Psychology
The Psychology of
Individual Differences
Advanced Higher
8993
Spring 2001
HIGHER STILL
Psychology
The Psychology of
Individual Differences
Advanced Higher
Support Materials
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CONTENTS
Statement of Standards
Guidance for Teachers and Lecturers
Recommended Books
Student Materials
What is the Psychology of Individual Differences?
Outcomes 1 and 2
 Personality
 Intelligence
 Atypical Behaviour
Outcome 3
Analyse an issue in the psychology of individual differences: Race and Intelligence
Psychology: The Psychology of Individual Differences (AH)
Psychology: The Psychology of Individual Differences (AH)
STATEMENT OF STANDARDS
The Psychology of Individual Differences (Advanced Higher)
Acceptable performance in this unit will be the satisfactory achievement of the
standards set out in the unit specification. All sections of the statement of standards
are mandatory and cannot be altered without reference to the Scottish Qualifications
Authority.
OUTCOME 1
Analyse major theories in the psychology of individual differences.
Performance criteria
(a) Competing theoretical explanations in the psychology of individual differences
are explained accurately and comprehensively.
(b) Competing theoretical explanations in the psychology of individual differences
are compared accurately in terms of their main features.
(c) Competing explanations in the psychology of individual differences are
contrasted accurately in terms of their main features.
Evidence requirements
To demonstrate satisfactory attainment of this outcome, candidates should produce
written or oral responses to cover all performance criteria. They are required to do so
for two theoretical explanations chosen from the following: personality, intelligence,
atypical behaviour.
Written/oral responses will typically be extended responses of between 1000 and 1500
words for each theoretical explanation and associated research evidence, integrating
outcomes 1 and 2.
OUTCOME 2
Evaluate research relating to theories in the psychology of individual differences.
Performance criteria
(a) Research evidence relating to theories in the psychology of individual differences
is described accurately.
(b) Research evidence relating to theories in the psychology of individual differences
is explained clearly and accurately in terms of its strength of support for the
theories.
(c) Validity of conclusions based on this research evidence is explained clearly and
accurately.
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Evidence Requirements
To demonstrate satisfactory attainment of this outcome, candidates should produce
written or oral responses to cover all performance criteria. They are required to do so
for research evidence in two areas chosen from the following: personality, intelligence
and atypical behaviour.
Written/oral responses will typically be extended responses of between 1000 and 1500
words for each theoretical explanation and associated research evidence, integrating
outcomes 1 and 2.
OUTCOME 3
Analyse an issue in the psychology of individual differences.
Performance criteria
(a) An issue relevant to the psychology of individual differences is explained clearly
and accurately.
(b) Essential arguments of this issue are explained accurately and comprehensively in
a balanced way.
(c) The contribution of this issue to the psychology of individual differences is
explained accurately and comprehensively.
Evidence requirements
To demonstrate satisfactory attainment of this outcome, candidates should produce
written or oral responses to cover all performance criteria. They are required to do so
for one issue from the following: psychometric testing, race and IQ, psychology as a
science, gender and personality, ethical issues in socially sensitive research, labelling
and stigma.
Written/oral responses will typically be extended responses of between 1000 and 1500
words.
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GUIDANCE FOR TEACHERS
Approaches to teaching and learning
In delivering this unit it is useful if teachers/lecturers achieve a balance between
teacher/lecturer exposition and experiential learning. It is important to recognise that
learners acquire and process information in a number of ways to help them learn.
These include visually, orally, in discussion or exchange with others, during
group-based problem solving activities, and during solitary reflection.
Students should be encouraged from the beginning to draw on their own experiences,
perceptions, and their previous and current learning. Personal experience of
interacting with a variety of people, and in a number of different situations is an
invaluable source of knowledge and is highly relevant to developmental psychology.
The sharing of experiences and insights will promote general awareness that
developmental psychology assists self-understanding and an understanding of humans
in a variety of contexts.
Students should also be encouraged to gather and use information about different
people’s actions, thoughts and feelings and to consider how these affect themselves
and others. Relevant quality newspapers and/or magazine articles and video/film
productions are useful resources, which bring developmental psychology to life so that
it can be shared, by comparatively large groups of people at any one time. This
remains appropriate even when the material is fictional, provided it presents us with a
true picture of the human condition, which is not deliberately sensationalised.
In delivering this unit it is appropriate that a multicultural approach is taken since the
learning needs of individuals vary according to their cultural background. Case
studies, role-play and simulations should incorporate characters and elements from
different social and cultural backgrounds wherever possible.
Unit induction
At the beginning of the unit ‘Psychology of Individual Differences’, teachers and
lecturers should ensure that students are clear about its nature and purpose. Induction
for this unit should last about two hours and should include an introduction to the
content of the unit, provide a programme of work and explain the arrangements for
assessment and reassessment. At this point students can be given the Candidate’s
Guide from the Unit Assessment Pack. This helps explain what the unit is about and
how it is assessed.
In order to allow students to make a confident start, reference should be made to links
with previous or other current learning with which they are familiar. It is also
important to discuss and explore the nature of the course or Group Award being
undertaken by the group if appropriate.
It may be necessary to include induction exercises, particularly if the group is a new
one. The type and number of exercises used will however depend on the nature of the
particular group, their familiarity with each other and with the teacher/lecturer
concerned.
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Learning Environment
The expertise of the teacher/lecturer is invaluable in developing skills in, approaches
to, and insights about the subject of psychology of individual differences.
Teachers/lecturers should aim to create a relaxed and enjoyable learning environment,
which is both motivating and supportive.
In order that a people perspective is always present the following conditions should be
met:
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•
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the provision of a learning climate in which students feel supported and able to
express their thoughts and ideas.
a teaching style that promotes a supportive learning climate.
teaching and learning methods which draw on students’ past and present learning
experience and which enable them to integrate new ideas and skills during their
interactions with others.
Further guidance can be found in the Psychology Subject Guide.
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HOW TO USE THIS PACK
Purpose of the pack
This pack is designed to provide guidance and support materials to help
teachers/lecturers in the delivery of the unit. The student information and activities are
designed to be used by teachers/lecturers in the way that suits their preferred style of
delivery and the needs of their particular student group.
This pack has not been designed for open learning purposes. Additional reading,
exercises, assignments etc. and answers to enclosed exercises and worksheets will be
provided and facilitated by the teacher/lecturer. The student activities in the pack will
require to be followed up and brought together by the teacher/lecturer in whatever way
is most appropriate.
The student activities in this pack cover the three outcomes and their performance
criteria at Advanced Higher level. The Unit in the teaching/learning situation calls for
two key concepts, their features and explanations and one issue to be covered. This
Teachers Support Pack will endeavour to cover three key concepts, their features and
explanations and at least one issue.
This sequence of delivery is by no means compulsory and may be rearranged at the
discretion of the teacher/lecturer responsible for delivering the unit.
Using the materials
The student activity and information materials in the pack include both information
and some student activities.
These support materials should be used as the focus of input by the teacher/lecturer
and to develop ideas further as part of question and answer sessions and group
discussions.
These information sheets can be photocopied, as a separate pack should the
teacher/lecturer prefer to use them either as teaching notes or as separate handout
materials. Alternatively, the materials could be assembled into smaller topic packs.
These general activities have been developed to include exercises for individuals,
pairs, triads and small groups to conduct. Teachers/lecturers may well wish to alter
the way in which these activities are carried out according to the needs of their
particular group.
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RECORDING STUDENT ATTAINMENT
A recording proforma for teachers/lecturers to complete for individual candidate
attainment is available in the Unit Assessment pack.
•
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Candidate’s record of progress - for individual candidates to have a record of their
attainment.
Internal Assessment Record - to record their internal assessment results of the
whole student group.
Teachers/lecturers may devise their own alternative system for recording student
attainment.
GUIDANCE ON THE CONTENT AND CONTEXT FOR THIS UNIT
By introducing students to a range of concepts; and associated theories, research
evidence and issues in developmental psychology, it is intended to develop knowledge
and understanding of Psychology of Individual Differences generally and to
emphasise the significance of this area to the whole of Psychology.
A choice of two concepts and one issue is a feature of this unit. This provides
flexibility for centres to accommodate different needs and interests in studying
psychology of individual differences at this level.
Fuller information on the content of this unit is provided in the course details.
GUIDANCE ON LEARNING AND TEACHING APPROACHES FOR THIS
UNIT
General proposals regarding approaches to learning and teaching are contained in the
course details. Learning and teaching approaches should be carefully selected to
support the development of knowledge and understanding, investigation and
application. The learning experience at this level should be interesting, to encourage
enthusiasm for the subject and to stimulate and prepare candidates for independent
study.
The unit should be approached using a wide range of stimulus materials and teaching
approaches. Candidates should be encouraged to draw upon their own experiences and
should have access to resources. The material should be up-to-date and relevant to the
unit, the level of study and the interests of the candidates. The emphasis throughout
should be on active learning, whether as part of a whole class, in small groups or as
individuals. The outcomes are interconnected and should be approached as such.
Especially so at Advanced Higher it is recommended that, wherever possible,
outcomes should be covered in an integrated way. An outcome-by-outcome internal
assessment approach, which could lead to a compartmentalized view of psychology,
should be avoided.
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GUIDANCE ON APPROACHES TO ASSESSMENT FOR THIS UNIT
The National Assessment Bank will provide assessment instruments and guidance on
implementation. This does not preclude teachers/lecturers from devising their own
assessment tasks. Evidence of attainment of the outcomes for this unit may be
provided through a variety of methods. Where an integrated approach is used for
assessment, it will be necessary to identify in the candidate’s response where each
outcome has been met.
Where assessment evidence is gathered by means of a single assessment towards the
end of the unit, care should be taken to ensure that sufficient time is allowed for
remediation and reassessment if required. Where a candidate has failed to achieve one
or more of the outcomes, it is only necessary to reassess those outcomes that the
candidate has failed to achieve.
Where assessments are set which allow candidates to demonstrate performance
beyond the minimum standard required, evidence gathered for internal unit
assessment might also be used for grade prediction and for appeals for external course
assessment. For details of the grade descriptions for external assessment, please refer
to the Advanced Higher Psychology course specification.
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RECOMMENDED BOOKS
Personality
Burger, JM (2000) Personality (5th ed.). Belmont: Wadsworth
Buss, D. M. & Cantor, N. (Eds.) (1989) Personality Psychology: Recent Trends and
Emerging Directions. New York: Springer-Verlag.
Hogan, R., Johnson, J. & Briggs, S. (Eds.), Handbook of Personality Psychology. New
York: Academic Press.
Ryckman, RM (2000) Theories of Personality (7th ed.). Belmont:Wadsworth
Intelligence
Ceci, S.J. (1990). On intelligence…more or less. Englewood Cliffs, NJ; Prentice-Hall.
Howe, M.J.A (1997) IQ in Question: The Truth About Intelligence, Sage, London
Kail, R. and Pellegrino, J.W (1985) Human Intelligence: Perspectives and Prospects.
New York: Freeman.
Wolman, B.B (Ed) (1985) Handbook of Intelligence. Theories, Measurements and
Applications, Wiley, New York.
Atypical Behaviour
Barlow, D. (1999) Abnormal Psychology: An Integrative Approach. Wadsworth,
Belmont.
Davidson, G and Neale, J. (1994) Abnormal Psychology. Wiley, New York.
Green, S. (1994) Individual Differences: Normal and Abnormal, Laurence Erlbaum,
Hove.
Phares, E. and Trull, T. (1997) Clinical Psychology: Concepts, Methods and
Profession. Wadsworth, Belmont.
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STUDENT MATERIAL
What is the Psychology of Individual Differences?
People are different. It does not take much to realise this. However, if we are to
understand how and why people are different then a scientific approach is necessary.
The Psychology of Individual Differences seeks to help us identify and understand
these differences. As the very title suggests, this field of psychology addresses the
significant ways in which people differ from one another. Not only does it study how
they differ, it also involves the measurement of these differences.
Some studies only really deal with one area of difference, e.g. intelligence. However,
the field of individual differences tends to encompass three major characteristics:
 Personality
 Intelligence
 Atypical behaviour.
A brief overview of the three fields in individual differences
It is important to realise that in each of these three fields in the psychology of
individual differences, debate, discussion, controversy and research are very much
continuing today and will continue in the future. This is to be viewed positively, as it
is through continued debate, discussion and research that more knowledge is gained
and a clearer understanding of the differences between individuals is presented.
The three fields each contain a wealth of theories and research evidence from many
gifted people and their contributions have continued to help us understand more about
each other. However, just as the various theories have their strengths, they also have
weaknesses. The areas covered in the fields are so vast that it would be too great a
task for one person to successfully unite them into a single manageable and
comprehensive theory. Consequently, the goal for many has been to refine and
develop existing theories and practices while others have preferred to seek out new
approaches stimulated by what is currently in existence.
Personality
Defining personality is not as easy as it might seem. For those who do not study the
subject it is simply the person’s social attractiveness. In other words, the person who
is seen to have a good personality gets on well with others and is popular. At times it
is even used as a type of consolation prize, as a person may be described as being
particularly unattractive but has a great personality! Clearly, these definitions are
unacceptable.
Personality is in essence a hypothetical construct, meaning that it is an explanatory
concept that is not directly observable. Consequently, psychologists provide different
meanings and different personality theorists often disagree about what personality
psychologists should or indeed should not be studying. Some theorists may examine
learning histories whilst others may favour unconscious mechanisms.
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Here are some possible definitions:
A person’s unique and enduring behaviour patterns which include
thoughts and emotions that distinguish one person from another.
A person’s unique and relatively unchanging behaviour patterns and
characteristics.
The dynamic and organised set of characteristics possessed by a
person that uniquely influences his or her cognitions, motivations and
behaviours in various situations
(Ryckman, R. M.)
Consistent behaviour patterns and intrapersonal processes
originating within the individual.
(Burger, J.M.)
Those relatively enduring features of an individual which account for
their characteristic ways of behaving.
(A Student’s Dictionary of Psychology)
Many psychologists regard the study of personality as a scientific analysis of
individual differences that helps explain how and why people respond uniquely to a
wide variety of situational and environmental demands. In order to understand more
easily the various theories, they can generally be placed under different headings or
approaches. Although not ideal, most of the major theories have a home in one of the
five following:
 The Psychoanalytic approach
 Trait Perspectives
 Behavioural / Social Learning approach
 The Cognitive approach
 The Humanistic Perspective
The psychoanalytic approach
This approach clearly has its roots in the work of Sigmund Freud. However, many
other learned individuals followed him in his approach and so the work of Alfred
Adler, Karen Horney, Erik Erikson and Heinz Kohut should all be considered as part
of this approach.
Psychologists advocating the psychoanalytic approach would argue that the
unconscious plays a vital role in the differences of peoples’ behavioural styles.
Trait Perspectives
Trait approaches in explaining human behaviour have existed for centuries,
Hippocrates and others applied basic trait approaches to classify people. The three
main theorists of this approach are:

Gordon Allport who was in fact an important predecessor of the humanistic
approach but passionately believed in the importance of traits in understanding
personality;
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
Raymond Cattell whose view stresses the importance of measurement and
statistics and puts forward a factor-analysis method, and

Hans Eysenck who consistently conducted experimental research to support his
views.
Behavioural/Social Learning Approach
This approach has historically been founded in the behaviourists and their quest via
the experimental laboratory to understand the learning process. Consequently the
work of B.F. Skinner plays an important role with his operant analysis of personality.
Julian Rotter and his Expectancy-Reinforcement Value model are contained within
this approach, as is the work of Albert Bandura and his Social-Cognitive theory.
The Cognitive Approach
This model of personality has only really become popular relatively recently yet many
of the elements can be found in much earlier work, such as Kurt Lewin’s theory of
behaviour (1938). Although many theorists incorporate elements of cognition in their
work, the main theorist for this approach is George Kelly, who presents a
comprehensive cognitive theory of personality with his theory of Personal Constructs.
The Humanistic Perspective
In this perspective on personality, people are seen to have free will to make their own
decisions. The roots of the movement can be found in the work of many theorists such
as Adler, Allport and Rogers. Indeed, many of those who became involved in the
humanistic movement were dissatisfied with the psychoanalytical and behaviourist
schools which had dominated psychology for many years.
The two most important theorists here are Abraham Maslow and his
Self-Actualisation and Carl Rogers’ Person-Centred theory. However, the work of
Rollo May and his Existential-Analytic position should also be seen as important
within this approach.
A possible sixth approach could be added under the heading of the Biological
Approach. This approach examines the ways in which psychologists have used
biological concepts to provide explanations for personality.
Quick Questions
Personality is a hypothetical construct.
Explain this statement.
Provide examples of at least two definitions of personality.
Why do you think that psychologists find it difficult to agree
on a definition for personality?
Identify the five major approaches in personality.
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Intelligence
Intelligence is another term like personality where many people think they can
accurately and easily describe what it is. Intelligence is very often used to describe
differences between people and is indeed a possession that is very much valued.
However, just like personality, it is not so easy to define or indeed to get psychologists
to agree upon a definition. Below are some examples of definitions that have been put
forward over the years by various theorists:
The ability to carry out abstract thinking
(Terman, 1916)
The aggregate of the global capacity to act purposefully, to think
rationally and to deal effectively with the environment.
(Wechsler, 1944)
Innate, general cognitive ability
(Burt, 1955)
The effective all-round cognitive abilities to comprehend,
to grasp relations and reason.
(Vernon, 1969)
Intelligent activity consists in grasping the essentials in a situation
and responding appropriately to them.
(Heim, 1970)
In general, the ability of an individual to understand the world and
work out appropriate courses of action.
(A student’s dictionary of psychology).
Clearly, these definitions demonstrate that it is not easy to obtain an absolute meaning
for intelligence as each presents a slightly different interpretation. Intelligence is an
abstract concept and although we believe that it exists we cannot measure it directly or
achieve a universal acceptance of what it is, as we can with more tangible
characteristics such as height and weight. However, this is not to say that
psychologists cannot examine intelligence and its various facets.
There have been a variety of approaches to intelligence over the years with each
providing its own analysis and interpretation. It would be fair to say that most of the
earlier approaches to intelligence revolved around scores on various tests. Many of
these early tests were the forerunners of the myriad of intelligence tests that are
available today.
It is perhaps useful to categorise the various theories of intelligence into four groups:
 The Psychometric Approach
 Fluid and Crystallised Intelligence
 Multiple Intelligences
 Triarchic Theory
Just as in personality, these four groups are not ideal but do serve to provide a clearer
understanding of the issues.
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The Psychometric Approach
This approach put forward by Charles Spearman in 1904 refers to the measurement of
differences in individual behaviours and abilities. Spearman believed that by using the
statistical approach of factor analysis, a general factor could be identified in solving
problems this he labelled the g factor. Factor analysis is essentially a statistical
technique that is used to analyse a number of data sources. The approach allows a
researcher to examine how data are interrelated by examining the factors they have in
common.
Fluid and Crystallised Intelligence
Raymond Cattell followed Spearman’s approach but put forward an important
modification to the ‘g’ factor by stating that it could be sub-divided into two important
components: fluid and crystallised intelligence.
Multiple Intelligences
In contrast to Spearman and Cattell, Gardner put forward the idea that people have a
number of multiple Intelligences that are unrelated. In his research he identified seven
distinct Intelligences.
Triarchic Theory
This theory, put forward by Sternberg, addresses three aspects of intelligence:

the cognitive processes that take place within the individual

the actual situations that require intelligence

how intelligence relates to the external world.
Quick Questions
What do you think constitutes an intelligent person?
Make a list of your ideas.
Why might someone you know be seen by you as lacking in
intelligence?
Make a list of your ideas.
Do psychologists agree on a definition of intelligence?
Explain your answer.
Identify the four groups within which the theories of
intelligence can be grouped.
Atypical Behaviour
It is often said in a society that a person or indeed a group of people are ‘not normal’.
However, defining what is normal or typical behaviour is not as easy as it seems.
A norm can be defined as a set of rules of behaviour that specify what is acceptable
behaviour in a wide range of social contexts. It is vital to note however, that what we
may deem to be normal and acceptable behaviour in our time period and culture, is
not necessarily seen as normal in another time period or culture. Consequently, that
which constitutes normal behaviour varies over time, in and between cultures.
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Given that normal behaviour can be difficult to agree upon so it is with atypical
behaviour. There is no single widely accepted truth about what constitutes
psychological atypical behaviour. However, there are guidelines for defining atypical
behaviour and practical standards for the formal diagnosis of disorders. The
definitions that are present today have evolved over many hundreds of years and
continue to develop as new methods of evaluation replace the misconceptions that
surround people with psychological disorders.
The following is a possible definition of atypical behaviour:
Atypical behaviour can be described as impaired functioning with
respect to expected performance suitable for the person in a relevant
context.
What Defines Atypical Behaviour?
The following four elements help to define atypical behaviour:

Infrequency
It is true that some disorders do occur infrequently, e.g. multiple personality disorder.
However, infrequent behaviour may in fact be very desirable, e.g. extreme kindness.
Thus, rarity cannot serve as the only basis for defining psychological atypical
behaviour. In addition, it should also be noted that there are some behaviours that
occur regularly and are themselves disturbing and distressing, e.g. obsessive
compulsive disorder.

Suffering
Personal distress is one of the many ways people define themselves as having a
psychological problem. Many people who are considered mentally ill do not appear to
suffer. Indeed, they may feel euphoric and believe that they have limitless powers.

Strangeness
This is where there is a departure from the normal sensory experience. However,
many people have unusual experiences e.g. those in many religious groups. This
indicates that strangeness is not sufficient to define them as atypical.

Behaviour
Some behaviours are so disgusting or shocking to humans that they may indicate
atypical behaviour e.g. cannibalism, murder etc. However, the meaning of a behaviour
depends on its context and so behaviours cannot be judged on their own.
Professionals tend to use two practical guidelines to define atypical behaviour. First
they take into account the behaviour of the person, the context of the behaviour and
the appropriateness of that context. This is to consider whether the person’s behaviour
causes impaired functioning that is, difficulty in performing appropriate and expected
roles. Secondly, they consider whether the person displays a consistent set of
maladaptive feelings or behaviours that have been defined by the experts as
constituting atypical behaviour. These judgements are reflected in the DSM IV, the
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual.
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In order to be diagnosed with a disorder according to the DSM IV, a person must
exhibit multiple behaviours that fit a defined pattern. The behaviour must cause
distress and dysfunction in the person’s typical context. It must be present for a
specified period of time and must not be due to some other explanation or disorder.
Models of Atypical Behaviour
As there are so many psychological disorders no one model can explain them all fully.
Different models emphasise different types of causes but disorders often have multiple
and indeed interactive causes and as a result more than one model will be required to
understand the disorder.
Biomedical Model
This puts forward the idea that symptoms of psychological disorders are caused by
biological factors such as brain defects and genetics.
Psychodynamic Model
This approach is largely due to the work of Sigmund Freud who emphasised the role
of unconscious mental processes and early childhood experiences. This
psychodynamic theory is based on the idea that psychological and personality
disorders are the outcome of a dynamic interaction between mental structures.
The Cognitive Model
Modern psychology is very much concerned with human cognition which is how
humans perceive, recognise, attend, reason and judge. This approach emphasises that
cognitive functioning contributes to any emotional or behavioural distress. For
example, an individual with dysfunctional cognitive processing may have a tendency
to think negatively without having sufficient information on which to operate. Thus,
the cognitive model emphasises the individual’s perceptions, reasoning and thinking.
The Behavioural Model
This has been an area of growing interest in the study of abnormality since the 1960s.
This concerns the manner in which behaviour is acquired or learned and is a relatively
new approach to atypical behaviour. The emphasis of the behaviourists is very much
on the person’s observable behaviour and the environmental factors that play an
important role.
The Humanistic Model
This view emphasises the values, choices and purposes of each person and puts
forward the idea that distress comes from the person’s failure to accept personal
responsibilities.
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Quick Questions
What is a norm?



Make a list of the norms that you see as being present in society
your school/college
your home.
What is the DSMIV?
Write a brief account of the five models within atypical
behaviour.
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PERSONALITY
Trait Perspectives
Allport’s Trait Theory
Gordon Allport once defined personality as ‘The dynamic organisation within the
individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his characteristic behaviour
and thoughts’ (Allport, 1961).
Explaining this definition:
For Allport the personality was a dynamic organisation as he firmly believed that
personality was not a fragmented set of parts that acted independently, rather, the
personality moved towards unity and continually changed and evolved. For Allport
although situational influences may play a role, it is the person’s perception of these
influences that decides behaviour. Consequently even that behaviour that would seem
to be controlled by external forces is in essence really controlled by internal forces.
Allport provides the following example to help illustrate this:
‘if a child is a hellion at home, and an angel outside, he obviously has
two contradictory tendencies in his nature or perhaps a deeper
genotype that would explain the opposing phenotypes.’
(Allport, 1968, p.46).
Genotype: An inherited characteristic that may or indeed may not be reflected in the
person’s outward appearance.
Phenotype: The outward appearance of a particular characteristic that could or indeed,
could not be reflected in the inherited genotype.
Thus Allport believed that behavioural differences are the result of opposing
tendencies or traits in the nature of the person such as learned predispositions to act
differently in different situations. His focus then is on the traits and other internal
characteristics which determine behaviour. It should also be noted that he refers to
psychophysical systems and in so doing believes that personality is made up of mind
and body elements that are linked together in a complex array.
Allport also mentions the individual’s unique characteristics in his definition. He
firmly believed that although people may share traits they are at the basic level
idiosyncratic.
Allports view of personality thus stresses the individual’s uniqueness as well as the
internal cognitive and motivational processes that effect behaviour. He sees
personality as being determined by both the environment and biology. The internal
processes and structures that he refers to include intelligence, temperament, reflexes,
drives, skills, beliefs, values and traits.
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What are Traits?
Allport believed that traits were very much rooted in our nervous systems and argued
that they guide us to behave consistently. Thus, a person possessing the trait of
sociability would tend to behave in a generally friendly way in a variety of situations.
They are invisible and so we infer their existence by observing consistencies in a
person’s behaviour. In their research, Allport and Odbert (1936) constructed an
18,000 trait list from words in the English dictionary. Some of these traits were moral,
such as honest, others were physical, like small and still others were behavioural such
as emotional. From this work Allport believed that personality traits could come in
one of three forms, Cardinal traits, Central traits or Secondary traits.
Cardinal Traits
In some very rare cases, Allport believed that a person’s personality could be
dominated by just one overriding trait. For example, the altruism exhibited by Mother
Teresa. However, it is important to realise that the vast majority of people do not have
just one dominant trait.
Central Traits
These are seen to be the core traits of a person’s personality and number perhaps as
little as half a dozen. Thus, the central traits of an individual could include honesty,
punctuality, creativity and friendliness.
Secondary Traits
These are much less common characteristics that tend only to appear in specific
situations or are preferences or indeed tastes. For example, one person may possess
musicality as a Central trait as she is an opera singer whilst another may possess
musicality as a Secondary trait as she enjoys singing in the bath!
Allport believed that the traits could be identified in a number of different ways such
as observation, interviews and case studies. He made a further distinction regarding
common traits and personal dispositions.
Common Traits: These are dispositions that are shared with others e.g. some people
are more polite than others. He believed that these generalised dispositions were of
little scientific value in attempting to understand personality.
Personal Dispositions: These are traits unique to the individual.
It is important to note that Allport wished to provide a detailed description of the
individual that considered the uniqueness of that person.
Development of the Personality
Allport’s theory of personality development centres on the concept of the self, a term
that he replaced with proprium, this was to mean a sense of what is ‘peculiarly ours’
and includes ‘all aspects of a personality that make for inward unity’ (Allport, 1955,
p40). This proprium continues to develop through a series of stages from infancy to
death.
Psychology: The Psychology of Individual Differences (AH)
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Stage 1
The bodily self: This appears in infancy and is in essence feelings about oneself that
are based on feedback from the physical senses.
Stage 2
Self-identity: This also develops during the first eighteen months and is the feeling
that one is an established person who has a unique past that guides present and future
judgements.
Stage 3
Self-esteem: Emerges during the second and third year and are the feelings of worth
about ones self.
Stage 4
Self-extension: From 4 to 6 years and is a sense of identity with family, home, ones
possessions and country. Initially this is an egocentric view which matures with age.
Stage 5
Self-image: This develops along with the last stage, self-extension, and contains two
elements, the first is ‘learned expectations of the roles we are required to enact’. The
second is the ‘aspirations for the future we seek to attain’ (Allport, 1955, p. 47).
Stage 6
The self-as-rational-coper: Develops between the ages of 6 and 12 and is the
awareness of the individual as someone who can formulate and use strategies to solve
problems and attain goals.
Stage 7
Propriate striving: This develops from around 13 years of age and is a motive that
thrusts a person towards attaining important long-range goals and is closely linked to
the development of conscience. These drives bring an increase in tension.
Stage 8
The self-as-knower: This development begins in adulthood and is the last part of the
proprium that unifies and transcends the other seven stages.
For Allport mature people are those who are able to free themselves from the reliance
on earlier motives. He thus put forward the idea of Functional Autonomy which is the
process where a behaviour that was previously conducted by a basic motive operates
independently of that motive. It is thus a link between the developmental phase guided
by immature strivings and mature strivings. He then developed a set of six criteria that
could be utilised for establishing whether a person is mature or immature, (see
Allport, 1961, p283)
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Nomothetic and Idiographic Approaches
Allport identified two approaches that researchers could employ when studying
personality:
Nomothetic theorists take the view that the same traits or dimensions of personality
are applicable to all in the same way and that people merely differ in the amount of
each characteristic that they possess. This approach seeks relationships between
different personality traits in the population in general and utilises the correlation
method to discover the extent to which two traits or types of data tend to show up
together in people.
The idiographic approach concentrates on intensive studies of the individual and does
not really value the study of similarities between people. Although the results from an
idiographic study may provide a conclusion that applies to more than one person, it is
not meant to generalise to the population as a whole.
An Evaluation of the Theory
This is a comprehensive theory in that it contains elements of psychoanalysis,
existentialism and learning theory but is focused for the large part on healthy
development. It could however be criticised for not being specific enough in
describing the development of the proprium and does not really address the issue of
how the environment affects personality development. As the theory contains many
vague concepts it does not lend itself to proper scientific testing. It should be noted,
however, that the theory has been very useful to clinical psychologists in treating
patients.
Quick Questions
Write a short paragraph explaining Allport’s definition of
personality.
What is a trait?
What kinds of traits does Allport identify?
List examples of traits that are present in people you know.
Identify the various aspects of the Proprium
Describe the characteristics of the mature personality as
identified by Allport.
What are the differences between the nomothetic and
idiographic approaches to personality?
Psychology: The Psychology of Individual Differences (AH)
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Psychoanalytic Perspective
Alfred Adler’s Individual Psychology
Adler was really the first of the psychoanalytic group to break from Freud and he went
on to develop what he called individual psychology. This is a theory that attempts to
comprehend the person’s behaviour as a complex and organised being. Adler believed
that people’s actions were guided by their fundamental attitudes towards life. To
understand a person’s personality, his/her goals must also be understood and
considered. Consequently he favoured a teleological approach which is a belief that
goals determine behaviour. He believed that people have a purpose in life to attain
perfection and are motivated towards achieving this via feelings of inferiority. As a
result, people are all held to be in a ‘great upward drive’.
His earliest writings stated that the end goal was domination and control over others
but he later revised this to be superiority. This superiority he believed came in two
forms:

Personal superiority, which was negative as it was at the expense of others.

Strivings for superiority in the sense of perfection, which was seen as positive as
it was a striving for self-fulfilment via helping others and indeed being helped.
Adler firmly believed that the mental health of the individual and their personal
growth depends upon their efforts to positively contribute to society. Indeed, he
believed that as the individual strives to assist others in meeting their goals they to
will benefit. Interestingly research has found that people who are higher in social
interest are much more trustworthy, altruistic, socially adjusted and helpful than
others. These people also report less depression, anxiety and other negative
experiences.
Style of Life and Creative Self
These are two important concepts within Alder’s theory.
Style of life: This is a person’s personality pattern which is shaped towards the end of
early childhood and is in essence the unique ways people chase their goals.
Creative Self: Adler uses this term to illustrate his belief that people can actively
create their own personalities through their experiences and heredities; people can also
create their own destiny. Neurotic people will thus have goals that are for the most
part unconscious and will often not be aware of alternatives in a situation.
Personality Development
Similarly to Freud, Adler believed that the first few years of life are very important in
the developing of the adult personality. He believed that the parents played a vital role
in this and identified two behaviours by parents that could lead to personality
problems for the children later in life.
Those parents who gave their children too much protection and attention will end-up
with pampered children who will lack independence and may produce feelings of
inferiority that later result in personality problems.
Psychology: The Psychology of Individual Differences (AH)
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Indeed Adler stated that as adults these children may feel ‘extreme discouragement,
continuous hesitation, oversensitivity, impatience, support’ (in Ansbacher &
Ansbacher, 1956, p242).
Parents who neglect their children will also cause problems as their children will
develop to be cold and suspicious and become adults who cannot develop warm and
personal relationships.
Birth Order
Adler was the first psychologist to identify the role of birth order in shaping
personality. For Adler, each child is seen to be different in personality in relation to
their order of birth. The child born first is the focus of attention for the family and can
very often be pampered. However, this changes with the arrival of a second child
when the first-born is said to be ‘dethroned.’ Consequently, the attention must be
shared with the new arrival or indeed given over to the new-born. The older child may
well now feel resentment towards the new arrival and may indeed have a strong
feeling of inferiority. Adler has suggested that the first born may prove to be a
problem child. The middle child is looked upon more favourably by Adler as he
believed that he/she was never really pampered as there were always other children
around. He stated that the middle child develops a strong superiority striving as they
attempt to catch and pass the older child. The youngest child is often pampered by all
members of the family and, consequently for Adler, this child is open to strong
feelings of inferiority and may be a very dependent individual.
The only child is usually pampered by the parents and as such in later life may
experience problems if they are not liked by all.
The research evidence does not always lend support to Adler’s theory. Indeed, it
should be considered that the whole structure of the family has changed considerably
since Adler proposed his theory. However, there are ample studies that clearly lend
support to elements of his theory. For example, Adler proposed that due to the loss of
power and authority on the arrival of a second child, the first born will spend his/her
life attempting to regain this power by intellectual achievement. Belmont and Marolla
(1973) discovered a positive correlation between birth order and intellectual
performance in their study of 400, 000 participants in Holland. Breland (1974)
showed that there was a positive relationship between birth order and intellectual
performance for almost 800, 000 candidates for National Merit Scholarships in the
USA.
Adler, like Freud wished to comprehend the personality of the individual through a
focus on the early childhood experiences. In order to obtain his information he used
three main methods: Early Recollections; Dream Analysis and Birth Order Analysis.
He believed that the focus of the therapy should be to reorganise the mistaken beliefs
held by the patient about themselves and others, to rid the patient of faulty goals and
introduce new goals that will help them reach their true human potential.
‘The patient must be guided away from himself , towards productivity for
others; he must be educated towards social interest; he must be brought to
the only correct insight, that he is important to the community as anyone
else; he must get to feel at home on this earth’
(Adler, 1973, p200)
Psychology: The Psychology of Individual Differences (AH)
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Evaluation of the theory
The theory addresses a number of issues involving disordered behaviour and as such
is comprehensive. In addition, he tried very hard to produce a scientific theory that
could be understood by the ordinary person and as such he does produce a common
sense psychology. By doing so he has perhaps neglected constructs, with the few that
are present being very general and imprecise. The empirical evidence for his theory is
not essentially very strong but his work sparked an incredible amount of interest in
personality with a great many subsequent researchers being heavily influenced by his
work. It should be further noted that his work has a very high degree of relevance for
modern society where achievement plays such an important role. Finally, his work has
provided a range of applications in areas such as psychotherapy, education and
psychopathology to name but a few.
Quick Questions
What for Adler’s Individual Psychology?
What is a teleological approach?
Explain the following terms: Style of self and creative self.
In what ways does the birth order of a child influence his/her
development?
Does the research evidence support Adler’s theory on birth
order?
References for Personality
Adler, A. (1927) The practice and theory of individual psychology. Harcourt, Brace
and World. New York
Adler, A. (1969) The science of living. Doubleday Anchor. Garden City New York.
Adler, A. (1973a). Advantages and disadvantages of the inferiority feeling. In H.L.
Ansbacher & R.R. Ansbacher (Eds.), Superiority and social interest (pp50-580.
Viking, New York.
Adler, A. (1973b). Complex compulsion as part of personality and neurosis. In H.L.
Ansbacher & R.R. Ansbacher (Eds.), Superiority and social interest (pp71-80).
Viking, New York.
Adler, A. (1973c). On the origins of the striving for superiority and of social interest.
In H.L. Ansbacher & R.R. Ansbacher (Eds.), Superiority and social interest (pp29-40).
Viking. New York.
Adler, A. (1973d). Technique of treatment. In H.L. Ansbacher & R.R. Ansbacher
(Eds.), Superiority and social interest (pp. 191-201). Viking, New York.
Allport, G.W. (1937). Personality a psychological interpretation. Holt, New York
Psychology: The Psychology of Individual Differences (AH)
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Allport, G.W. (1955). Becoming: Basic considerations for a psychology of
personality. Yale University Press. New Haven, CT.
Allport, G. W. (1961). Pattern and growth in personality. Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
New York.
Allport, G.W. (1968). An Autobiography. In G.W. Allport (Ed.), The person in
psychology: selected essays. Beacon Press. Boston.
Allport, G.W. and Odbert H.S. (1936). Trait names: A psycho-lexical study.
Psychological monographs: General and applied, 47, (whole no211).
Ansbacher, H.L. and Ansbacher, R.R. (Eds.) (1956). The individual psychology of
Alfred Adler. Basic Books, New York.
Belmont, L., And Marolla, F.A. (1973). Birth order, family size, and intelligence.
Science, 182, 1096-1101.
Burger, J.M. (1955). Individual differences in preference for solitude. Journal of
Research in Personality, 29, 85-108.
Cattell, R.B. (1987) Intelligence: Its structures growth and action. North Holland,
Amsterdam.
Evans, R.I. (1970). Gordon Allport: The man and his ideas. Dutton. New York.
Eysenck, H.J. (1947) Dimensions of personality. Routledge, London.
Freud, S. (1925). The unconscious. In S Freud, the collected papers (vol.4) Hogarth.
London.
Kelly, G.A. (1955). The psychology of personal constructs (Vols. 1&2). Norton. New
York.
Mischel, W. (1976) Introduction to personality (2nd ed.) Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
New York.
Psychology: The Psychology of Individual Differences (AH)
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INTELLIGENCE
Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligence
Howard Gardner was not happy with the idea of intelligence being a single entity and
in 1985 he put forward an idea that people have a number of Multiple Intelligences
which are unrelated. These intelligences he argued could be found with each using a
different part of the brain. As these intelligences were separate from one another, a
person could excel in one type of intelligence yet be very poor in another. Thus, the
abilities assessed in one intelligence should, in theory, be uncorrelated with the
abilities assessed in another intelligence. For example a professional boxer may be
very good at body movement skills yet be a very poor musician. His approach was
greatly critical of theorists such as Herrnstein and Murray (1994) as their genetic view
held intelligence to be relatively fixed from birth and not really able to change in later
life.
In his work Gardner puts forward four areas of evidence to support his position:

Brain Damage: Here Gardner believes that damage in one area of the brain could
impact on one intelligence yet leaving the others without damage.

Development: Here he cites how the person’s skills and aptitudes develop as the
individual gets older.

Severe Cases: This is where people with serious disorders have one exceptional
skill such as drawing, outstanding memory or exceptional musical ability.

Evolutionary Evidence: As to how a certain aptitude or ability may evolve over
time.
The Seven Distinct Intelligences
 Linguistic abilities
 Musical abilities
 Numerical skills
 Body movement skills such as in dance or sport
 Understanding oneself
 Understanding and relating to others
 Spatial, understanding relationships in space, such as driving a vehicle.
It should be noted that Gardner did not see this as a conclusive list and was open to
the possibility of other intelligences being added. It was his belief that these
intelligences all developed at different times and indeed at a different pace. Thus,
development of language took place quickly at an early age while understanding and
relating to others took place at a later age.
Psychology: The Psychology of Individual Differences (AH)
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In addition, he argues that different cultures will value different intelligences. For
example, in Bali where artistic performance is part of every day life, musical abilities
and body movement skills are very highly valued. In contrast, Western society tends
to honour and indeed promote linguistic abilities and numerical skills.
Evaluation of the Theory
Three of the Intelligences identified by Gardner, (i.e. linguistic, numerical and spatial)
are similar to what typical IQ tests attempt to measure. However, the others provide an
interesting approach along with his exploration of the cognitive and physiological
processes in intelligence. One of the criticisms levelled against him has been that the
types of intelligence he identifies are not easy to measure by traditional methods. The
theory also fails to address the ways in which social cognition can affect the skills.
Despite this, many theorists believe that his ideas represent an important contribution
to the field in attempting to understand intelligence. It is also worth noting that a large
number of schools in the USA have attempted to utilise his ideas to develop all
aspects of children’s performance.
Quick Questions
We have a number of Intelligences. Provide a list of the
Intelligences that you believe you possess.
Identify the seven distinct Intelligences put forward by
Gardner.
Referring to the seven Intelligences, identify three people that
you know and compile a list of the Intelligences that you
believe each possesses.
What criticisms have been levelled against the work of
Gardner?
Do you believe the criticism identified in the previous
question to be valid?
Explain your answer.
Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
This theory put forward by Robert Sternberg in 1985, examines the role of
information processing in intelligence and is known as a triachic theory as it addresses
three aspects of intelligence. He believes that these three aspects operate together in
order to produce intelligent behaviour or action. He identified the three aspect of
intelligence as, the componential subtheory, the experiential subtheory and the
contextual subtheory.
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The Componential Subtheory: This in fact comes from an earlier theory developed by
Sternberg in 1977. For Sternberg this subtheory contains three elements of
information processing:
 Metacomponents: These are the higher-order processes that are utilised in mental
activity such as decision-making. Thus, identifying the problem, producing a plan
to solve the problem and evaluating the solution are all included here.
 Performance Components: These are the components that are actually used in
conducting a task such as being able to count.
 Knowledge-acquisition Components: These focus on how we obtain new
information.
For Sternberg, these components interact together. Metacomponents activate the
performance and knowledge-acquisition components which then input to the
Metacomponents. Even Sternberg recognised that these components were not easily
studied in isolation and that understanding their nature does not provide an
understanding of intelligence. This approach has a significant impact on what should
be included in intelligence tests as his theory indicates that tests should include items
to assess each of the components. Consequently some test items would need to assess
elements such as being able to produce a plan along with other elements of the
metacomponents, performance and knowledge-acquisition components.
The Experiential Subtheory
This looks at the level of the person’s experience and how this experience influences
dealing with a task. Thus, the person who has led a very sheltered life with a limited
range of experience in unusual situations will have difficulty when faced with an
unusual task as they will have a very limited range from which to choose. Similarly, a
person with a broad range of experiences to choose from will cope more easily with
the unusual situation as they have a greater range of experiences from which to draw.
In addition, it is important to note the difference between novel situations and
repeated situations as each requires a different response. Clearly, if the problem is new
then the individual will employ a number of approaches in their quest for a solution.
On the other hand, if the problem is not new then a person has the benefit of
employing automatic responses so that he/she achieves a fast and positive response.
In order to be able to deal with situations, this involves dealing with interactions
between different circumstances which is assisted greatly by experience.
The Contextual Subtheory
This subtheory relates to the way intelligence relates to the external world and stresses
that intelligent acts are not context free as they take place within a situation and
people do them for a reason. Thus, these contexts and reasons shape the kinds of acts
we do and how we go about doing them. Sternberg also emphasised the importance of
the socio-cultural context so that although some aspects of intelligence may be
universal, the culture will dictate whether or not they will be stressed and indeed
valued.
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He further stated that intelligence is aimed at one or more of the following
behavioural goals:

adaption, where the individual attempts to adapt to their environment

shaping, where they adapt the environment to their approach and finally,

selection, where a new environment is selected.
For example, if a person has been unable to adapt to the demands of a job and has
failed to shape the demands, then perhaps the best and most intelligent response
would be to change jobs and thus select a new environment.
Evaluation of the theory
This is a very comprehensive theory which includes links between cognitive
psychology and intelligence as well as showing the interaction of internal and external
factors such as thinking and problem solving. In addition, the theory includes cultural
diversity yet still recognises that people do have similarities. However, the theory does
not take account of biological factors.
Quick Questions
Write a brief summary of the three aspects of intelligence
identified by Sternberg.
What are ‘Metacomponents’?
How do the three elements within the componential
subtheory interact?



Explain the following terms:
Adaption
Shaping
Selection
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References for Intelligence
Burt, C. (1995) The evidence of the concept of intelligence. British Journal of
Education Psychology, 25, 158-177.
Cattell, R.B. (1987). Intelligence: Its structure, growth and action. North Holland,
Amsterdam.
Flynn, J.R. (1980) Race, IQ and Jensen. Routledge & Keegan Paul. London.
Gardner, H. (1985). Frames of mind. Basic Books. New York.
Heim, A (1970). Intelligence and personality-their assessment and relationship.
Harmondsworth, Middlesex.
Herrnstein, R.J. & Murray, C. (1994). The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class
structure in American life. Free Press. New York.
Howe, M.J.A. (1990). Does intelligence exist?, The Psychologist, Vol. 3, pp. 490-493.
Howe, M.J.A. (1997). Can IQ change? The Psychologist, Vol. 11, pp.69-72.
Spearman, C. (1904). ‘General Intelligence objectively determined and measured.’
American Journal of Psychology, 15, 201-293.
Sternberg, R.J. (1985) Beyond IQ: A triarchic theory of human intelligence.
Cambridge University Press, New York.
Sternberg, R.J. (1984) Towards a triarchic theory of intelligence. Behavioural and
Brain Sciences, 7, 269-315.
Sternberg R.J. (1986). Intelligence applied: Understanding and increasing your
intellectual skills. Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, New York.
Sternberg, R.J. (1995) For whom the Bell Curve tolls: A review of the Bell Curve.
Psychological Science, 6, 257-261.
Sternberg, R.J. (1990). Metaphors of mind: Conceptions of the nature of intelligence.
Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
Piaget, J (1950) The psychology of intelligence. RKP. London.
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Psychology: The Psychology of Individual Differences (AH)
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ATYPICAL BEHAVIOUR
The Biomedical Model
This model puts forward the idea that symptoms of psychological disorders are caused
by biological factors. Thus, brain defects, infectious transmission, biochemical
imbalances and genetics are put forward as possible sources of disorders. Symptoms
are taken together into patterns to show a syndrome which can then be labelled and
classified. When the condition has been identified, an aetiology is sought which will
in turn lead to a treatment.
The Brain
The brain is without doubt the most complex of all parts of the human body. It
consists of billions of neurons which are nerve cells and glial which are support cells.
Thus, different groupings of neurons in different areas of the brain are responsible for
various functions. The outer area of the brain, known as the Cerebral Cortex is mostly
responsible for sensory processing, motor control and higher mental functioning such
as learning, planning, memory etc. One way to examine the brain is to see it as three
sections namely the forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain.
The forebrain contains the Thalamus and the Hypothalamus. The Thalamus is
important in processing and relaying information between regions of the central
nervous system and the Cerebral Cortex. The Hypothalamus regulates hunger, thirst,
etc.
The midbrain co-ordinates communications between forebrain and hindbrain.
The hindbrain houses the Pons which is involved in sleeping, waking and dreaming,
and the Medulla, which regulates breathing and heart rate. The hindbrain also
contains the reticular activating system which screens incoming information and
arouses other areas of the brain.
It should be noted that atypical behaviour in these structures can occur, for example,
in a number of ways:

An injury resulting from birth complications or a severe blow to the head may
disturb some part of the brain.

A person may be born with some kind of brain atypical behaviour.

Prenatal exposure to toxins via drugs, alcohol, viruses, etc., can also alter the
development of the brain.
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Neurotransmitters
Neurons send electrical impulses to other neurons by means of neurotransmitter
substances.
A neuron obtains a chemical message as a neurotransmitter substance and changes it
to an electrical impulse. Thus far, more than fifty different types of neurotransmitters
have been discovered in the brain with different types serving in different regions of
the brain. A number of these are very important in the study of psychopathology for
example, in the study of depression. Neurotransmitters have a role to play in disorders
such as Post Traumatic Stress Disorder, where the exposure to trauma leads to
exaggerated neurotransmitter activity. Current biochemical research into
schizophrenia concentrates on neurotransmitters and their links to areas associated
with emotional experience and information processing. The importance of
neurotransmitters is also recognised in the study of unipolar depression as some
medications cause a depletion in certain neurotransmitters and causes depression.
Further to this, a wealth of research has focused on the view that a group of
neurotransmitters called monoamines have a key role in depression. It should be noted
that there are many other areas where neurotransmitters are seen to play a key role in
the disorder.
Genetics
The idea that mental disorders are inherited has been around for a very long time,
however, it is only recently that scientists have gathered new information about what
exactly people may inherit from their parents and indeed how biological inheritance
takes place. Indeed, current thinking suggests that certain traits, temperaments and
even specific disorders can have a genetic component.
Genes control a large number of characteristics such as eye colour, hair colour, male
baldness to name but a few. Clinical psychologists have noted that some forms of
psychological disorder run in families. Research has shown that monozygotic twins,
who share the same genetic construction, are more likely to share the same disorder
than are dizygotic twins who share 50% of their genes. Consequently, the average rate
for schizophrenia in the full population is 1%. Studies have shown that when one
monozygotic twin has the illness, then about 40-50% of other twins also have the
condition. In comparison, only 5-15% of dizygotic twins will have the disorder under
the same conditions. Note, schizophrenia is not an entirely genetic disorder otherwise
both monozygotic twins would receive an identical diagnosis. Therefore, non-genetic
factors must also play a part.
Evaluation of the Biomedical Model
This model puts forward basic concepts that are objective and measurable and has
developed diagnostic classification systems that have proved to be of immense value.
In addition, it has assisted advances in medical treatments that have produced very
positive effects for thousands of people. However, there are limitations associated
with the model as in gender differences where there are clear differences in
depression, yet little information on biological differences exists. Women are twice as
likely to suffer from depression as men.
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The discovery of biological differences between people with disorders and those
without disorders do not indicate whether the biological difference is the cause or
merely a by-product of the disorder.
A focus on biological factors exclusively could lead to negating the role played by
personal learning histories, cognitive misconceptions etc.
Quick Questions
Identify the biological factors that are put forward as the
possible sources of psychological disorders?
How might atypical behaviour occur in the brain?
What are the roles of the Thalamus and Hypothalamus in the
brain?
What role do neurotransmitters play in disorders?
Explain the impact of genetics in atypical behaviour?
What are the criticisms of the biomedical model?
Psychology: The Psychology of Individual Differences (AH)
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The Cognitive Model
Modern psychology is very interested in human cognition, which is how humans
perceive, recognise, attend, reason and indeed judge. This model emphasises that
cognitive functioning contributes to any emotional or behavioural distress. For
example, an individual with dysfunctional cognitive processing may have a tendency
to think negatively without having sufficient information on which to operate. Thus,
the cognitive model emphasises the individual’s perceptions, reasoning and thinking.
Cognition is best understood in terms of the following:
 Cognitive Structures: This is the internal organisation of information. Most
people think of dogs as pets and evaluate them in terms of breed, size, colour,
behaviour etc. A person with a fear of dogs will however, tend to view them in
only one dimension, how fierce they are. Therefore, cognitive structures such as
this influence the perception of the situation and the likely events that will follow.
 Cognitive Context: This is the actual material that the person is processing which
includes the ‘self-talk’ that an individual says to themselves. Thus, the self-talk of
an anxious person may include ‘What am I going to do know?’ or ‘Why does this
always happen to me?’
 Cognitive Process: This is how the system inputs, stores, transforms and governs
the output of information. An anxious person will process information very
differently from a normal person. For example, they may hear a comment about
fashion and believe it to be directed at them.
 Cognitive Products: These are the conclusions people reach when they process
content. The anxious person may now decide that they must dress differently to
please others and that they are not really liked or accepted.
It is important that a distinction is made between the following:

Cognitive Deficiencies: This relates to the absence of thinking. These have been
supported by evidence from psychopathology has having an important input in
some disorders.

Cognitive Distortions: This refers to dysfunctional thought processes e.g
misconstruals of the environment. Cognitive distortions have been identified in a
number of problems such as depression.
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Systems within the Cognitive Model
Albert Ellis and the Rational-Emotive View
This view put forward by Ellis in 1962 states that dysfunctional behaviour results
when people function on misguided or irrational assumptions or beliefs. In his work
Ellis put forward 11 original irrational beliefs outlined below:
 It is a dire necessity for an adult human being to be loved or approved by virtually
every significant person in his community.
 One should be thoroughly competent, adequate, and achieving in all possible
respects if one is to consider oneself worthwhile.
 Certain people are bad, wicked, or villainous and they should be severely blamed
and punished for their villainy.
 It is awful and catastrophic when things are not the way one would very much like
them to be.
 Human unhappiness is externally caused and people have little or no ability to
control their sorrows and disturbance.
 If something is or may be dangerous or fearsome one should be terribly concerned
about it and should keep dwelling on the possibility of it occurring.
 It is easier to avoid than to face certain life difficulties and self-responsibilities.
 One should be dependent on others and need someone stronger than oneself on
whom to rely.
 One’s past history is an all important determiner of one’s present behaviour, and
because something once affected one’s life, it should indefinitely have a similar
effect.
 One should become quite upset over other people’s problems and disturbance.
 There is invariably a right, precise, and perfect solution to human problems, and it
is catastrophic if this perfect solution is not found.
As far as Ellis is concerned, it is not the event itself that produces the distress but
rather the manner in which the person interprets the event. This is contained in his ‘AB-C’ model shown below:
Private Beliefs (B)about particular Activating Events or situations (A) dictate the
emotional Consequences (C) that are experienced by the individual. Thus, activating
events do not on their own lead to emotional and behavioural consequences.
Activating events are filtered via the beliefs of the individual and activating events can
lead to emotional and behavioural consequences that are indeed unwanted, when they
are filtered through irrational beliefs.
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Aaron T Beck and the Cognitive Theory of Depression.
Beck stated that psychological problems
‘are not necessarily the product of mysterious, impenetrable forces
but may result from commonplace processes such as faulty learning,
making incorrect inferences on the basis of inadequate or incorrect,
information, not distinguishing adequately between imagination and
reality’
(Kovacs & Beck, 1978).
It is Beck’s belief that people construct rules about how the world works from an early
age and that depressed people base their rules on erroneous ideas. People thus
continue to distort experience through errors in perceiving and thinking about
outcomes of events, interpersonal relations and personal attributes. This in essence
defines the cognitive model of depression.
Cognitive Behavioural Model
This model stresses the importance of the environment and the learning process as
well as cognitive-mediating and information processing factors. It is then an integrated
model from two perspectives with those from the behaviourist school and those from
the cognitive school coming together to produce this model. It is worth noting that this
approach has gained in popularity evidence of which can be seen in the increase in the
number of mental health professionals who identify themselves with the view.
Evaluation of the Cognitive Model
The work of Ellis and his unidirectional ‘A-B-C’ model has obtained some empirical
support with then evidence showing a link between a number of symptoms and
disorders and the tendency to support irrational beliefs. However, there has been
criticism of the cognitive model as some theorists believe that thought is only part of
the complex system in which people exist. Thus, other factors must also be
considered, e.g. biological factors and interpersonal issues. In addition there are those
who think that cognitive dysfunction’s could well be the consequences of a disorder
rather than the cause.
Quick Questions
Explain the following terms:

Cognitive Context

Cognitive Process

Cognitive Products
Identify the distinction between cognitive deficiencies and
cognitive distortions
Briefly summarise the views of Ellis.
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References for Atypical behaviour
Beck, A.T. (1967). Depression: Clinical, experimental, and theoretical aspects. Harper
& Row. New York.
Beck, A.T. (1976). Cognitive theory and the emotional disorders. International
University Press. New York.
Beck, A.T. (1987). Cognitive models of depression. Journal of cognitive
psychotherapy, 1, 5-38.
Ellis, A. (1962). Reason and emotion in psychotherapy. Stuart. New York.
Ellis, A (1971). Psychopathology of everyday life. Hollywood. Wiltshire.
Green, S. (1994) Individual differences: Normal and abnormal. Laurence Erlbaum.
Hove.
Kovacs, M. & Beck, A.T. (1978). An empirical clinical approach towards a definition
of childhood depression. In J.G. Schulterbrandt (Ed.), Depression in childhood:
Diagnosis, treatment and conceptual models. Raven Press. New York.
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OUTCOME 3: ANALYSE AN ISSUE IN THE PSYCHOLOGY OF
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
RACE AND INTELLIGENCE
Intelligence theorists such as Sternberg have argued that when defining intelligence,
the cultural context of the definition must be considered as what is deemed to be
intelligent behaviour in one culture may not be considered intelligent in another.
However, since the development of IQ tests they have tended to contain a western
cultural bias which allows the white middle class to score much more highly than
others. Over the years a very bitter debate has emerged as to whether differences in
intelligence exist between different racial groups. The evidence presented from the
USA shows that the average score obtained by many of the larger minority groups
such as Blacks, Native Americans and Hispanics is lower than that obtained by
whites. The difference ranging from between 3 and 15 points depending on the IQ
scale employed and the group being tested. Essentially, there is no real argument
about these differences. The controversy surrounds the issue of why these differences
are discovered. Consequently, the debate rages about the impact of heredity or
environment upon these cultural differences.
Arthur Jensen and Heritability
A veritable war was sparked by Jensen in 1969 when he published an article in the
Harvard Educational Review which argued that cultural differences in IQ were due, in
the most part, to heredity. Jensen proposed that intelligence was around 80% due to
heredity and that intelligence is largely genetic in its origin and so genetic factors are
‘strongly implicated’ as the main factor in ethnic differences in intelligence. In
addition, he argued that environmental influences were minimal. Jensen had argued
that due to heredity the difference between Black and White intelligence was fixed
and could not be altered. Therefore, according to Jensen, Blacks should obtain a
different type of schooling.
Criticisms of Jensen
The main criticism is focused on the confusion between within-group variance and
between group variance. Within group variance relates to the individual differences
which take place among members of a group. Between-group variance is the general
variation between different samples of scores. The confusion arises as the work of
Burt which Jensen utilises, looked at within-group variance while the work of Jensen
looked at between-group variance. As such it is not possible to utilise the figures from
one to help explain the other.
Jensen did not seem to consider the possible impact of environmental deprivation
experienced by many generations of Black Americans.
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Interestingly, the term Race has no agreed definition although it generally refers to the
sharing of a common gene pool by a group. It should, however, be noted, that
differences in gene structure are greater within a racial group than between
populations.
The very issue of defining intelligence is itself problematic and for many theorists its
definition is constructed by the culture in which it exists.
The Bell Curve
The debate was refuelled in 1994 by Richard Herrnstein and Charles Murray when
they published their book The Bell Curve. The main thrust of the book being that
intellectual ability, which they regard as being inherited, has become the main factor
in deciding an individual’s success. They further proposed that ethnic and cultural
differences in the average intelligence are large and that little can be done to alter this
situation. As a result, they believe that those groups in society that are disadvantaged
can do little, if anything to alter their course as they are a captive of genetics.
The utilisation of the bell curve in the book title refers to a normal distribution curve.
The authors believed that the normal distribution of intelligence in society linked
directly with social problems, e.g. those with a lower IQ were more likely to engage in
activity associated with social problems. In addition, they stated that African
Americans in the USA were very highly represented in the lower half of the curve
which clearly illustrated a genetic influence and not environmental factors.
Criticisms of the Bell Curve
Neither of the authors has published a scientific article on intelligence. They have
produced a book that is in essence written for the general reader. Consequently, any
scientific analysis of their ’data’ is not possible.
Like the work of Jensen, they had confused within-group and between-group variance.
They neglected the impact of environment and social values on intelligence test
results.
The Influence of the Environment
A number of research studies such as those by Fraser (1959) and Wiseman (1964)
have produced evidence for the impact of environmental factors on IQ. These factors
include good health care in the prenatal and postnatal periods, the level of parental
support, encouragement and intellectual stimulation that takes place. These views
very much challenge the position of the heredity school that most issues can be
explained by inherited factors. Indeed, it should be considered that those from lower
social classes face a wide number of disadvantages which must be considered. These
include, being exposed to fewer books, poorer role models for learning, less practical
areas for study and not generally being encouraged in their academic life.
Consequently, there are many researchers who argue that it is really social class
differences in intelligence that exist and not ethnic differences.
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Cultural Bias
There many critics of IQ tests who believe that the tests themselves contain a distinct
cultural bias as these tests are usually constructed by White middle-class
psychologists and so employ their type of language and ideas. However, there are
those who have argued that the cultural bias is not really very significant and a more
important factor happens to be the socio-economic problems faced by the lower
classes.
References for Race and Intelligence
Bodmer, W.F. (1972). Race and IQ: the genetic background. In K. Richardson and D.
Spears (eds.), Race, culture and intelligence. Penguin. Harmondsworth.
Fraser, E.D. (1959). Home environment and the school. University of London Press.
London.
Herrnstein, R.J. & Murray, C. (1994). The Bell Curve: Intelligence and class structure
in American life. Simon and Schuster. New York.
Jensen, A.R. (1969). How much can we boost IQ and scholastic achievement?
Harvard Educational Review 33, 1-123.
Jensen, A.R. (1970). IQ’s of identical twins reared apart. Behaviour Genetics, 2, 136.
Kamin, L.J. (1977). The science and politics of IQ. Penguine. Harmondsworth.
MacKenzie, B. (1984). Explaining the race difference in IQ: the logic the
methodology and the evaluation.. American Journal of Psychology, 39, 1214-33.
Tobias, P. (1974). IQ and the nature-nurture controversy. Journal of Behavioural
Science , 2, 24.
Wiseman, S. (1964). Education and environment. Manchester University Press.
Manchester.
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