Online Study Guide Chapter 9
By definition, the divine is beyond human understanding. Humans are unique in their
pursuit of trying to explain the unknowable. Religious practices and objects are used to
try to connect with a divine realm. Art can merely depict gods and goddesses or can be
incorporated into religious rituals. Gods can also be thought to reside within art objects.
Religions have chosen many ways they depict their gods. Geometric symbols, animistic
creatures, natural elements, and human-like beings have all been used by various
religions to represent deities.
Early Dieties
The Earth Mother is the original deity in about every area of the world. Particularly
important in hunter-gatherer societies, the life-giving nurturer that gives birth to all life is
revered.
Ancient Egyptians deified natural elements and animals. Official cult statues were housed
in darkened temple chambers and were brought out only on special holy days.
Unfortunately, all of these sculptures have been lost or destroyed, and most of our
examples of religious art come from royal tombs.
Figure 9-1, Snake Goddess, Glazed earthenware, 13.5" high. Minoan, Crete, 1600 BC.
Her exposed breasts, snake-wielding arms, and bulging eyes display the power and sexual
energy of this Earth Goddess figure.
1. Minoan snake goddess from the palace at Knossos, c. 1600 BC
2. See several versions of the snake goddess at this site
For more on early goddesses, see the sections"Fertility Goddesses and Gods"
and"Fertility Figures" in Chapter 8.
Figure 9-2, The Goddess Hathor and the Overseer of Seals, Psamtik, Gray stone, height
of cow to horns is 33", Egypt, late 26th Dynasty, 6th century BC.
The goddess Hathor, associated with the sky, stars, love, and joy, is usually depicted as a
cow or as a half-cow, half-human creature.
1. View from the side, Hathor and Psamtik
2. Hathor columns of the shrine of Hathor
In Chapter 10, a hawk representing Horus, the Sky God, is on the coffin case of the
Pharaoh Tutankhamen (Figure 10.3, page 258).
The Greek Gods
Greek gods are always represented possessing idealized human forms. Each god and
goddess developed distinctly human personalities, and they are responsible for various
aspects of the natural world and of human life.
Figure 9-3, Zeus or Poseidon, Bronze, 6'10" high. Greece, 460-450 BC.
This rare, Greek hollow-cast bronze of the god Zeus or the sea god Poseidon is captured
at the moment before he throws his lightening bolt or trident.
1. Bronze Statue of Zeus (or Poseidon)
Hinduism
While numerous divine beings inhabit the Hindu cosmology, all of them are simply
manifestations of the Absolute Spirit or Brahman. Through meditation, humans can
become one with Brahman, and reach enlightenment. Brahman is not representable in
image, but Hindus believe that art depicting the lesser gods contain the presence of
Brahman.
Figure 9-4, Shiva as Nataraja, or Lord of the Dance, Punjai, India, c. 1000. Bronze.
Shiva is the god of destruction and regeneration. Shiva is woman and man; good and evil;
the source where opposites meet and become one. Shiva is shown dancing on top of the
personification of Ignorance.
1. Shiva as Nataraja - The Lord of the Dance
2. Nataraja
Buddhism
Buddhism follows the teaching of an Indian prince who became a monk. Through
meditation, he achieved enlightenment and attained the status of Buddha or Sakyamuni.
His philosophy prescribed the renouncement of material concerns and human desire.
Figure 9-5, Great Stupa, Dome 50' high, Sanchi, India, 3rd century BC - 1st century AD.
The Great Stupa is the burial mound containing the ashes of Buddha. It symbolizes
Sakyamuni's attainment of Nirvana.
1. The Great Stupa at Sanchi
Indonesian Stupa
One of the carvings from the Great Stupa at Sanchi is the Yakshi (Figure 13.13, page
364). India: Buddhist Art
Figure 9-6, Seated Buddha, Sandstone, height 63 inches, Sarnath, Uttar Pradesh, India,
late 5th-early 6th centuries.
The Mahayana sect of Buddhism deified Buddha and worshipped his effigy. Seated
Buddha is a very stylized figure. The bump on his head represents wisdom, and his hands
display the preaching hand gesture or mudra.
1. Archeological Aspects of Sarnath
Figure 9-7, The Water and Moon Guanyin Bodhisattva, Painted wood, 7'11' high. Song
Dynasty, China, c.1100.
Bodhisattvas are Buddhas who have remained on earth to help others. Guanyin, the most
powerful of Bodhisattvas, displays a tranquil sensuality.
1. Bodhisattva Guanyin
Judaism
Judaism is based on a strict code of ethics and monotheism. Jews are considered a
divinely chosen people, and believe in a single god, Yaweh. Judaism would become the
basis of Christianity and Islam.
Figure 9-8, Synagogue at Dura-Europas, interior, with wall paintings of biblical themes,
Syria, 245-256 AD.
The interior of a synagogue is decorated with illustrations from the Old Testament.
Yaweh is not pictured except for the image of His hand.
1. The Dura-Europos Synagogue
Christianity
The Christian religion is based on the belief in Jesus Christ, the human incarnation of a
single God who is the source of salvation for human souls. Christian art is filled with
representations of Jesus.
Figure 9-9, Madonna of the Meadow, Raphael. Panel painting, 44.5" x 34.25". Italy, c.
1505.
Raphael painted Mary, Jesus' mother, watching over the infant Jesus and John the
Baptist. The figures are modeled with gentle shadows and the triangular composition
gives the work an overall sense of stability.
1. Madonna of the Meadows, by Raphael Sanzio, 1505
2. Raphael on Artcyclopedia
Figure 9-10, Isenheim Altarpiece, Center panel: Crucifixion, Matthias Grunewald, Oil on
wood, 9'9" x 10'9", Germany, c.1510-1515.
This altarpiece, created for a hospital, depicts the grisly crucifixion of Jesus. The center
panel opens up to reveal joyous scenes from Jesus' life.
1. The Isenheim Altarpiece
For an example of a very early image of Jesus, see the Catacomb of Sts. Peter and
Marcellinus (Figure 10.15, page 269). Turn to The Last Judgment (Fig. 13.17, page 367)
to see an image of Jesus as judge.
Gods for Special Purposes
Polytheistic religions divide control and influence over numerous aspects of human life
among different gods. In this section, we will look at gods and goddesses associated with
food production.
Figure 9-11, Xilonen, Goddess of Young Corn, Limestone, 33 inches high, Huastec,
Tuxpan, (Veracruz), 1000-1200.
Xilonen, protector of young corn plants, is represented with a human face. Maize or corn
was the staple crop for Mesoamerican cultures.
1. Huaxtec corn goddess, detail
2. “The goddess Xilonen of the Mexica"
Human devise ceremonies to communicate with the gods. Such rituals may include
praying, meditation, singing, and preparing offerings. Art often plays a role in this divine
interchange.
Ceremonies
Figure 9-12, Transformation Mask, Kwakiutl, British Columbia, 20th century. Painted
wood. American Museum of Natural History, New York.
Hidden strings transformed the wearer of the mask from an earthly being to a
supernatural spirit. Performers literally became the deities their masks represented.
1. Kwakiutl Transformation Mask
2. Raven Transformation Ceremonial Mask
Figure 7.17, page 153, shows a large Feast Dish used in a potlatch.
1. Food and Feasting
Offerings
Figure 9-13, Offering with Cili-Shaped Crown, Bali, c.1985. Approx. 24" tall.
Balinese consider their handmade offerings art. This offering is in the"cili" configuration,
symbolizing wealth, fertility, and luck.
1. Bali Offerings
Figure 9-14, Retablo of Maria de la Luz Casillas and Children, Oil on metal, 7" x 10",
central Mexico, 1960.
In Mexico, small votive paintings called"retablos" are used to give thanks at the shrine of
Jesus, Mary, or a saint. They are usually painted on tin and incorporate images and text
describing their miracle. (See also figure 6.6)
1. Information about retablos
2. Spanish Colonial ex-voto
Sacrifices
Figure 9-15, Shield Jaguar and Lady Xoc, Relief from a palace at Yaxchilan. Chiapas,
Mexico, c. 750. Some Mesoamerican cultures believed human sacrifices were necessary
to keep the sun and planets in rotation. This relief shows a Mayan bloodletting ritual.
1. Bas-relief: Yaxchilán, Chiapas
For more on the Mesoamerican ball games and their meaning, see the Mayan ball court in
Figure 16.10.
1. The Ball Court at Uxmal
Figure 9-16, Sacrifice of Issac, (detail), Lorenzo Ghiberti. Gilded bronze, total relief is
21" x 17.5", Florence, Italy 1401-02.
Ghiberti's relief illustrates the Christian story of Abraham preparing to sacrifice his son to
God. The substitution of a ram was allowed at the last minute.
1. Web Gallery of Art: GHIBERTI, Lorenzo
Prayers
Figure 9-17, Power Figure, (Nkisi n'kondi), Wood, nails, blades, medicinal material with
cowrie shell, 46.75" high. Kongo, Zaire, c.1875-1900.
Power Figures were used to counter evil influences. A shaman must activate the figure
before releasing its magic by driving a nail or blade into its wooden body.
1. Nail Figure (nkisi n'kondi)
2. “Nail and blade oath-taking figure" from Zaire
Figure 9-18, Ahola Kachina, Jimmie Kewanwytewa, Cottonwood, paint, feathers, wood,
height 13 inches. Hopi, Native American, 1942.
Hopi festival performers carve dolls donning costumes of Kachina spirits. The Ahola
Kachina is celebrated each February, and the dolls are distributed to educate children or
serve as fertility or harvest blessings.
1. Ahola Kachina
2. Collection/Esprit Kachina
3. Rainmakers from the Gods: Hopi Katsinam
Maps of the cosmos visually organize the hierarchical relations between humans, the
gods, and natural phenomenon.
Figure 9-19, Mandala of Samvara, (also called Kharamukha Cakrasamvara Mandala),
waterbased pigment on cotton cloth Tibet, 23" x 18", c. 16th century.
A mandala maps out the Buddhist or Hindu cosmos, which is intricate yet ordered.
Meditation on a mandala can guide individuals onto the path of enlightenment.
1. Mandala de Samvara
2. Examine the Rossi Collection of early Tibetan mandalas
3. Chakrasamvara mandala
Figure 9-20, Ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, Michelangelo, Fresco, approximately 128' x
45', Vatican, Italy, 1508-12.
Nine scenes from the Old Testament's story of the creation of the universe are illustrated
on the Ceiling of the Sistine Chapel.
1. Exploring the Sistine Chapel Ceiling
PLACES OF WORSHIP AND THEIR GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
All places of worship exhibit some or all these characteristics: they incorporate nature;
are located on traditional sites of religious celebration; the geometry or location of the
site is symbolic; they house sacred objects or images; they promote the idea of a
pilgrimage; and they shelter a congregation.
Housing Sacred Objects
Many places of worship were built to house a sacred images, texts, or artifacts of religion.
Often, these are specifically constructed buildings, such as temples or churches. In many
cases though, formal structures have not been necessary.
Figure 9-21, The Ark of the Convenant and sanctuary implements. Mosaic. Hammath,
near Tiberias, fourth century. Israel Antiquities Authority, Jerusalem. Photo: Zev
Rodovan, Jerusalem.
1. The Ark Of The Covenant
The Roman Emperor Titus led troops into Jerusalem and destroyed the Second Temple in
CE 70. Relief carvings on the Arch of Titus commemorate the emperor's victory in
Jerusalem and depict his soldiers carrying the booty from the Temple in a victory parade.
(See Figure 11.16)
Incorporating Elements of Nature
Sacred sites are often naturally occurring, like a rock formation or a spring. Human-made
temples usually reference natural elements.
Figure 9-22, Ziggurat at Ur, Third Dynasty at Ur, Iraq, c. 2150-2050 BC.
Ziggurat at Ur is an artificial mountain erected by the Sumerians. Its corners align with
the four cardinal points.
1. Another view of the Ziggurat at Ur
Compare the basic design of the Shinto shrine to the Toba Batak House, Figure 7.28,
page 159).
Providing Sites for Sacred Ceremonies
Sacred ceremonies may take place in specially designated structures like churches or may
take place in a humble patch of open field. In every case, art plays in integral role in these
ceremonies.
Figure 9-23, Main Shrine at Ise, Japan, c.685.
Kami or nature gods are called upon to enter shrines like Main Shrine at Ise through
Shinto rituals. This shrine is rebuilt to exact standards every twenty years.
1. Sacred Places: Shrine at Ise, Japan, c. 685
An example of a Navajo sand painting can be seen in Fig. 3.14 on page 65.
1. Navajo sandpaintings
2. Indian Summer Sandpaintings
Using Geometry Symbolically
The dimensions, location, and orientation of sacred places are often symbolically
significant.
Figure 9-24, Stonehenge, Wiltshire, England, c. 2000 BC. Diameter 97', largest stones 24
feet high.
Stonehenge consists of a circular stone arrangement, which may have been the site of
religious ceremony and astrological calculation.
1. Earth Mysteries: Stonehenge
2. Stonehenge, England
Figure 9-25, Pantheon, Rome, Italy, c. 118-125.
The dome of the Pantheon is a perfect hemisphere. A square and circle motif is repeated
throughout the building's dimensions and ornamentation. The overall symmetry and
geometric balance of this shrine expresses the Classic Greek ideals of perfection within
the cosmos.
1. Pantheon, Rome, Italy
2. Great Buildings Online: Pantheon
Providing Destinations for Pilgrimages
Almost all major religions endorse the idea of pilgrimage to sacred sites. The physical
journey becomes a metaphor for a spiritual odyssey.
Figure 9-26, Shrine to Vairocana Buddha, Longmen, Luoyang, China, c.600 - 650.
Natural rock carving, 50' high.
Shrine to Vairocana Buddha is the largest shrine at the Longmen Caves. Buddha is
flanked by lesser Buddhas and demons.
1. The Longmen Caves, or Grottoes, in Luoyang
2. Shrine to Vairocana Buddha, Longmen, Luoyang, China.
Figure 9-27, Notre Dame du Haut, Le Corbusier, Ronchamps, France, 1950-1955.
Notre Dame du Haut is a Catholic pilgrimage destination that features a dramatic,
sculptural exterior. An outdoor pulpit accommodates the large crowds during the holy
days.
1. Le Corbusier, Notre Dame du Haut
2. Chapel of Notre Dame du Haut Ronchamp by Le Corbusier
Large-scale religious architecture requires major investments of labor and materials.
They need a large, stable government to support the effort, and therefore become
embodiments of political as well as religious power. In the following examples of large
temples, the relationship between spectacle and religiosity become intertwined
Figure 9-28, Floor plans of (a.) Horus Temple, (b.) Acropolis, (c.)Chartres Cathedral,
(d.) Pyramid of the Sun, (e.) Kandarya Mahadeva Temple, and (f.) Masjid-I-Shah.
Imposing scale and symmetry are shared characteristics of all six of these sacred temples.
1. Five floor plans – Horus Temple, Acropolis, Chartres, Pyramid of the Sun, and
Kandarya Mahadeva Temple
a. The Temple of Horus at Edfu (Idfu)
b. Parthenon floor plan, Acropolis
c. Chartres floor plan
d. Great Buildings Online: Teotihuacan
e. Kandarya Mahadeva Temple floor plan
The Greek Temple
Figure 9-29, Parthenon, Iktinos and Kallikrates, Athens, 447-432 BC. Columns: 34' high.
Floorplan: 228' x 104'.
The Parthenon sits amid numerous temples on Acropolis. It is dedicated to Athen's
patroness, the goddess Athena. The Parthenon is built according to Classic Greek
proportions, on a post-and-lintel system. Columns bulge slightly at the center, and other
distortions are incorporated into the building to create optical"perfection."
1. Parthenon, Athens, Greece
Greek columns appear on the Roman Colosseum in Figure 16.9. See also Figure 2.36,
page 50, for diagrams of the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian orders.
Figure 9-30, Horseman, from the Parthenon frieze, c. 440 BC. Marble, 37" high.
This long band of relief carving or frieze runs around the perimeter of the top walls of the
Parthenon's inner chambers. It depicts a procession of pilgrims. Human figures and gods
alike are depicted with idealized bodies, underscoring Greek humanist philosophy.
1. Parthenon friezes and other reliefs
The Egyptian Temple
Cult temples were situated east of the Nile River, like the rising sun. The Horus Temple
of Edfu was dedicated to Horus, the sun falcon. Temples were seen as dwellings of the
gods. Its hypostyle halls were thick with a dense grid of massive columns required to
hold up the stone ceiling. The holy sculpture of Horus inside the temple was carried out
only on special occasions. Pharaohs often used these temples to celebrate themselves
instead of deities.
Other than cult temples, much Egyptian architecture, such as the Mortuary Temple of
Hatshepsut (Figure 10.5, page 260), consists of tombs and funerary temples.
Figure 9-31, Great Pylon of the Horus Temple, Edfu, Egypt, c. 237-57 BC. Height of
pylons: 118'.
The front entrance of the Horus Temple is shaped to echo mountains. It had been brightly
painted in its original state.
1. Great pylon of the Horus Temple at Edfu
Figure 9-32, First Hypostyle Hall, Horus Temple at Edfu. Roof slabs are 50' from the
floor.
The interior of the Horus Temple is crowded with massive stone columns.
1. Hypostyle Hall at the Horus Temple
The Mesoamerican Temple
The temples of the Teotihuacán were located on a north-south axis through the city called
the"Avenue of the Dead." Mesoamerican temples took the form of truncated pyramids
topped with temple structures. The enormous amount of building materials required of
these temples possibly contributed to the depletion of surrounding forests and subsequent
decline of their civilization.
Figure 9-33, Pyramid of the Sun, Teotihuacán, Mexico, 150 AD. One side of the base is
768' long.
The Pyramid of the Sun was probably used for sun worship. The Teotihuacáns had not
invented the wheel, and construction materials were hauled up on the backs of workers.
The temple was once faced with a gleaming white plaster exterior.
1. The Sun Pyramid
2. Pyramid of the Sun
There are many similarities between the Pyramid of the Sun and the Ziggurat at Ur
(Figure 9.22, page 220), seen earlier in this chapter.
1. Another view of the Ziggurat at Ur
Figure 9-34, Tlalocan Painting, from Tepantitla compound, Teotihuacán. Copy by
Agustin Villagra. Original: pigment on stucco.
This restored temple painting shows a water god with spiders and butterflies inhabiting
the plant sprouting from her head. Red and white were the dominant colors in temple
paintings.
1. Teotihuacan frescoes: Tlalocan mural
2. A second detail from the Tlalocan painting
The Hindu Temple
The Hindu temple is perceived to be a deity's home. Early temples were cut into the rock
face of mountains. Freestanding temples are small, cubical structures topped with
decorated"mountain tops." They are primarily intended to be seen from the exterior. Cult
images or sculptures are mounted on the back walls of these metaphorical wombs.
Temple floor plans align with the four cardinal points and are based on the mandala.
Figure 9-35, Kandarya Mahadeva Temple, Khajuraho, India, 10-11th centuries. Main
tower 130' high.
Male and female sexual forms make up the basic shapes of the temple's architecture. The
temple is dedicated to Mahadeva Shiva, overseer of all living things.
1. Kandarya Mahadeva Temple, Khajuraho, c. 1000
Figure 8.17, page 185, shows an erotic scene from the Kandarya Mahadeva Temple.
The Gothic Cathedral
The palatial Gothic Cathedral did not come into existence until Christianity became the
official religion of the Roman Empire. Cathedral architecture is based on the Roman
basilica, which were large assembly halls. The cathedral was supposed to link heaven to
earth, featuring soaring vaulted ceilings, flying buttresses, stained glass windows, and
large collections of religious and funerary art.
Figure 9-36, Chartres Cathedral, Chartres, France, 1194-1220. 427' long, north tower:
377' high.
The Gothic style of architecture emphasizes verticality.
1. The Cathedral at Chartres, Great Buildings Online
2. Sacred Places: Chartres, France
Figure 9-37, Rose Window. Chartres Cathedral, 1233.
Stained glass windows produced the effect of divine light, an important symbol in
Christian doctrine. The center of the Rose Window depicts Mary with Jesus. The
blooming rose is a symbol of Mary.
1. Detail from the Rose window
2. The Geometry of the Rose Window
For an example of the English style of Gothic architecture, see the Chapel of Henry VII,
Figure 10.17, page 271.
1. Perpendicular Gothic Architecture in England
The Buddhist Temple
Religious architecture in China tends to follow the models of secular Chinese
architecture. Structures are wood frame, have non-load-bearing walls, and feature
elaborate curving roofs supported by a bracket and cantilever system. Early temples
modified the horizontal hall design. Later temples used pagoda designs to accommodate
the height of large Buddha sculptures.
Figure 9-38, Altar of Heaven, Beijing, 15-16th centuries.
At the Altar of Heaven temple complex, structures face south because the south is
believed to bring fair climate. The north is a source of evil forces.
1. Beijing, China --- Temple of Heaven
2. Temple of Heaven
3. Altar of Heaven, Beijing, from UNESCO World Heritage Site
Figure 9-39, Temple of Heaven, Beijing, 1420, restored in 1754. Wood with tile roof.
The Temple of Heaven is a fine example of traditional Chinese architecture. The temple
is dominated by its violet-blue roof and sits on top of three marble terraces. The pagoda
was used only three or four times a year for religious ceremonies presided over by the
emperor.
1. Temple of Heaven
The Islamic Mosque
Muslims are required to pray five times a day, bowing towards Mecca. Collective prayer
services are held at mosques. The plan of mosques is thought to have been derived from
the prophet Mohammed's house. No images are allowed in mosques, resulting in a
proliferation of abstract and calligraphic ornamentation. Mosques serve as religious and
community centers.
Figure 9-40, Masjid-i-Shah, or Royal Mosque, Isfahan, Persia (Iran), 1612-37. Arch of
main portal: 90' high; minarets: 110' high.
This Persian mosque's interior is richly adorned with patterned tiles and brickwork. The
tall towers, called minarets, are used to call people to prayer. Interiors tend to be
spacious, to accommodate large congregations and to symbolize the infinity of Allah. The
turquoise dome represents the heavens and Allah's singularity.
1. Masjid-i Shah Isfahan a.k.a Imam Mosque
Figure 9-41, Detail of main portal of the Masjid-i-Shah.
The main entrance to the Masjid-i-Shah is decorated in a dizzying profusion of plant and
floral patterns and calligraphy. Patterning symbolizes the omnipotence of Allah;
distinguishes different parts of the mosque, and disguises the massive bulk of the
mosque's structural supports.
2. The Dome of Masjid-i-Shah
The Taj Mahal, Figure 10.18, is an Islamic structure decorated with carved and inlaid
stones.
Figure 5.16, page 109, is a diagram of the dome of the Masjid-i-Shah that shows its
patterned mosaic decoration.