Art & Design: gods
and spirits
Feather god
Hawaii, Polynesia
possibly 18th century AD
Guide for teachers 8
Art and Design: gods and spirits
Introduction
Art & Design guides for teachers
The collections of the British Museum have inspired artists for hundreds of years and are a
rich source of ideas and stimulation for teachers and students alike. This series of ten
guides is intended to help primary and secondary teachers to use the objects in the British
Museum collections for teaching art and design. This will support students’ research skills,
knowledge and understanding in order to make their practical work more meaningful and
contextualised.
Each guide focuses on a topic. Each topic is analysed through four or five themes, each
of which is illustrated with a museum object, from different historical periods and world
cultures. These topics, themes and objects have been specially chosen so that you and
your students can use them as starting points to explore the collections further, either at
the Museum or online. Each guide ends with points for classroom discussion and brief
ideas for starting off activities and projects. The guides in the series are:
1 Containers
2 Sculpture
3 Textiles
4 Symbols
5 Celebration
6 The Natural World
7 Identity
8 Gods and spirits
9 Objects in motion
10 Death and the afterlife
All the objects have been taken from the Museum’s online database, available through:
www.britishmuseum.org/explore/introduction.aspx. There you can find high quality images
which can be copied into your own presentations for the classroom or for students to
download.
Contextual understanding
In order to develop their critical thinking, students should examine the following when
considering any museum object:
Origin:
Materials:
Process:
Function:
Meaning:
Who made it? Where and when was it made?
What is it made from?
How was it made?
What was it used for?
What does it mean?
Once students have understood the context, they can analyse the form and decoration of
the object which are usually determined or influenced by all these aspects.
Art and Design: gods and spirits
Introduction
World cultures
The guides are not based around a particular cultural or geographical region. If you wish
to focus your study on, for example, objects from Africa then use the list below, where the
guides which contain objects from particular regions have been grouped.
Africa
Death and the afterlife, Gods and spirits, Identity, Sculpture, Symbols, Textiles,
The Americas
Celebration, Containers, Gods and spirits, Symbols, Textiles, Natural World
Asia
Celebration, Containers, Death and the afterlife, Gods and spirits, Objects in motion,
Sculpture,
Europe
Celebration, Containers, Death and the afterlife, Gods and spirits, Identity, Objects in
motion, Sculpture, Textiles, Natural World
Middle East
Gods and spirits, Sculpture, Natural World
Oceania
Containers, Death and the afterlife, Gods and spirits, Sculpture, Symbols, Natural World
Cross-curricular topics
Citizenship
Many of these topics tap into citizenship themes such as local and national identity,
globalisation and global issues, and the impact of the media.
History
The objects are from a variety of historical contexts and periods. Research and
discussions about the use of clothing for status and the importance of symbols are central
to exploring images as evidence in history.
Geography
Examining objects from specific cultures is an excellent way of understanding how humans
interact and cope with living and surviving in different environments.
Religious Education
Many of these objects have some spiritual significance. Those relating to the afterlife and
deities are ideal starting points for considering similarities and differences in belief systems
.
Art and Design:gods and spirits
Themes
Gods and spirits
Images of gods, divinities and spirits express the belief that the world is controlled by
powerful non human forces. However, different cultures visualise their gods and spirits in
different ways, reflecting their religious beliefs and traditions. Images of gods and spirits
might attempt to make the spiritual world present, define the nature of a deity or be
employed in religious rituals. In many cases visual images and objects help humans
communicate with the world of the gods. However, some religious traditions do not attempt
to make visual representation of the divine as they believe this is sacrilegious.
Visualising a god as human and animal
The ancient Egyptians often depicted their
gods as half animal, half human. This did
not mean they saw their gods as animals,
but rather the animal served to illustrate
particular characteristics of the god. Here
the goddess Bastet has a cat’s head and
is seen in her role as protectress of
women and children. She was also the
goddess of family, fertility and birth, as
well as music and dance. Her cat’s head
and the litter of kittens at her feet
symbolise her gentle, motherly nature.
She also holds a sistrum, a music-making attribute. She was a popular goddess and a
great many small bronzes and statues such as this one survive. However, there were
other aspects of her character and she was not always depicted as gentle and nurturing.
She had an aggressive, ferocious side and was sometimes represented with the head of a
lioness rather than that of a domestic cat.
Art and Design:gods and spirits
Themes
Depicting and communicating with spirits
Many cultures make images that visualise
religious figures and forces to help humans
communicate with the spirit world. This figure
represents a shaman's spirit helper from the
other world. It is made of carved wood and was
probably part of a drum handle used in
shamanistic ritual. In Alaskan Yupi’k society,
shamans are believed to have the power to heal
the sick and communicate with the world beyond.
Through drumming and singing the shaman went
into a trance state and become possessed by a
spirit. The spirit helper would assist the shaman on his journey to the world beyond.
Alaskan Yupi’k spirit helpers are often depicted as terrifying, monstrous creatures and this
figure has a large, threatening mouth to help make it more powerful.
A god seen as human
Some religious traditions, such as Judaism and Islam,
do not believe images can be made of the divine, which
is believed to be unknowable. However, Christians
believe that Jesus Christ, the son of god, was both
human and divine, so it was possible to represent him.
Some images emphasise his divine characteristics,
presenting him as an authoritarian judge and creator or
the world. Others focus on his human, vulnerable nature.
This 14th century ivory depicts Christ as a small child. He
is held by his mother and the sculpture focuses on their loving, tender relationship. It
therefore emphasises Christ’s childlike nature and humanity. Images of the crucifixion,
where Christ is seen as suffering or dead made a similar point about his human as
opposed to divine nature.
In the sculpture the Virgin also tramples a demon underfoot, symbolising her triumph over
evil. The work is small in scale and would have been used as a focus for private prayer
Art and Design:gods and spirits
Themes
rather than being found on an altar in a church. The figure sways elegantly sideways,
following the original curve of the elephant tusk. When looking at the figure, the devotee
might have thought about the Christ child’s love of humanity, the future crucifixion and the
Christian myth of salvation. However, the Virgin herself was also popular, for, like the
saints, she acted as an intermediary between humans and god. The workmanship is very
fine and it was probably owned by a wealthy aristocrat.
Mythology and ritual
Many images of divinities, such as the Virgin and
Child discussed above, illustrate aspects of
mythology or beliefs about the god. Here the Hindu
deity Shiva is seen as Nataraja or Lord of the Dance.
He dances in a ring of fire, his ascetic’s hair flying
out behind him. His left hand points downwards in a
gesture of protection and his right hand points up in
the gesture of “have no fear”. As he dances he
tramples the demon of darkness and ignorance,
Apasmara. In Hindu mythology Shiva is associated with creation and destruction, dancing
the world into existence and extinction. Here he holds destructive fire and the damaru
drum, whose sound suggests creation.
However, such bronzes were more than illustrations of myth. The god was believed to be
present in the sculpture and so it was honoured as living being. The image of the divinity
stood on an altar where it played a central role in temple rituals. It was bathed, adorned
with jewels and silk and given offerings of food, incense and flowers. The figure was also
carried through the streets in processions so it could bless the surrounding area and
ordinary people had an opportunity to see and worship the divinity.
A god to rally armed forces
Images of gods fulfil a variety of functions in both peace and wartime situations. In a war
context, religious emblems have often been used in battles. For instance, in the Crusades
both Christian and Muslim armies carried banners and standards decorated with images or
Art and Design:gods and spirits
Themes
symbols of their god that acted like a mascot and inspired the
troops. The Hawaiians made large, awe-inspiring images of the
heads of their gods in semi human form. The figures were carried
into battle on tall poles and would have been seen above the
heads of the army. They served to terrify the enemy, but also
acted as mascots, inspiring both chief and warriors.
This is probably the war god Kuka'ilimoku. He has glaring eyes
made of mother of pearl and a gaping, savage mouth lined with
dog’s teeth. Like other similar images, he is made from the bright,
colourful feathers of local birds. Red feathers were associated
with the sacred and were believed magically to protect the
wearer. They were also symbols of rank and during war the chief
wore a similarly shaped, crested, feathered helmet and red
feather cloak. The chief and the god therefore looked alike. When the feather gods were
not being used in war, they lived in special shrines within temples.
Non-figurative representations of a god
Islam, like Judaism forbids the representation of god. Instead the divine can be suggested
through non-figurative form. This could be geometric pattern symbolising the divine order
of the universe or sacred calligraphy in the form of the names of god found in the Qu’ran,
the holy book divinely revealed to Muhammad. In the Qu’ran god has many names, each
Art and Design:gods and spirits
Themes
expressing a particular aspect of his character. These include the Merciful, the
Compassionate, the Almighty, the Protector, the Everlasting, the All-knowing, the
Generous, the Mild and the Judge. Muslim religious buildings were often decorated with
the names of god in stylised calligraphic script. The words act as a form of visual prayer
and symbolise the presence of god. These 14th century Iranian lustre tiles are typical of
such religious decoration. They form part of frieze and would have run along the walls of a
building, perhaps a mosque. They combine geometric plant motifs with script saying “in the
name of God the most merciful, the most compassionate, there is no god but Him, the allpowerful, the all-ruling'. The script is Kufic, a calligraphic style which stretched and skewed
the letters for aesthetic purposes. The words are treated like a repeating, decorative
pattern so that it is often difficult to read. The words here are from the Koran and salute
god, using some of his many names. Contemporary mosques continue to combine
calligraphy and architecture.
Art and Design:gods and spirits
Activities and projects
General discussion

Why do you think people make images of their gods? What function do they fulfil?

Students could do research on some of the the rituals linked to objects, images and
symbols of gods.

Try to find out why some religions do not consider it appropriate to represent the divine.
What do students think of the pros and cons of depicting the divine? Divide the class in
two and have a discussion on the issue, each group arguing for a different position.
Consider the contemporary relevance of this issue.
Projects and activities
:
Primary
Animal god
Design your own half animal, half human god. What animal would you chose and what are
its characteristics? Consider the character of the god you have created. What would it be
a god of?
Journey to the spirit world
Imagine you were a shaman and write a story describing your journey to the spirit world.
What would you see, hear, smell and feel? Who would you would meet? Make your own
terrifying, monstrous spirit helper.
Ritual
Read a myth from a religion or belief system. Create a performance or dance around the
myth and make masks that express the character of the different gods. You might look at
the way various African societies use masks in performance to illustrate their myths.
Art and Design:gods and spirits
Activities and projects
Secondary
The image of the divine
Design and make your own god to reflect what you think are the most important values in
contemporary society. Compare and contrast your idea of a god to those other religions
and belief systems. Consider whether your god would be made of ephemeral, perishable
materials or be built to last. What different ideas could this express? How would you
imagine your god being used? Do you see it as timeless and static or being used as part of
a temporary performance, ritual or celebration? How would people relate to your god?
Islamic architecture and faith
Research Islamic architecture and consider how and why writing is used in this context. Do
contemporary Islamic architects continue to use calligraphy in an architectural context?
Find specific examples. Compare and contrast the way lettering is used in an Islamic
architectural context with the use of text in a contemporary Western architectural context.
What does the comparison say about the values of different societies?
Art and Design:gods and spirits
Illustrations
Bronze figure of the cat-headed goddess Bastet
Egypt, Late Period or Ptolemaic Period
about 664-30 BC
H: 27 x W: 8.2 x D: 10.8 cm
Tuunraq Figure, figure of a shaman’s spirit helper
Yup'ik, Alaska, United States of America
19th century AD
Height: 30 cm
Ivory of the Virgin and Child
Paris, France
AD 1320-30
Height: 33.500 cm
Bronze figure of Nataraja, Dancing Shiva in a ring of fire
Tamil Nadu, southern India, Chola dynasty
around AD 1100
Height: 89.500 cm
Feather god
Hawaii, Polynesia
possibly 18th century AD
Height: 107.000 cm
Lustre-painted ceramic tiles, from an inscription frieze,
Kashan, Iran
early 14th century AD
H: 55 cm x W: 46 cm
Illustrations