Mobile Mapping in Urban Environments
Elizabeth Langran
School of Education & Human Services
Marymount University
USA
elangran@marymount.edu
Abstract: This research examines the process of a high school teacher and his students as they
integrated mobile technologies (phones, tablets, digital cameras, iPod touches) to capture images
and data and post them to a map-based website (crowdmap.com) as an assignment for the first
time. As part of their International Baccalaureate fieldwork project, the high school students are
required to do actual observations in the field and write up an analytical paper. This year, the
high school teacher assigned this student project using mobile devices. The resulting raw data
(such as images, notes, and counting of items) were uploaded by students directly to an online
class map at crowdmap.com. The researcher examined in what ways the use of the mobile
devices and online mapping shaped the students' learning experience, and how the teacher
perceived this assignment to be different from previous iterations completed without mobile
technologies
Engaging Students in Place-based Learning with New Technologies
Cities have the potential to be an authentic instructional environment, but the complexity that
makes these urban areas rich for learning creates challenges for educators who must ensure that students
master specific learning outcomes. In experiential learning environments, the structure of assignments is
critical to achieving student success, particularly when the learning is inquiry-driven. While a great deal is
written about the potential of experiential learning, the results are often hit or miss. For students, translating
from experience to conceptual understanding without scaffolded instructional support can be a long journey
full of distractions, wrong turns and dead ends. Place-based learning, specifically mapping strategies that
take advantage of mobile devices such as smart phones and tablets, is one approach that can support
experiential learning experiences (Dewitt & Langran, 2012).
City as Text and Moblie Learning
When students leave the quiet confines of a classroom for experiential learning assignments, they
must deal with sensory overload and multiple distractions, and become efficient time managers who are
focused and task-oriented. In these learning environments, the structure of assignments is critical to
ensuring student success, particularly when that learning is inquiry-driven. Using new technologies such as
mobile devices can offer exciting learning opportunities, but also requires new pedagogical approaches that
ensure that students formulate a conceptual framework for anchoring their community explorations.
In higher education, City as Text is one of the leading pedagogical initiatives to take advantage of
place-based learning. Developed by Dr. Bernice Braid (2000) and shared through workshops held by the
National Collegiate Honors Council, this technique involves the recursive process of mapping, observing,
listening and reflecting (Machonis, 2008). Resulting excursions involve an extensive planning process,
which includes identifying a location and theme, selecting background materials (texts), and creating
several participant assignments. The goal for City as Text participants is to hone their observational skills
and generate questions that require additional information. The City as a Text model differs from just
exploring the city. While analyzing a city “as text” is more likely to produce deep learning, it also requires
a significant time investment on the part of those creating the experiences as well as participating in the
experiences.
More recently, Blair (2011) refines the idea of place-based learning by incorporating urban
mapping as an experiential learning pedagogy in study abroad programs. Like City as Text, his approach
requires that students use observation skills to create maps that are annotated with personal photography,
thereby anchoring their conceptual understanding that was gained from course readings in the authentic
context of urban neighborhoods. Recognizing the importance of developing a conceptual map to frame
their experiences, he creates directed excursions that guide students through the streets of Paris, increasing
the likelihood that they will successfully master the targeted course outcomes. Students complete this
series of excursions, which were created to focus on particular aspects of the social and urban fabric of
Paris (Dewitt & Langran, 2012).
In the realm of K-12 education, there are emerging methods of place-based learning designed to
engage students in mobile learning, such as WonderPoints (developed by Dr. Bernie Dodge, SDSU faculty
and creator of WebQuests), and History Pin (developed by international group We Are What We Do, in
partnership with Google). In each of these methods, mobile devices are used to stimulate learning by
having students craft their own inquiry-based experience. The place-based learning then gets integrated
back into the classroom, where the instructor guides student discussions to model the process of analysis.
Bernie Dodge refers to this as mgagement—engagement fostered by mobile learning (Dodge, 2011). In
the Wonderpoints learning structure, students identify a location of interest, and while on location, capture
voice notes and photos that are geotagged. Students propose questions, rate them for “interestingness,” and
then conduct research to find the answers. As in an inquiry-based model, students can engage in the wonder
of asking questions and discovering answers. History Pin also tags or “pins” images to a specific
geographical location, but rather than the student-created present-day photos of WonderPoints, History Pin
uses images and stories from the past. These images and stories are then uploaded to the History Pin
community website and can be accessed on-location using the free mobile application. The resulting
interaction allows students to imagine change over time—how a location looked during a different
historical period—and learn about the associated stories.
… the concept of learning immediately conjures up images of classrooms... Yet in our experience,
learning is an integral part of our everyday lives. …part of our participation in our communities...
The problem is not that we do not know this, but rather we do not have very systematic ways of
talking about this familiar experience (Wenger 2009, p. 214).
As Wenger notes, the problem for educators is developing systematic ways to explore familiar
territory. Mapping strategies with hand-held devices have the potential to be an effective way of enabling
students to move fluidly between concrete experience and the process of conceptualization (Dewitt &
Langran, 2012).
Transforming a High School Assignment
This research focuses on one Geography teacher and his high school students from the close suburbs
of a mid-Atlantic city. As part of their International Baccalaureate (IB) fieldwork project, which is
specified in the IB Geography curriculum, students are required to (a) do actual observations in the field;
and (b) write up an analytical paper of 1,500 words, describing their research question, hypothesis, data
collection methods, data analysis, and conclusions. The fieldwork topic is related to one of the major
course themes, “urban environments.” The written analytical paper is required to be individual, but the
fieldwork is explicitly allowed to be a group project, which in the past has made it possible to undertake
projects involving students pooling data from many sites in the local region, and allowing everyone to draw
as needed on the pooled data.
To provide relevant data for analysis, the IB wants students, if possible, to conduct observations and
measurements that can be subject to simple statistical analysis. In the past, fieldwork topics have tried to
meet these requirements by, for example, mapping the distribution of one particular type of restaurant and
comparing that to the distribution of some other type of restaurant or fast food chain, noting differences in
distribution patterns, and attempting to determine the factors that may have led to such geographic
differences. Most work in the past has been done with simple paper and pencil charts and clipboards,
supplemented by photographs and, back at home, Google map searches of the full lists of certain types of
facilities.
This year the IB classroom teacher proposed a comparison of the geography of (#1) a segment of a
highly developed corridor with (#2) a very much more suburban commercial strip. One of the primary
objectives of the IB Geography curriculum is to understand changes and development in land use patterns,
for which these two areas provide sharply different examples of ways of organizing space and activities.
To do this, students worked in small groups of four or five students each, to (a) identify, count, categorize,
and map facilities, e.g. grocery stores, restaurants, and other retail outlets, non-commercial spaces, and
residential units; (b) describe the physical layout, e.g. number of stories of buildings, (and uses of upper
stories), parking arrangements (most of area #2 is open asphalt, whereas there is limited on-street parking
in area #1, plus garages; (c) count both vehicle and foot traffic in the assigned area; (d) count customers at
an assigned retail facility in that area.
This type of fieldwork data collection was done using mobile devices, including cellphones, tablets,
digital cameras, and iPod Touches. The resulting raw data (such as images, notes, and counting of items)
were uploaded directly to a password protected on-line class map at crowdmap.com.
The researcher examined in what ways the use of the mobile devices and online mapping shaped the
students' learning experience, and how the teacher perceived this assignment to be different from previous
iterations completed without mobile technologies.
The research also focused on the following questions:
 Technology: Are the mobile devices and applications functional and easy to use? Does the
protocol work on multiple platforms? Do students have sufficient access to technology devices
to conduct their own place-based learning experiences?
 Replicability/sustainability: Are the procedures clear enough for other educators to conduct
their own place-based learning experiences? Can it be used across content areas? Can it be
easily used in other locations or even other countries for study abroad? Are additional
resources needed?
 Student learning: Does this project enable students to combine their understanding of course
objectives with a sense of place? Is it an engaging learning experience for the students?
 Community connections: Does this project help create closer ties to the communities in which
the students are collecting data?
Methodology
Participants and Instruments
One high school teacher and his IB Geography students (n=75) participated in this study. This
teacher was selected for this study because he approached the researcher with an interest to try out this new
method of teaching his students, and thus represents a convenience sample. The teacher delivered the
instruction to the students and oversaw the mobile mapping assignment; the researcher served as a
technology consultant to the teacher.
Because this is a relatively new area of study, this research was primarily qualitative in nature,
relying on self-report from the classroom teacher and students on the efficacy and utility of this approach.
The following was used to collect data and later analyzed, following the completion of the student
assignment:
1 - An online survey of students;
2 - interview with the classroom teacher; and
3 - document analysis of submitted student assignments.
Data and Procedures
This study used primarily qualitative measures, with additional quantitative data used to achieve
convergent validity and a more complete understanding of the use of mobile learning and mapping
technologies among participants. The quantitative data came from a document analysis of the online
assignments submitted to the crouwdsourcing.com website. The qualitative data was collected in the forms
of participant surveys from students and an interview with the classroom teacher.
The interview, survey, and document analysis were coded based on emergent themes. Data were
reduced to that which applies to each code. Analytic memos were written as a place where the researcher
put thoughts and hunches about how to make sense of the data. Patterns and themes were noted among the
data from different sources. The quantitative items (some survey items; student assignments) used
descriptive statistics. Analytic induction was employed to test hypotheses produced from the data by asking
follow-up questions with the classroom teacher at the completion of the initiative, and reformulating
hypotheses as necessary. Following the model suggested by Huberman and Miles (1994), data were
reduced through coding and reporting, and displayed in narrative form.
The study is limited by the absence of a control group for comparison; by the limited size of the
study; and by the inclusion of only one classroom teacher.
Results
In total, 158 reports from the students’ fieldwork data collection appeared on the online map. Each
report contained a photo, a location that appeared on a common map, and a category (grocery,
restaurant/café, fast food, other). Most of the reports included a description of the site, but varied in level of
detail. The information generally included in the text accompanying each report stated the names of the
group members, a brief description of the site and types of people present, numbers of people by race
observed during the time period, and count of high-end, mid-range, and low-end cars in the parking lot, if
applicable.
The Student Experience
The student survey revealed that 78% of respondents (n=27) found the Ushahidi Crowdmap app
functional and easy to use. A couple of students had trouble with the app crashing, and two voiced the wish
to more easily go back and edit reports directly from inside the app after submission (this can be done more
easily on the website). Twenty students used iPhones, four used Android phones, and three used iPod
Touch devices.
When asked about the use of the technology as part of the assignment, most (52%) found it easy to collect
and share the data, and found it to be a fun learning experience.
Table 1: Survey of students about the assignment (n=27)
Did the
Crowdmap Site
and your mobile
device…
make it easy to
collect data?
make it easy to
share data?
make it a fun
learning
experience?
Yes
A little bit
No
14
7
6
14
7
6
14
10
3
While three students experienced technological barriers due to an app crashing or not functioning
properly, several student comments indicated that the integration of the technology added value to the
assignment:
Uploading the pictures was easy and it was also fun to see photos of the places other groups
visited.
Collecting data was done with ease and worked better than the traditional paper and pencil
technique. The assignment was unique and interesting.
Before the assignment, I have never been to Clarendon Boulevard and had no idea that it even
existed. Afterwards, I am open to an entire new world beyond Annandale that I now explore
frequently. For that I thank you.
One of the goals of this type of assignment is to increase ties to the local community in which the
students collected data. The above comment, for example, demonstrates a change in this student’s
community connection. Of the 27 respondents, only three indicated that this assignment did not help them
feel more closely tied to the community in which they collected the data.
The Teacher Experience
The classroom teacher indicated that he intends on using mobile technologies in this assignment
again, based on the experience that
1. The technology was easy for students and the teacher.
2. The visual nature of the assignment allowed students to extend their learning.
3. The students can use the data flexibly.
4. It was fun for the students.
The Ushahidi/Crowdmap website and app was developed to report incidents of crime, fires,
election violations, etc.; nevertheless, the teacher did not find it difficult to repurpose the website to suit the
needs of the assignment, and commented, “I think the students found it easy.” Aside from a handful of
students whose applications crashed on their phones, no technology issues were reported by the teacher or
students.
In previous years, the teacher provided the students with a checklist for the fieldwork, and some
students chose to take photographs as well. While many of the questions the students were choosing to
explore this year were similar to many the students used in the past, the teacher did note a few differences.
One distinction was that students were taking photos from inside the restaurants and other establishments,
and were taking many more photos than ever before, prompting them to “extend what you’re looking at.”
The teacher observed that the visual nature of the activity allowed students to “see where the clusters of
activity are.” For example, one student conducted a nearest neighbor analysis on white majority restaurants;
the teacher noted that “that comes from looking at the clusters.”
As the students began to think about how to write their paper up, the teacher felt they could use
the data they posted online flexibly, integrating maps and photos into the paper as an illustration of what
they were positing in their paper. One student for example was comparing the two neighborhoods he
explored doing a ratio of how many people were walking on the street to how many cars driving on the
street, which was quite different in both neighborhoods. The teacher pointed out how the student can use
the photos and maps to illustrate this distinction in his paper.
The classroom teacher expressed his intention to repeat doing this assignment next year with the
same technology because he believes the students found it fun:
I would do it again simply as an adjunct to making it more fun. I don’t think it’s necessary. But I
think it makes it more fun and it may open their eyes a bit more, pay attention to more stuff...It
helps make the project more exciting.
While the technology is not essential to this project (it was done without technology for several
years), the teacher found that the technology was a worthwhile addition to the assignment: “Anything you
can do for high school students to make it more interesting and fun is worth doing.”
Conclusion
The use of mobile devices in field-based classroom assignments appears to be a useful pathway
for student engagement and connections to the community in which the students are exploring. The easeof-use and fun provided by the mobile technologies in the classroom were regarded by this classroom
teacher as a worthwhile endeavor. As students are coming to schools with familiarity with and access to
handheld devices, it makes sense to take advantage of their possibilities both inside and outside of
classroom walls. Further research will be necessary to determine the best approaches to support City as
Text and other place-based learning pedagogies.
References
Blair, S. (2011, Spring). Study abroad and the city: Mapping urban identity. Frontiers: The
Interdisciplinary Journal of Study Abroad, 20, 37-54.
Braid, B. & Long, A. (2000). Place as text: Approaches to active learning. Retrieved from
http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/nchcmono/3/
Dewitt, J. & Langran, E. (2012). Exploring the world begins at home. Unpublished grant proposal,
Marymount University, Arlington, VA.
Dodge, B. “WonderPoints: A structure for engaging curiosity about the outdoors with mobile devices.”
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Lincoln (Eds.), The handbook of qualitative research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Machonis, P.A. (2008). Shatter the glassy stare: Implementing experiential learning in higher education A companion piece to place as text: Approaches to active learning. Lincoln, NE: National Collegiate
Honors Council.
Wenger, E. (2009). A social theory of learning. In K. Illeris (Ed.), Contemporary theories of learning:
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