
is upon him." Appended to the dossier were, firstly, a picture from another Danish
newspaper “Weekendavisen” that considered as more humiliated than the
previous 12 pictures. Secondly, the picture of hatred letters and documented letters to the
Danish government. Thirdly, television interview and discussion on Islam between
member of Dutch parliament with Islamic critics, Hirsi Ali, who awarded Freedom Prize
"for her work to further freedom of speech and the rights of women" from Danish Liberal
Party as represented by Anders Fogh Rasmussen. The document was illustrated with
caricature Jyllands-Posten, Weekendavisen, an Arabic newspaper and 3 additional
pictures that has nothing to do with Denmark, and a picture from pig squealing contest in
France with a caption: This is the real image of Muhammad”.3 On February 1 BBC
World incorrectly reported that one of them had been published in Jyllands-Posten. One
of the other two additional images (a photo) portrayed a Muslim being mounted by a dog
while praying and the other (a cartoon) portrayed Muhammad as a demonic pedophile.
Equipped with the dossier, the two imams circulated it throughout the Muslim world,
presenting their case to many influential religious and political leaders, asking for
support.
At 6 December 2005 summit of the Organization of the Islamic Conference
(OIC), with many heads of state in attendance, the dossier was handed around on the
sidelines first, and eventually an official communiqué was issued, demanding that the
United Nations impose international sanctions upon Denmark. After OIC statement, this
controversy started internationalizes and spread to countries with Moslems majority. The
caricature was also published in other countries.4
2
This document is known as Akkari Laban document, see: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AkkariLaban_dossier diakses tanggal 18 Oktober 2007.10.42
3
http://www.google.co.id/search?q=islam+kekerasan&hl=id&start=10&sa=N diakses tanggal 2 Oktober
2007.10.53.
4
Pada bulan Oktober 2005 dipublikasi ulang di Mesir dan Belanda. Pada bulan November dicetak ulang di
Bosnia-Hercegovina, Romania, Jerman dan Amerika Serikat. Pada bulan Januari 2006 diterbitkan di
Norwegia, Swiss, Italia, Meksiko, Eslandia, Brazil dan Yunani. Pada bulan Februari 2006 dipublikasi ulang
di Saudi Arabia, Perancis, Hungaria, Finlandia, Portugal, Spanyol, Belgia, Algeria, Argentina, Uruguay,
Bulgaria, Irlandia, Yordania, New Zealand, Greenland, Austria, Honduras, India, Costa Rica, Malaysia,
4
3. International Responses and continuing controversy
When firstly published, in 2005, the Muhammad cartoons received only minor
media attention outside of Denmark. Six of the cartoons were first reprinted by the
Egyptian newspaper El Fagr on October 17, 2005, along with an article strongly
denouncing them, but publication did not provoke any condemnations or other reactions
from religious or government authorities. Between October 2005 and the end of January
2006, examples of the cartoons were reprinted in major European newspapers from the
Netherlands, Germany, Scandinavia, Belgium and France. Very soon after, as protests
grew, there were further re-publications around the globe, but primarily in continental
Europe.
Notable for a lack of republication of the cartoons were most major newspapers in
Canada, the USA and the United Kingdom, where editorials covered the story without
including them. Several newspapers were closed and editors fired or arrested for their
decision or intention to re-publish the cartoons, including the shutting down of a 60 year
old Malaysian newspaper permanently.
The publication of Muhammad cartoon had caused several economic and social
consequences for Denmark and its relations with Muslim countries. A consumer boycott
was organized in Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and other Middle East countries. On September
9, 2006, the BBC News reported that the Muslim boycott of Danish goods had reduced
Denmark's total exports by 15.5% between February and June. This was attributed to a
decline in Middle East exports by approximately 50%. The cost to Danish businesses was
around 134 million euros (USD170m), when compared with the same period last year,
the statistics showed.
Afrika Selatan, Korea Selatan, Slovakia, Kanada, Republik Ceko, Jepang, Selandia Baru, Polandia,
Australia, Fiji, Israel, Venezuela, Kroasia, Ukraina, Slovenia, Inggris, Yaman, Algeria, Lithuania,
Paraguay, Rusia, Macedonia, Republik Yugoslavia, Maroko Chili, Peru, Mozambique, Belarusia, India dan
Indonesia.
Sumber
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_newspapers_that_reprinted_JyllandPosten's_Muhammad_cartoons diakses tanggal 24 Januari 2007.09.47.
5
For weeks, numerous demonstrations and other protests against the cartoons took
place worldwide. Rumors spread via SMS and mouth. On February 4, 2006, the Danish
and Norwegian embassies in Syria were set ablaze, although with no injuries. In Beirut,
the Danish Embassy was set on fire, leaving one protester dead. The Danish embassy in
Teheran was also torched. Altogether, at least 139 people were killed in protests, most
due to police firing on the crowds, mainly in Nigeria, Libya, Pakistan and Afghanistan.
The Western media dubbed the series of demonstrations organized in February 2006 by
certain Middle Eastern governments and radical clerics as the "Cartoon Intifada".
Several death threats and reward offers for killing those responsible for the
cartoons were made, resulting in the cartoonists going into hiding. Four ministers have
resigned amidst the controversy, among them Roberto Calderoli and Laila Freivalds. In
India, Haji Yaqoob Qureishi, a minister in the Uttar Pradesh state government,
announced in February 2006 a cash reward of Rs 51 crone (roughly about US$11 million)
for anyone who beheads "the Danish cartoonist" who caricatured Prophet Mohammad.
Subsequently, a case was filed against Hajj Yaqoob Qureishi in the Lucknow district
court in Uttar Pradesh and demands were made for his dismissal by eminent Muslim
scholars in New Delhi. Condoleezza Rice, Secretary of State of the United States accused
Iran and Syria of organizing many of the recent protests in Iran, Syria and Lebanon.
4. Indonesian Public Response; Analysis of press culture
Freedom of speech is guaranteed in law by the Danish Constitution in 1849, as it
is today by The Constitutional Act of Denmark, of June 5, 1953. This freedom of speech
is defended vigorously since the establishment and only suspended during the German
occupation of Denmark in World War II. Freedom of expression is also protected by the
European Convention on Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and
Political Rights. This rights is supported by article 19 of the Universal Declaration of
Human Rights 1948 stated: Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression;
6
this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and
impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers.5
The Danish newspapers are privately owned and independent from the
government, and Danish freedom of expression is quite far-reaching, even by Western
standards. In the past, this has provoked official protests from Germany about printing
neo-Nazi propaganda, and from Russia for "solidarity with terrorists. The organization
“Reporters without Borders” ranks Denmark at the top five of its Worldwide Press
Freedom Index for 2005. The same organization ranks Indonesia at 110, or on the same
level with Egypt, Indonesia and Rwanda 6
Religion is often portrayed in ways that some other societies may consider illegal
blasphemy. While Jyllands-Posten has published satirical cartoons depicting Christian
figures, it also rejected unsolicited surreal cartoons in 2003 which depicted Jesus,
opening them to accusations of a double standard. In February 2006, Jyllands-Posten also
refused to publish Holocaust denial cartoons offered by an Iranian newspaper. Six of the
less controversial entries were later published by Dagbladet Information, after the editors
consulted the main rabbi in Copenhagen, and three cartoons were in fact later reprinted in
Jyllands-Posten. After the competition had finished, Jyllands-Posten also reprinted the
winning and runner-up cartoons.
Indonesia, as a country with predominant Moslem, traditions of aniconism in
Islam applied, the majority of art concerning Muhammad is calligraphic in nature.7 The
Qur'an condemns idolatry, and pictorial forms are seen as ostensibly close to idol
worship. These are found in Al-Hadith (plural of Hadith): "Ibn ‘Umar reported Allah’s
Messenger (PBUH) having said: Those who paint pictures would be punished on the Day
of Resurrection and it would be said to them: Breathe soul into what you have created."
5
Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948: http://www.un.org/Overview/rights.html, accessed on July
8th, 2008.
6
See Press Freedom Index, Reporter Withour Borders at http://www.rsf.org/article.php3?id_article=8247,
accessed July 8th 2008.
7
Aniconism in Islam is a proscription against the creation of images of Allah in Islam. Other forms of
aniconism in Islam prohibit the depiction of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, which is the consensual view
among sunni Muslims,or even, in the case of more extreme case, other living creatures in artwork, see:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aniconism_in_Islam, accessed in July 8th, 2008.
7
Within
Muslim
communities,
views
have
varied
regarding
pictorial
representations. Shi'a Islam has been generally tolerant of pictorial representations of
human figures, including Muhammad. Contemporary Sunni Islam generally forbids any
pictorial representation of Muhammad, but has had periods allowing depictions of
Muhammad's face covered with a veil or as a featureless void emanating light. A few
contemporary interpretations of Islam, such as some adherents of Wahhabism and
Salafism, are entirely aniconistic and condemn pictorial representations of any kind. The
Taliban, while in power in Afghanistan, banned television, photographs and images in
newspapers and destroyed paintings including frescoes in the vicinity of the Buddhas of
Bamyan.
4. Prohibition against insulting Muhammad
The Qur'an does not explicitly forbid images of Muhammad, but there are a few
hadith (supplemental traditions) which have explicitly prohibited Muslims from creating
the visual depictions of figures under any circumstances. Most contemporary Sunni
Muslims believe that visual depictions of the prophets generally should be prohibited,
and they are particularly averse to visual representations of Muhammad. The key concern
is that the use of images can encourage idolatry, where the image becomes more
important than what it represents. In Islamic art, some visual depictions only show
Muhammad with his face veiled, or symbolically represent him as a flame; other images,
notably from Persia of the Ilkhanate, and those made under the Ottomans, show him
fully. Other Muslims have taken a more relaxed view. Most Shi'a scholars accept
respectful depictions and use illustrations of Muhammad in books and architectural
decoration, as have Sunnis at various points in the past. However, many Muslims who
take a stricter view of the supplemental traditions will sometimes challenge any depiction
of Muhammad, including those created and published by non-Muslims.
In Muslim societies, insulting prophet Muhammad is considered one of the
gravest of all crimes. Some interpretations of the Shariah, in particular the relatively
fringe Salafi (Wahabi) group, state that any insult to Muhammad warrants death. The
Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC) has denounced calls for the death of the
8
Danish cartoonists. OIC's Secretary General Ekmeleddin Ihsanoglu stated in a press
release:
The Secretary General appeals to the Muslims to stay calm and peaceful in the
wake of sacrilegious depiction of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) which has deeply
hurt their feelings. He has stated that Islam being the religion of tolerance, mercy
and peace teaches them to defend their faith through democratic and legal means.
Many Muslims have explained their anti-cartoon stance as against insulting
pictures and not so much as against pictures in general. According to the BBC:
It is the satirical intent of the cartoonists and the association of the Prophet with
terrorism, which is so offensive to the vast majority of Muslims.
Why is the insult so deeply felt by some Muslims? Of course, there is the
prohibition on images of Muhammad. But one cartoon, showing the Prophet
wearing a turban shaped as a bomb with a burning fuse, extends the caricature of
Muslims as terrorists to Muhammad. In this image, Muslims see a depiction of
Islam, its prophet and Muslims in general as terrorists. This will certainly play
into a widespread perception among Muslims across the world that many in the
West harbor hostility towards – or fear of – Islam and Muslims.
5. Indonesian Transitional Press and Islamic Belief
In Indonesia, the caricatures initially published by Rakyat Merdeka online on
October 13th, 2006 and in Peta Newspaper on February 2nd, 2006. The newspapers each
published 10 pictures and Gloria newspaper (Surabaya) published 3 out of 12 pictures on
February 6th, 2006. Public reaction in Indonesia could be divided into two parts:
normative and active-normative. Normative reactions are includes verbal protest, without
involving public, and expressed in modera way. Normative-active reaction includes
strong reactions, violent demonstration, followed by demand to boycott Danish product
and to severe diplomatic relations with Denmark. However, Demand to boycott Danish
products was not effective due to small trade value of both countries.8
8
http://www.depperin.go.id/IND/Publikasi/Atase/REPORT.asp?id=7&neg=Denmark&thn=2004&bln=12,
accessed on July 9th, 2008.
9
Demonstration also conducted in 17 cities throughout Indonesia.9 The
demonstrations followed by sending warning to Danish government and ordered all
Danish citizens to leave Indonesia for security reason.10 On February 6th, 2006, Danish
Consulate in Surabaya closed temporarily, 11 followed by the closing of Danish Embassy
in Jakarta on February 11th, 2006, and Danish Ambassador Niels Erik Andersen and
embassy staffs temporarily leave their post.12 Ambassador Andersen returned back to his
post ten days after on February 21, 2006,
13
followed by reopen of Embassy on March
16th, 2006.14 The Commission of Islamic Student movement (PK PMII) further demanded
to boycott Danish product, supported by STAI Sunan Giri Bojonegoro, Pontianak, South
Sulawesi and Semarang.15 However, boycott of Danish product did not produce effective
result in Indonesia, due to small value of Indonesian-Danish trade. Total trade in 2004
only USD 254,514 million, while export of Denmark goods in Indonesia USD 78,44
millions and Danish’s import good to Indonesia USD 178,07 million. Trade balance
Indonesia-Denmark from January-December 2004 surplus to Indonesia with the value of
USD 99.63 millions.16
The third reaction is demonstran demand to severe diplomatic relations. The
demand was expressed after Danish government refuse to apologize to Indonesian
Moslems. The demonstration did not stop with apology demand, but further ask the
Nanang Pujalaksana. 2006. “Karikatur Nabi Muhammad dan Reaksi di Indonesia” dalam Update
Indonesia Volume 2. The Indonesian Institute.
10
Pada tanggal 7 Februari 2006 Departemen Luar Negeri Denmark melalui perwakilannya di Jakarta,
memberi peringatan kepada warga negaranya agar meninggalkan Indonesia dengan pertimbangan
meningkatnya risiko keselamatan. Peringatan tersebut dilakukan setelah pemerintah Denmark menerima
informasi yang menunjukkan sebuah kelompok ekstremis aktif mencari warga Denmark sebagai protes
terhadap
pemuatan
kartun
Nabi
Muhammad.
Sumber:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/indonesian/news/story/2006/02/060212_denmark.shtml diakses tanggal 6 November
2007.10.50
11
Penutupan Kantor Konsulat Jenderal Denmark di Surabaya disebabkan oleh massa demonstran dari Front
Pembela Islam (FPI) yang sempat menyerbu ke dalam bangunan Konsulat Jenderal sehingga
mengakibatkan
kaca
kantor
Konsulat
Jenderal
Denmark
pecah.
Sumber:
http://www.suaramerdeka.com/harian/0602/08/nas15.htm diakses tanggal 6 November 2007.10.28
12
http://www.voanews.com/indonesian/archive/2006-02/2006-02-22-voa7.cfm diakses tanggal 7 Mei
2007.11.13
13
http://www.tempointeraktif.com/hg/luarnegeri/2006/02/22/brk,20060222-74356,id.html diakses tanggal 6
November 2007.10.24
14
http://www.suaramerdeka.com/harian/0603/06/nasc.htm diakses tanggal 23 November 2007.10.07
15
http://www.bojonegoro.go.id/nando007/lengkap.php?IDBerita=1113 diakses tanggal 8 Mei 2007.15.07
16
http://www.depperin.go.id/IND/Publikasi/Atase/REPORT.asp?id=7&neg=Denmark&thn=2004&bln=12
diakses tanggal 11 Desember 2007.11.30
9
10
United Nations to sanction Denmark as a UN member.17 This demand was even
supported by the spokesperson of People Representative Assembly’s spokesperson,
Hidayat Nurwahid.18
Demonstrations also followed by declaration of a group of Moslems from AnNajiyah Islamic Boarding School in Surabaya, to “sahid” to defend their prophet, beside
swept Danish citizen. Another organization, Indonesian Islamic Forum (FUI) that
consisted of 30 organizations such as Muhammadiyah, NU, Al-Islamiyyah, Indonesian
Moslems Society (MMI), Hizbut Tahrir Indonesia (HTI), Indonesian Association of
Islamic Scholars (ICMI), Islamic Committee for Islamic World Solidarity, Islamic
Defender Forum (FPI), The Association of Islamic Preachers and Al-Irsyad, demanded
Danish’s government to apologize.19
Hundreds of Islamic student activists from different elements such as KAMMI
Yogyakarta, Islamic Student Association (HMI), MPO, PMII, PH and IMM Yogyakarta
demonstrate with banners such as: “Press Freedom; Freedom to Insult?.”20 The
Commander of Hezbollah Brigade, stated: “We demanded apology from the Danish
government, if the demand was refused, Indonesia as the biggest Moslems population
would severe diplomatic relations with Denmark”.21 For this reasons, Deplu consulted
several Public Diplomacy, both inter-governmental diplomacy and public diplomacy.
Multi reactions in Indonesia were due to pluralism of Islam that could be divided
into two main groups. The first is Nahdatul Ulama and Muhammadiyah, both considered
as moderate Moslems. The second group is radical Moslems such as Islamic Defender
Group (Front Pembela Islam), Jemaah Islamiyah, Majelis Mujahidin Indonesia (MMI)
led by infamous Abubakar Baasyir. The first group posted moderate responds that is to
forgive the caricaturist that was ignorance to Islamic teaching and belief. The second
group demonstrated strong reactions, and led a violent demonstration in front of Danish
Embassy in Jakarta and Danish Consulate General in Surabaya.
17
http://www.bbc.co.uk/indonesian/news/story...ewprotest.shtml diakses tanggal 30 Mei 2007.09.04
http://www.rri-online.com/modules.php?name=Artikel&sid=19693 diakses tanggal 30 Mei 2007.09.09
19
http://republika.co.id/online_detail.asp?id=233672&kat_id=23 diakses tanggal 30 Mei 2007.09.15
20
http://www.pikiran-rakyat.com/cetak/2006/022006/11/0401.htm diakses tanggal 7 Februari 2007.10.28
21
http://www.detiknews.com/index.php/detik.read/tahun/2006/bulan/10/tgl/12/time/084104/idnews/693921/
idkanal/10 diakses tanggal 7 Februari 2007.10.38
18
11
The crisis of caricature happened due to differences between press freedom in
Denmark and Indonesia. In Western democracies, the position of press is outside the
government as independent entity. Indonesian Moslems belief that is taboo to discuss
Mohammad, and would not dare to contradict religious values, race and ethnic group.
Religion is a sensitive subject to discuss, especially Islam. Demonstration was conducted
to influence the government and to form public opinion. The deterioration of relations
between Denmark-Indonesia especially demonstrated by temporary closure of Danish
Embassy and Consulate.
Department of Foreign Affairs of Republic of Indonesia (Deplu) conducted two
diplomatic efforts: first track and multi-track diplomacy. First track diplomacy conducted
between the two governments with the assistance of their respective representative in
Copenhagen and Jakarta. Deplu send diplomatic notes to the Danish government and
approaches OCI. Indonesia co-sponsoring UN Resolution on religious harassment that
was adopted by UN. By adopting this resolution, the caricature crisis was final in
government level.
However, because the crisis was related to Islam which is heterogenic, Deplu also
conducted several public diplomacy to minimize misunderstanding between the two
societies. Indonesia’s multi-track diplomacy programs were taken 4 steps, addressed the
Islamic societies in general, religious leaders, interfaith religious leaders, and press.
Indonesian Minister of Foreign Affairs, Hassan Wirayuda, as well stated that protests
should be conducted peacefully and in good manner. Secondly, religious leaders
demanded to the Moslems for not easily provoke by third party, and to forgive Denmark
and the caricaturists as exampled by Prophet Muhammad. Thirdly, Deplu also conducted
interfaith dialogues entitled: East Asia Regional Leaders Forum, supported by
Muhammadiyah and was attended by religious leaders from 17 countries. Fourthly,
conducted a “Global Inter-media Dialogue” with cooperation with Norwegian by
republishing Mohammad caricature. Republication of Muhammad caricature had led to
torching Norwegian Embassy in Damascus, Syria by the angry demonstrators.
To prevent similar damage happened in Indonesia; Deplu cooperated with
Norwegian again, to give Indonesia a better understanding on the concept of freedom of
the press as applied in the Western countries. Norwegian facilitate the event that attended
12
by international journalists. A result of this conference is the exchange of journalists
between Metro-TV and TV2, a Norwegian television network. This exchange provide an
opportunity to mutual understanding of current situation and condition s so it could create
tolerance and consideration when reporting sensitive issue in both countries.
6. Prophet Mohammed and Islamic Way of Life
In Islam, it is strictly forbidden to visualize Prophet Mohammad, let alone
humiliate him in a cartoon. The Moslems fear that the prophet is idolized instead of
Allah. The faith had been preserved for 15 centuries. The purpose is so Moslems will not
only idolize him physically, but to applied his exampled of life. In religious book, comic,
magazine, or other media, Prophet Mohammad only pictured as a white circle with
written “Mohammad” in Arabic.22
In Islamic Syariah, to draw the prophet is strictly forbidden, and Moslems was
taught to respect Muhammad not from its pictures or statue. Moslems should only
worship God and nothing else, as implied in Qur'an (An-Nuh 23). The religious leaders
that in old time, they worship idols names: Wadd, Suwwa', Yaghuts, Ya'uq and Nashr,
other than God.23
7. Indonesia Transitional vs. Denmark Liberal Press System
Press ideology: Libertarian, authoritarian, Communism, and Social responsibility.
•
Free from government control
•
Freedom to report, comment, criticized, the government (political freedom)
•
Western countries, characterized by :
–
Law system and civil rights  common law and civil law
–
High Income, high literacy rate
–
Multi party system, parliamentarian, legal political opposition
–
Private ownership a
–
Independent press tradition
22
http://nofieiman.com/2006/02/12-gambar-karikatur-nabi-muhammad-saw/ diakses tanggal 31 Januari
2007.15.29
23
http://www.indonesia.faithfreedom.org/forum/viewtopic.php?t=2368&view=previous&sid=c3f7228ead56
d789e91e76043e354a48 diakses tanggal 30 Mei 2007.08.40
13
•
Press supporting government
•
Press work for the state  censor, journalists/editor jailed
•
No rational border on news that could/could not be publish
•
Top-down Truth is privilege of the government
•
State  rights to protect itself
•
Diversity  chaos and subversive
•
Consensus and uniformity  logic aim
•
Monarchy  Divine rights
•
Press function  to publish government’s will
•
Press publication  King’s authority
•
Rights to censor and permit
The main reason for this crisis is the difference of press system in Indonesia and
in Denmark. Indonesia transitional political system is reflected on its transitional media;
from more than three decades of authoritarian press system into more democratic. Public
cannot accept Muhammad caricature to be published and humiliate Moslems. In
Denmark, under liberal press system, caricature publication is considered as part of press
freedom that should be respected by the government.
During 32 years under authoritarian political system, Indonesian press did not
have any freedom, but the press position is under the government, Press Act number
11/1966 junco No 4/1967, junco No 21/1082, stated that the role of the government is to
control public opinion and press management, to intervene and influence press, to
conduct press publication, and law- politics of press crimes. For this role, Press Council
became the government’s partner and press representative, community and public,
legitimate policy of communication of the government and the activity of government
information.24
Since reform era, press had applied Press Act Number 40/1999 stated that the role
of the press is to control the government, and the government has no legal influence and
intervention of press mechanism. The remaining existence of Press Council, while press
management was consulted by press organization. Pres publication no longer need
24
http://ajiindonesia.org/index.php?fa=article.read&id=MTUz diakses tanggal 21 Februari 2007.10.42
14
government permit, and should not discriminate the press. The press council is
independent organization and its role is to finalize conflict or to manage public complain
related to press publication cases. 25
During transition system, the press changed from close into open system, and the
press is continued to look for the ideal formation in their interaction with the government
and public. 26 Therefore, mass media communication is still dominate by political elites
from executive, legislative, and judicative areas.27
8. Denmark Press System
Denmark is a country that applied Libertarian Press where the mass media act and
considered as the forth pillar of democracy and in political process after three powers:
judicial, executive, and legislative. Media freedom of expression and freedom of opinion
was defended by the European Convention on Human Rights and the International
Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. Reporters Without Borders located Denmark as
the first place in Worldwide Press Freedom Index for 2005.28
In Denmark, press freedom is protected by the law, and the government has nor
right to intervention. journalism is part of freedom of expression or opinion that protected
as well by the universal declaration of human rights 1948 (19), as stated:
"Setiap orang berhak atas kebebasan berpendapat dan berekspresi; hak ini
termasuk hak untuk mempertahankan pendapat-pendapat tanpa intervensi dan
mencari, menerima, memberikan informasi dan ide-ide melalui media apapun
tanpa batas." 29
In human rights convention also stated that freedom of expression is one of main
foundation in democratic society. This principle is applied by print as well as electronic
media that disseminate information sand opinion on issues related to public interest”.
25
http://ajiindonesia.org/index.php?fa=article.read&id=MTI4 diakses tanggal 21 Februari 2007.10.32
http://persindonesia.wordpress.com/2006/02/ diakses tanggal 21 Februari 2007.10.39
27
http://www.sinarharapan.co.id/berita/0701/31/opi01.html diakses tanggal 8 Februari 2007.09.51
28
http://www.google.co.id/search?q=islam+kekerasan&hl=id&start=10&sa=N diakses tanggal 2 Oktober
2007.10.53
29
http://www.gusdur.net diakses tanggal 20 Desember 2007.09.40
26
15
UDHR Europe (10) also stated that the freedom could be accepted as long as did not
contradict to government interest or had to consider the state interest.30
Both Indonesian and Danish press system also did not equal. Denmark is the
country that applied freedom of the press since long time. It is mean that majority of
population already accustomed to see publication
that hurt their feeling and so the
Mohammed caricature is considered as part of creativity and freedom of expression.
Compared to Indonesia, that had been
belongs to authoritarian press for 32 years,
Indonesian press is still learning to democratic. This new democracy led to Indonesian
could still not tolerate this type of publication.
9. Islamic Pluralism in Indonesia
Indonesia’s population is 234.693.99731, while majority (86,1%) are Moslems. In
Indonesia, Islam is not only a religion, also political ideology. Several Islamic political
parties are : Persatuan Pembangunan Party (PPP); Bulan Bintang Party (PBB); Keadilan
Sejahtera Party (PKS); Partai Kebangkitan Muslim Indonesia (KAMI); Partai Umat Islam
(PUI); Partai Kebangkitan Umat (PKU); Partai Politik Islam Masyumi (PPIM); Partai
Indonesia Majelis Syuro Muslimin (PIMSM); Partai Serikat Islam Indonesia (PSII 1905);
Partai Nahdlatul Umat (PNU); Partai Persatuan (PP); Partai Islam Demokrat (PID);
Solidaritas Umat Nasional (PSUN); Partai Bintang Reformasi (PBR); and Partai
Penyelamat Perjuangan Reformasi (PPPR). members of Muhammadiyah and Nahdatul
Ulama (NU) mainly belongs to Partai Amanat Nasional (PAN) and Partai Kebangkitan
Bangsa (PKB)32
Indonesian political parties could be divided into two groups, moderate and
radical. Nahdatul Ulama…. The Nahdatual (sometimes Nahdlatul) Ulama (NU)
represents traditionalist orthodox Sunni Islam in Indonesia. The ulama
are the scholar-legists of Islam, trained in the religious sciences
30
ibid
data penduduk Indonesia bulan Juli 2007 diambil dari https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-worldfactbook/geos/id.html#Intro diakses tanggal 4 September 2007.11.39
32
http://jakarta.usembassy.gov/press_rel/kebebasan_beragama1.html diakses tanggal 1 November
2007.14.54
31
16
such as the Qur'an, exegesis and interpretation of the relgious law,
shari'a.33
U and Muhammadiyah always associate with moderate Moslems. NU members
are considered as traditionalist islam, while Muhammadiyah is considerate as moderate
modlem. NU traditional value was due to the existence of Islamic boarding schools. The
biggest pesantren in Indoensia is Tebu Ireng in Jombang, East of Java. NU leader,
Hasyim Asy'ari wrote Kitab Qanun Asasi (Principal Element) and Kitab I'tilaq
Ahlussunnah Wal Jamaah that eventually used as reference for NU members in their
thinkung and implementation of social, political and religious life. Members of NU
(Nadhliyin) claimed more than 40 millions and came from different walk of life. The
present NU leader is KH Hasyim Muzadi. In international level, NU applied as part of
International Conference of Islamic Scholars (ICIS), with the main purpose to promote
manhaj and order such as tawassuth and i’tidal (moderatisme) to international
community, and to gain ukluwah islamiyah of all uelama from different mazhab and
international moslems sholars.34
Muhammadiyah is the second largest islamic organization in Indonesia, claims
membership of around 30 million people. Muhammadiyah leader used Back to Qur’an,
that was udnerstood verbally and formally and actualized by calling for islamic tecahing
in the early years and emphaaiseze today’s misinterpretation of Qur’an and religious
praxis as demonstrated in their ABC (takhyul, bid’ah and Churafat) concepts. Those
concepts were considered as misled of real Islam, and so they needs to be abolished.35
Muhammadiyah has its international basis by establishing “Special Brach Leader
Muhammadiyah” (PCIM). PCIM currently had its brach in several country such as
Kcairo (Egypt), teheran (Iran), Kartoum (sudan), Kuala Lumpur (Malaysia), Tokyo
(Japan), Libya, UK, the Netherland, Germany, and most probably will develop to USA,
Australia, South Korea, and France. This organization under mOhammadiyah will
33
http://philtar.ucsm.ac.uk/encyclopedia/indon/nahdat.html, accessed July 8th, 2008.
http://www.mail-archive.com/kmnu2000@yahoogroups.com/msg10399.html diakses tanggal 23 Januari
2007.11.59
35
http://islamlib.com/id/index.php?page=article&id=274 diakses tanggal 24 September 2007.14.58
34
17
develop their cooperation with Moslems societies, governemnt and other non-governemnt
organizatyion in PPCIM branch. 36
Beside moderate moslems, tehre are other radical islamic organization such as
Jamaah Islamiyah (JI). Other tradical organizations are: Laskar Jihad that established by
the Communication Forum of Ahlussunnah wa al-Jama’ah under the leadership of Ja’far
Umar Tholib; Front Pembela Islam (FPI) lead by Habib Riziq Shihab; Majelis Mujahidin
Indonesia (MMI) lead by Abu Bakar Baasyir; Jamaah Ikhwan al-Muslimin Indonesia
(JAMI) lead by Habib Husein al-Habsyi; dan Hizbut-Tahrir Indonesia (HTI).37 They
understood Islamic doctrin as literal, textual, sacred, and final. This way of thinking led
to their extreme, radical, fanatical, exclusive and non-tolerance. They wanted to applied
their understanding of Islam as they learn from the Saudi Arabia. They are the new
generation of Islam that disappointed by their older generation that they thought as had
been berkhianat as they build coalition with New Order regime that menindas their
thoghts.
Another type of organization is progresiif-liberal, such as Muhammadiyah’s
Network of Young Scholars., Liberal Islamic Network (JIL). They beliefe that strong
lines could not solve societal problems, and decontruct Islamic thoughts ; syariah, texts.
In several aspects they gain positive result as they develop discourse. However, in the
grass root level they shocked with
the new way of viewing Islam. In this context,
appeared an agenda from Hizbut tahrir Indoensia (HTI) that aimed to save Indonesia with
appled Islamic Syariah. The agenda brought constructive responds in several provinces.
Currently, theyr have been 20 areas in Indonesia that applied Islamic syariah. HTI,
explisitly repeating to discuss daulah Khilafah as an alternative of a nation state that
considerad as secular product. According to HTI, only Daulah Khilafah could secured the
application of Islamic Law.38
10. Indonesian Diplomacy
36
http://www.muhammadiyah.or.id/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=614&Itemid=82&lang
=id diakses tanggal 23 Januari 2007.12.16
37
Fananie, Zainuddin. dkk. 2002. Radikalisme agama dan Perubahan Sosial. Surakarta: Muhammadiyah
University Press & The Asia Foundation.
38
http://www.tokohindonesia.com/ensiklopedi/s/syamsul-arifin/index.shtml diakses tanggal 6 September
2007.12.48
18
•
Conflict Manajement/preventive diplomacy
–
Diplomat always strive for a non-zero sum game
–
Diplomasi Preventif (Preventive Diplomacy) :
–
The best way to avoid escalation of conflict is to avoid the development
of a crisis in the first place
There are three types of reactions in Indonesia, firstly violent demonstration, such
as violent demonstration and pengrusakan Denmark embassy, consulates, and Dennish
interetss. secondly, tuntutan to boycott Dennish product, and thirdly the tuntutan to
severe diplomatic relations with Denmark. Department of Foreign Affairs (Deplu) had
conducted several types of diplomacy regarding the isuue.
Violent demonstration, followed by the closing of Denmark Embassy and
warning to all Denish citizen to leave the country. Following the tuntutan, on February 6th
2006, Dennish Consulate in Surabaya, East Java, was temporarily closed. The Dennish
Embassy in Jakarta being closed on 11 February 2006, followed by recall of Dennish
Amabsasador Niels Erik Andersen dan all staff of Dennish Embassy. The recalled of
Ambassador and diplomats related to phycsical threat and sweeping of Dennish citizen by
the demonstrans.
According to Menlu Hassan Wirayuda, the temporary closure of Dennish
Embassy, fleed of Danish Ambassadors and diplomats merely due to security reason, and
did not related to deterioration of bilateral relations. The statetement implied if the issue
was considered minor. herefore, to severe diplomatic relations with Denmark was not
part of Indonesian consideration. Danish embassy re-openend on March 6th, 2008.
Conclusion
Both first track as well as second track diplomacy had produced positive result.
Multitract diplomacy has able to cool down the emotion of Indonesian radical Moslems
and led to normalization of diplomatic relations between Denmark-and Indonesia. Deplu
initiative to conduct dialogue inter faith and global media dialogue was even
complimented by Denmark as s sign of maturity of Indonesian diplomacy.
19
References
Fananie, Zainuddin. dkk. 2002. Radikalisme Agama dan Perubahan Sosial. Surakarta:
Muhammadiyah University Press & The Asia Foundation.
Kimball, Charles. 2003. Kala Agama Jadi Bencana. Bandung:PT. Mizan Pustaka.
Muslims In The European Union Discrimination and Islamophobia. 2006.
European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia.
Nanang Pujalaksana. 2006. “Karikatur Nabi Muhammad dan Reaksi di Indonesia” dalam
Update Indonesia Volume 2. The Indonesian Institute.
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