1
Introduction
During the monitoring of topsoil removal as part of the Lough Mask Regional Water Supply
Scheme Stage III under licence 01E0314, a deposit of burnt sandstone was identified at the
edge of a zone of peat in the townland of Carrowcor, Co. Mayo (Guinan 2002 and 2003a,
2003b). This site was designated Carrowcor II (Figs. 1&2).
No surface evidence to indicate the presence of this site was visible prior to the
commencement of development works in the area. After discovery, the site was fenced off and
the zone of archaeological interest protected. Cleaning and an initial investigation were
conducted to determine the nature and extent of the archaeological deposits.
As the site had been uncovered during works, and lay within the pipeline wayleave, a decision
was made to excavate it under a licence granted by Duchas (excavation licence 01E1081) in
the autumn of 2001 (Appendix 1).
Geographical location
The site was situated c.76m OD, on the side of a third class road c. 2.3km from Bekan village
and c. 10km from Ballyhaunis town in south Co. Mayo (Figs. 1 and 2). GPS co-ordinates were
obtained from Mayo County Council’s GPS unit. The site is located at 141508.67 (easting),
278490.73 (northing).
The surrounding landscape is one of undulating pasture-land interspersed with low-lying
zones of deep peat. The environment around the site today is mainly pastoral, but contains
plants associated with drier and more disturbed habitats, probably resulting from modern
drainage activities (McClatchie 2002).
2
Archaeological Background
The townland of Carrowcor (124 acres) is one of 45 townlands in the civil parish of Knock.
No fulachta fiadh were recorded from Carrowcor or the immediate neighbouring townlands
prior to this work. However, during monitoring on the Lough Mask Regional Water Supply
Scheme Stage III (Guinan 2002 and 2003a), a fulacht fiadh had been discovered 30m west of
Carrowcor II. This site was designated Carrowcor I and was excavated under separate licence
(01E0680) (2003c and 2004).
This monitoring also resulted in the discovery of six previously unrecorded fulachta fiadh in
adjoining townlands relatively close to the two sites in Carrowcor. The first of these fulachta
fiadh was discovered and excavated in Bekan townland 01E0679 (Guinan 2003d and e),
c.2.2km east of Carrowcor. A second fulacht fiadh was recorded during monitoring, in a road
cut pipe trench, also in the townland of Bekan c.3.2km east of Carrowcor (Guinan 2002). Two
more sites were discovered and excavated in the townland of Cloonbulban (01E0681) 2.8km
to the south-east (Guinan 2003f and g). In the nearby townland of Cloontumper, 3.4km to the
south-east, two additional fulachta fiadh were recorded. One of these sites (Cloontumper I)
was discovered as a spread of burnt sandstone and charcoal in ground disturbed during the
reinstating of pipeline wayleave. In the same field just outside the pipeline wayleave, c. 20m
to the west, a second possible fulacht fiadh (Cloontumper II), with visible surface remains,
was discovered. This extant monument is a roughly semi-circular shaped mound c. 0.5m high.
The only recorded monument in the townland of Carrowcor is an enclosure (MA102:013)
located 200m north of the excavation site. In the adjoining townland of Lissaniska there are
six recorded enclosures (MA092:066; 067; 068; 069; MA102:014 and 015). A number of
other prehistoric sites are known from the wider area (Comer and O’ Muraile 1986). One of
the most notable monuments is a Bell Barrow located c 3km to the south-east in Belesker
townland (MA102:051). A wedge tomb in Greenwood Td (MA092:074) is located 3.3km to
the north-east (De Valera & O’ Nuallain 1964, Sheehan 1987-88, Guinan 2001a, 2003c).
However, there is a complete absence of any recorded monuments within a 3km radius, south
and south west of the excavation at Carrowcor. This in part may be explained by the boggy
nature of the land in the area. It is possible that this area was occupied by zones of open water
or a lake in prehistory as extensive deposits of marl were encountered during monitoring.
3
A number of finds of Bronze-Age date have been recorded from the environs. These include a
hollow wooden tube, bound with bronze ribbon, from a bog in Bekan townland and a dugout
canoe has been recorded from Bekan Lake. South-east of Carrowcor a bronze socketed
spearhead (NMI find no. 1983:66) was found in Bracklagh townland in 1983
(Kelly, 1986, 34).
The Excavation
The site consisted of an irregular spread of burnt sandstone within a rich charcoal matrix. It
was excavated from a base line established along a 0.5m baulk set out across the centre of the
burnt spread, parallel to the Bekan/Barneycarroll road. An area 10.5m north/south by 13m
east/west was excavated up to the limit of the acquired pipeline wayleave (Fig 3). Excavation
showed that the site extended beyond the wayleave acquisition line to the south where a
substantial area of the site remains unexcavated (see note on reinstatement p.25).
The site was initially de-sodded and cleaned up to the limits of the wayleave acquisition line
(Plates 1-4). After initial site work it became apparent that the site had been subjected to
modern agricultural disturbance caused by land reclamation and intense furrow activity. The
northern edge, nearest the Barneycaroll/Bekan road, was bounded by a deep field drain and
disturbed by the local group water scheme, whose pipe was laid in the area.
The Stratigraphy of Carrowcor II, (Figs. 3-9, Plates 1-14)
Sod (C1) consisted of a dark brown silty clay, 0.05m in depth which overlay a mid-brown clay
topsoil (C2) with occasional fine pebble inclusions ranging from 0.15m-0.4m in depth. This
topsoil sealed all archaeological strata (Plate 1).
Topsoil was removed to reveal a redeposited layer of a compact, mixed, brown and yellow
clay with moderate stone inclusions (C3). This deposit ranged in depth from 0.02-0.4m. This
episode of redeposition was the result of land reclamation which the land owner indicated took
place in the early 1980’s (Figs 7-9 Plate 1).
Beneath this zone of disturbance the original pre-reclamation sod line was discovered (C4).
This consisted of a very compact mid-brown layer of fibrous roots in clay c. 0.03m in depth.
This was underlain by the pre-reclamation topsoil (C5) which was a compact greyish brown
4
clay with occasional soil inclusions. This was 0.1-0.15m in depth. Context 6 which underlay
this original topsoil was a dark greyish brown clay (Figs. 3, 7 and 8, Plates 8-11) The layer
was 0.12m deep. It had moderate stone inclusions 50% of which consisted of burnt sandstone.
The layer was mixed - a result of ploughing disturbance - and represented the interface
between the original topsoil (C5) and the burnt mound proper (C7).
A low mound of burnt sandstone within a black peat and charcoal matrix (C7) was exposed
immediately below (C6) (Figs. 3 and 7-9 Plates 5-6 and 9-13). This compact deposit was
largely composed of burnt sandstone cobbles (50-200mm in diameter) but also contained
unburnt pebbles. The surviving mound which ranged from 0.15-0.27m in depth was heavily
disturbed by furrow activity. It measured 6.2m north/south by 6m. A substantial area of the
mound which extends to the south beyond the excavation limits, remains unexcavated.
The burnt mound was heavily disturbed by a series of seven cultivation furrows (C14) (Figs.
3-7, Plate 9). These generally ran north/south or east/west indicative of cross ploughing. The
furrow fill varied depending on the material they cut through. In general the fill (C14A)
comprised a mix of burnt sandstone, charcoal, lumps of natural boulder clay, marl, topsoil and
peat. The furrows averaged 0.3 – 0.1m in width while they ranged in length from 1.3m-3m.
The depths ranged from 0.10m to 0.15m. They were generally U-shaped in profile and cut
through the burnt mound and the underlying marl into the boulder clay (C10) (Plate 9).
Excavation revealed the mound of burnt sandstone (C7) was underlain by an extensive deposit
of marl (C8), a natural lacustrine deposit (Figs. 4, and 7-9, Plates 7-13). The cream coloured
marl contrasted with the black charcoal filled furrows which cut into it. The marl covered the
entire area of the excavation and was noted extensively in the vicinity during topsoil stripping
and subsequent pipelaying. The deposit was extremely wet underfoot and whiter in colour
towards the south-western side of the site. Frequent snail shell inclusions were visible
throughout this deposit. It measured an average of 0.1m in depth but varied greatly across the
site.
Marl (C8) was underlain by a deposit of mid-brown peat (C11) (Figs. 5 and 7-9, Plates 5-6 and
9 and 12-13). This natural peat growth varied in depth from 0.06 – 0.1m in depth and covered
an area of 7.5m by 4m. It overlay compact light grey boulder clay (C10) a natural glacial
deposit which underlay the entire area and contained occasional cobble inclusions (Fig. 6,
Plates 14 and 15).
5
Beyond this basic stratigraphy a number of other contexts were identified which illustrate the
extensive nature of post depositional disturbance to which the site had been subjected. At the
south-western fringe of the site an isolated deposit of gravel with some grey clay (C9)
covering an area of 1.7m north-northwest/south-south-east by 1.2m was identified. This
deposit was 0.06m–0.1m deep and represented material associated with land reclamation.
Another disturbed context associated with land reclamation was (C13), a compact grey silty
sand with frequent stone inclusions (Fig. 7). This occurred in two separate deposits at the
south-western and south-eastern ends of the site and was 0.07m in depth.. Deposit 1 located in
the south-western part of the site measured 3.3m by 2.5m in area. Deposit 2 located in the
south-eastern part of the site measured 2.5m by 2.5m in area. Underlying Deposit 1 was a
disturbed mid-brown very fine peaty clay (C12), which lay in the south-western part of the site
on the natural boulder clay (C10) (Figs. 3 and 7 Plates 8 and 9). It covered an area 3.2m northsouth by 2.08m and was 0.15-0.2m deep.
Context 15 an irregular featured was half-sectioned (D-D1) (Fig 4), revealing a shallow
natural depression 1.5m north/south by 2.2m with a maximum depth of 0.2m. This depression
was filled with a dark brown peat with coarse pebble inclusions (C15A) (Fig. 4).
6
Context
Type
Description
Munsell
Interpretation
1
Deposit
10yr-3/3
Brown
Natural deposit. Overlay
and sealed entire site
2
Deposit
10yr-3/3
Brown
Natural deposit. Overlay
and sealed entire site
3
Deposit









10yr-5/4
Yellowish
brown
Evidence of reclamation
circa 1985
10yr-3/3
Brown
Pre- reclamation sod line
10yr-3/3
Brown
Pre- reclamation topsoil
10yr-4/2
Dark
greyish
brown
Interface layer between
topsoil and burnt mound.
Mixed layer resulting
from ploughing
disturbance
7.5yr-2.5/1
Black
Heat shattered sandstone
in a black charcoal and
peat matrix fulacht fiadh
material
10yr-7/3
Very
Pale
Brown
Natural lacustrine
deposit which underlay
the burnt mound.
10yr-5/1
Grey
Redeposited gravel
possibly associated with
land reclamation
4
Deposit
5
Deposit
6
Deposit
7
Deposit





















8
Deposit










9
Deposit





Sod
Dark brown silty clay
Litter layer
Depth: 0.05m
Topsoil
Mid-brown clay
Depth: 0.15-0.4m
Infrequent stone inclusions
Redeposited, mixed, brown &
yellow clay
Depth: 0.02-0.4m
Moderate stone inclusions
Compact
Original sod line
Layer of fibrous root and clay
Mid- brown
Depth: 0.03m
Very compacted
Original topsoil
Greyish brown clay
Depth: 0.1-0.15m
Compact
Occasional stone inclusions
Dark greyish brown clay
Area: 10m east/west by 5m
Depth: 0.12m
Moderate stone inclusions 50%
burnt sandstone
Disturbed
Burnt stone in black peat and
charcoal matrix
Area 6.2m north/south by 6m
Burnt sandstone cobbles
50-200mm in diameter
Depth: 0.15-0.27m
Extends beyond wayleave
Includes unburnt pebbles
Disturbed by furrow activity
Marl
Cream
Whiter at south-western edge of
site
Frequent snail shell inclusions
Very wet deposit
Average depth: 0.1m but varies
greatly across site
Grey clay
Area 1.7m northnorthwest/south- southeast by
1.2m
Depth: 0.06-0.1m
Numerous (70%+) well rounded,
well sorted pebbles
Located in the south-western part
of the site
7



10
Deposit
11
Deposit
12
Deposit





13
Deposit












14
Cut






14A
Deposit






15
Natural
hollow
15A
Deposit









Grey compact boulder clay
Natural subsoil
15% very angular cobble
inclusions
Larger rocks also present
Peat
Mid-brown
Depth: 0.06-0.1m
Area 7.5m east/west by 4m
Sterile
Largely confined to southern
side of site
Very fine peaty clay
Mid-brown
Area 3.2m north/south by 2.08m
Depth: 0.15-0.2m
Confined to the south-western
corner of the site
Redeposited grey silty sand
Compact with frequent stone
inclusions.
Resting above (C12)
Depth approx: 0.07m
2 deposits one in the southwest
(3.3m by 2.25m) and a second in
the southeast (2.5m by 2.5m)
Associated with land reclamation
Furrows
Cuts through burnt stone
Orientated north/south or
east/west indicative of cross
ploughing
7 identified
Cuts through burnt stone (C7),
marl (C8) and into boulder clay
(C10)
U- shaped profiles
Length: 1.3-3m
Width: 0.3-1m (varies)
Depth: 0.1-0.15m
Furrow fill
Comprised a mix of burnt
sandstone, charcoal, lumps of
natural boulder clay, marl,
topsoil and peat.
Irregular
Shallow
Area: 1.5m by 2.2m
Depth: 0.2m
Fill of natural depression (C15)
Dark brown peat
Area 1.5 north/south by 2.2m
Depth: 0.1–0.2m
25% poorly sorted coarse pebble
inclusions
2.5yr-7/1
Light Grey
Natural glacial deposit
underlying the entire area
10yr-4/3
Brown
Natural peat growth
generally underlying
burnt mound and marl
deposit
10yr-4/3
Brown
Natural deposit overlying
boulder clay
10yr-4/2
Dark
greyish
brown
Redeposited material
resulting from land
reclamation in the 1980’s
N/A
Modern cultivation
furrows
Mottled
Mixed furrow fill
N/A
Natural depression
10yr-3/3
Brown
Fill of natural
depression
Table 1
Context List from Carrowcor II
8
Archaeobotanical Analysis
During the course of the excavation a number of samples were taken from various contexts for
archaeobotanical analysis. Four samples from the fulacht fiadh were subsequently submitted
for analysis. This work was undertaken by Meriel McClatchie, Archaeological Services Unit,
Department of Archaeology, University College Cork.
Methodology (extract from McClatchie 2002).
The archaeobotanical material was extracted from each soil sample using a
combination of flotation, wash-over and wet-sieving techniques.
A
combination of these techniques is the most suitable method for the recovery of
material as the processes cause the least amount of damage to fragile plant
remains and are also effective in recovering small weed seeds.
The soil sample is placed into a bucket and soaked in water in order to
disaggregate the deposit. The length of time allowed for the soaking of each
sample is dependent upon the cohesiveness of the deposit. The water, including
the flot, (Flot is the material that floats and is suspended in the water, such as
seeds and charcoal), is then poured through a graded bank of sieves (the washover technique) containing mesh measuring 1mm, 500µmm and 250µmm,
leaving the residual material that does not float at the bottom of the bucket.
This process is repeated until no more material floats to the top of the water.
The residue is then collected by wet-sieving which involves it being placed into
a 2mm sieve and washed thoroughly in a concentrated flow of water using a
hose. This method recovers denser organic material such as nuts and bone.
The scanning, sorting and subsequent identification of the archaeobotanical
material in all samples is carried out using a Wild 8 zoom stereo-microscope,
with magnifications ranging from x6 to x50. Each sample is scanned in order
to extract the archaeobotanical material. The seeds are then sorted into general
groupings on the basis of visual comparison of their morphological features.
The seeds were identified by comparison to reference material in the U.C.C.
Archaeology Departmental collection of modern diaspores and the drawings
from various seed keys (Anderberg 1994; Beijerinck 1947; Berggren 1969;
Berggren 1981; Katz et al. 1965).
Some of the seeds were distorted or
fragmented and identified to genus level only. The identified taxa are listed by
context in the order that they appear in Flora Europaea (Tutin et al. 1964-83).
9
Plant remains present
Four soil samples from a fulacht fiadh at Carrowcor II were submitted for
analysis. Non-wood plant remains were not recovered from any of the
examined deposits. The presence of substantial quantities of land snails in a
number of deposits (Table 2) may represent organic or rotting material that
would have attracted the land snails. No botanical evidence was recorded to
reveal activities at the fulacht fiadh.
Conclusions
A low level and rather narrow range of flora was recovered from deposits.
Evidence for open, damp environments was regularly identified. There is
likely to have been woodland available locally, as evidenced by the recovery of
flora associated with woodland margins. The absence of charred plant remains
besides wood is another indicator that wood was readily available as a fuel
source during the various periods of activity, as the remains that could be
expected from burning turves or other vegetation were not identified.
The Samples
The following is a summary of the context and content of the four samples which were
submitted for archaeobotanical analysis.
Sample no. 3 was taken from context 8, marl located under topsoil at the edge of the burnt
mound and contained charred wood and land snails.
Sample no. 4 was taken from the main mound. It consisted of burnt sandstone within a
charcoal matrix (C7). It contained charred wood.
Sample no. 8 was taken from the marl layer (C8) underlying the burnt mound (C7). It
contained charred wood and land snails.
Sample no. 10 was taken from a peat deposit (C11) which underlay the burnt mound (C7). It
contained charred wood, anaerobically preserved wood and land snails.
10
Site
Townland
Carrowcor
01E1081
Sample Charred Charred
number
seeds
wood
Anaerobically
Anaerobically
preserved
preserved
seeds
wood
Anaerobically
preserved
vegetative
material
Anaerobically Anaerobically
preserved
preserved
mosses
beetles
Land
snails
3
.
◊
.
.
.
.
.
◊
4
.
◊
.
.
.
.
.
.
8
.
◊
.
.
.
.
.
◊
10
.
◊
.
◊
.
.
.
◊
II
Carrowcor
II
Carrowcor
II
Carrowcor
II
◊ = present
Table 2
Organic material recorded in deposits from 01E1081
Species identification of charcoal samples (extract from O’ Carroll, 2003)
Introduction
[One charcoal sample was] …. sent for species identification prior to 14C dating and
also to give an indication of the range of tree species, which grew in the area, as well
as the utilisation of these species for various functions. Wood used for fuel at prehistoric sites would generally have been selected at locations close to the site.
Therefore charcoal identifications may, but do not necessarily, reflect the
composition of the local woodlands. Larger pieces of charcoal, when identified, can
provide information regarding the use of a species.
Methodology
The process for identifying wood, whether it is charred, dried or waterlogged is
carried out by comparing the anatomical structure of wood samples with known
comparative material or keys (Schweingruber 1990). The identification of charcoal
material involves breaking the charcoal piece so as a clean section of the wood can
be obtained. This charcoal is then identified to species under an Olympus SZ3060 x
80-zoom stereomicroscope. By close examination of the microanatomical features of
the samples the species were determined. The diagnostic features used for the
identification of charcoal are micro-structural characteristics such as the vessels and
their arrangement, the size and arrangement of rays, vessel pit arrangement and also
the type of perforation plates.
11
Each species identified from each sample was weighed in grammes. A minimum of 5
grammes of charcoal is needed for a conventional
14
C date but 25 grammes is the
preferred amount.
Sample no.
Context no/ Locational info.
SPECIES
Weight
Prunus
Hazel
7, burnt mound material
4
Prunus, hazel & alder
(5g),
(1g)
Alder (1g)
Table 3
Species identification results from 01E0680
There were three species identified from Carrowcor II. These were prunus, alder and
hazel.
Discussion
There are three species types present in the charcoal remains. These were hazel
(Corylus avellana) and alder (alnus glutinosa) and Prunus (blackthorn). They
are all native to Ireland.
Alder is a widespread native tree and occurs in wet habitats along streams and
riverbanks. Alder also grows regularly on fen peat. It is an easily worked and
split timber and does not tear when worked. Alder is commonly identified from
wood remains associated with wet/boggy areas.
Hazel was very common up to the end of the 17th century and would have been
used for the manufacture of many wooden structures such as wattle walls, posts,
trackways and baskets. McCracken (1971, 19) points out that “it was once
widespread to a degree that is hard to imagine today”. With the introduction of
brick, steel and slate the crafts associated with hazel became obsolete, and today
the woods that supplied hazel have diminished rapidly. Hazel is normally only
about 3-5m in height and is often found as an understory tree in deciduous
woods dominated by oak. It also occurs as pure copses on shallow soils over
limestone as in The Burren in Co. Clare and survives for 30 to 50 years. Its main
advantage is seen in the production of long flexible straight rods through the
process known as coppicing.
&
12
Prunus was identified from burnt mound material at Carrowcor II. It is a very
durable wood and is as strong as oak. Blackthorn (Prunus spinosa) is a thorny
shrub found in woods and scrub on all soil types. In a woodland situation it is
more likely to occur in clearings and at the woodland edges. It is more likely
that the charcoal identified from this assemblage was blackthorn rather than
cherry.
CONCLUSIONS
A total of three species were identified from the site. Alder indicates local wet
condition along riverbanks or peat bogs. Hazel would have grown in drier
conditions preferring free-draining soils and nutrient rich clays. The Prunus spp.
identified is indicative of those species, which may have grown locally in
hedgerows or as scrub nearby to the sites.
Finds
Excavation uncovered 13 lithic artefacts, a polished stone axe and 58 fragments of animal bone
(Plates 16-19). In addition a clay pipe stem and a range of modern material including glass,
iron and plastic, came from the topsoil or contexts of redeposition resulting from land
reclamation. The faunal material was sent to Catherine Bonner for osteoarchaeological
analysis, the results of which are detailed below.
The Faunal Material (extract from Bonner 2003).
Introduction
A small quantity of faunal material was submitted for osteological analysis
following archaeological excavations of a fulacht fiadh which were carried out as
part of the Lough Mask Regional Water Supply Scheme Stage III. The bones
were retrieved entirely by hand.
Methodology
Where possible, bone fragments were identified to species and skeletal
element using the Queen’s University of Belfast comparative skeletal
collection. Differentiation between sheep and goat could not be achieved
and the remains of these species were categorized as sheep/goat.
Epiphyseal fusion data is based on Silver (1969). Due to the material’s
fragmented state, metrical analysis could not be carried out.
13
Analysis
A summary of the results of analysis is presented in Table 4. Overall, the
material was found to be quite poorly-preserved. Of the 58 fragments examined
only thrirteen could be identified to species and skeletal element. Species
identified include cattle (Bos taurus), horse (Equus caballus), sheep/goat (Ovis
Capra) and pig (Sus domesticus). The remains of bird and fish are absent from
the samples.
Carrowcor II (01E1081)
Most of the animal bone which was recorded for Carrowcor II comprises
tooth fragments (over 90%). Because of their protective enamel, teeth
have a better survival rate than of other bones and therefore, their high
proportion at this site is probably indicative of unfavourable soil
conditions for bone preservation.
Context 6 (interface between topsoil and burnt mound) produced the
largest sample of animal bone. All of the identifiable fragments from this
context are teeth. Species identified include cattle (N=2), horse (N=2),
pig (N=1), and sheep/goat (N=1). The pig tooth was identified as a right
male lower canine. Its size and morphology indicate that the animal
represented was of the domestic variety.
Two teeth (1 cattle molar, 1 horse incisor) were recovered from Context 5
(buried topsoil). The horse incisor showed considerable wear.
Conclusion
The faunal assemblage which was presented for analysis was extremely small,
fragmented, and poorly-preserved and as a result, facilitated little interpretation.
As mentioned above, four main domesticates (cattle, horse, sheep/goat and pig)
are the only species represented. The remains of wild animals are absent from the
assemblage.
The high proportion of teeth retrieved from Carrowcor II suggests that the
paucity of bone is due to poor preservational properties of the soil. Poor bone
preservation is argued to be a feature of fulachta fiadh, as approximately only
10% of sites excavated have produced animal bone (Dr. John O Neill pers.
comm.). Soils with low pH values have an extremely unfavourable effect on
bone preservation (Gill-King 1997) and therefore, it has been claimed that
possible acidic soil conditions may account for these poor bone survival rates
14
(Waddell 1998). However, anthropogenic factors, such as the transferral of meat
after cooking or the disposal of food waste to deter vermin when the sites were in
use, should also be considered (Dr. John O Neill pers. comm.).
Site
Carrowcor
Find No.
2
Context
No.
Species
Anatomy
Details
No.
frag
14
5
5
Cattle
Tooth frag.
Molar frag.
8
5
1
Horse
Tooth
Incisor
29
10
29
Unid.
-
-
25
8
2
Unid.
-
-
23
6
1
LM
LB
S/root action visible
14
Unid.
-
-
(01E1081)
1
6
1
Pig
Tooth
R/Male/Lower canine
15
6
1
Cattle
Tooth
P4
6
6
1
S/G
Tooth
Molar
5
6
1
Cattle
Tooth
Molar
2
6
1
Horse
Tooth
Mandibular molar
24
6/7
1
Horse
Tooth
Mandibular molar
Key: LM=large mammal; MM=medium mammal; S/G=Sheep or goat; Unid.=unidentified; LB=longbone; L=left; R=right;
P=proximal; D=distal; S=shaft; FU=fused; Un=unfused; B=burnt bone.
Table 4
Results of analysis of faunal remains from Carrowcor II 01E1081
The Lithic Material
The thirteen lithic artefacts uncovered during the course of excavation (Plates 16-19),
Appendix 8) were was sent to Dr. Sarah Milliken Department of Archaeology, University
College Cork, for analysis, the results of which are detailed below.
15
Lithics Report (Milliken, 2003)
Raw material provenance
The artefacts are predominantly made of chert, with one made of quartz. Some
of the chert may be derived from the Castlebar River Limestone Formation,
where bands of chert nodules are common, or it may be derived from the
Quaternary deposits which cover much of the area and which were deposited
during periods of glaciation, either directly by the huge ice sheets that spread
across the country, or by meltwater flowing from this ice as it melted. The ice
broke off pieces of the rock over which it passed, and this sediment was
deposited as glacial till. The quartz would also be derived from this glacial till.
Technology
There are 13 artefacts (Appendix 6). In the majority of cases, the pebbles were
broken using the bipolar technique, whereby the pebble was placed on a stone
anvil and struck with another stone. This technique is used when the pebbles
are too small to hold them in the hand, and it results in the simultaneous
production of flakes, chunks and split pebbles. In other cases the pebbles were
broken using direct percussion, whereby a pebble core was held in the hand
and a series of flakes was struck from it using a hammerstone.
Typology
There is one end-scraper and one hammerstone. The artefacts are not
chronologically diagnostic beyond a generic attribution to the later prehistoric
period (Neolithic/Early Bronze Age).
Polished stone Axe (plate 19)
Introduction
The polished stone axe was recovered c. 1m north of the burnt mound resting on natural
boulder clay and covered with peat mottled marl (C8). The stratigraphical position of the axe
suggests that it may have been deposited prior to the use of the burnt mound, possibly into the
lake which predated the site. The occurrence of stone axes from both lake and lake shore
contexts is documented in Ireland (Cooney and Mandal 1998, 35-6). There is a possibility that
the axe may relate to activity at the fulacht fiadh as the marl on which it rests is very wet and
16
soft and the axe may have simply sank into the marl having been deposited, discarded or lost
during the lifetime of the site.
Recording the Axe
The stone axe below has been recorded using the criteria defined by the Irish Stone
Axe Project (Cooney and Mandal 1998).

Completed stone axe measuring 205mm long, 86mm wide and 52mm thick.

Face shape - oblique butt (FS05).

Cross section - oval (CS05).

Edge shape - curved asymmetrical (ES04).

Profile - symmetrical medium (PO2).

Blade profile - symmetrical junction 1/2 (BP09).

Butt shape - oblique (BU07).

Facets - none between sides and faces.

Primary treatment - unknown (PT04).

Secondary treatment
- blade ground and polished.
- sides ground and polished.
- faces ground and polished.
- butt ground not polished.

Hafting - Circa two thirds of the length of the sides from the butt towards the blade end
were pecked after the axe was ground and polished.

Description - The sides were pecked after the axe was ground and polished. Pecking leads
from the butt towards the blade end. Pecking designed to facilitate hafting. Junction
between the sides and the edge is rounded and clearly defined. The junctions between the
sides and butt are marked and angular producing an oblique butt. The edge is curved and
slightly asymmetrical. The blade area is smooth and merges with the faces of the axe. The
faces are smooth and well polished. The oblique butt is slightly rough and unpolished.
Some minor areas of edge damage visible. Striae are visible on the blade area of the axe.
Petrology
The axe was examined macroscopically by Dr. Stephen Mandal who classified the axe as a
greywacke sandstone.
17
Discussion
The form of words fulacht fiadh or fulachta fiadh (plural) which is used in Ireland to describe
mounds of burnt stone has only been in use since the 19th century. The term is based on early
Irish literary references from the 9th century AD where the word fulacht appears on its own
with a variety of spellings and meanings. These are listed by O’ Drisceoil who has found fiftynine passages in the early Irish literature where the term fulacht appears ‘fulucht, fulocht,
folucht. Inadh fulachta (cooking place) occurs, as do fulucht, fianachta, fulacht fiansae, folach
fiann, fulacht fian and fulachta na bhFian’ (1990, 158)
The term can have a variety of meanings such as ‘cooking place of deer’, ‘cooking place of
game’ or ‘cooking-place of the wild’ (O’ Kelly 1954). In Cormac’s Glossery one of the
earliest of the literacy sources the name takes the form fulacht fiansae or ‘cooking place of the
roving huntsman'.
In later sources such as Geoffrey Keating’s history Foras Feasa ar Eirinn written between
1633 and 1637 fulacht fian is the usual form. Fian here is a reference to the Fianna warriors of
the mythical Finn mac Cumhaill.
"From Bealtaine until Samhain, the Fian were obliged to depend solely on the products of
their hunting and of the chase as maintenance and wages from the kings of Ireland, thus, they
were to have the flesh for food, and the skins of the wilde animals as pay. But they only took
one meal in the day and night and that was in the afternoon. And it was their custom to send
their attendants about noon with whatever they had killed in the morning's hunt to an
appointed hill, having wood and moorland in the neighbourhood, and to kindle raging fires
thereon and put into them a large number of emery stones, and to dig two pits in the yellow
clay of the moorland, and put some of the meat on spits to roast before the fire, and to bind
another portion of it with suagans in dry bundles, and set it to boil in the larger of the two pits
and keep plying them with the stones that were in the fire, making them seethe often until they
were cooked. And these fires were so large that their sites are today in Ireland burnt to
blackness, and these are now called Fulacht Fian by the peasantry." (P.S Dineen ed 1908
326-9).
18
The Function of Fulachta Fiadh.
Fulachta fiadh have been the subject of interest and academic study in Ireland since the mid19th century (Trench 1885-86), (Quinlan 1885-86), (Forsayeth 1911). However it was not until
the 1950’s that this monument type was studied at a scientific level. M.J O’Kelly seminal
work on the subject (1954, 105-155) was holistic in its approach, combining the results of his
excavations with a review of the evidence from the early Irish literature and a program of
experimentation. O’Kelly excavated two burnt mound at Ballyvourney in Co. Cork. His
experimentation demonstrated how these monuments could have been used as cooking places.
Using a reconstructed trough filled with water he showed that stones heated in a fire and
placed in the trough would bring the water to the boil in 30 to 35 minutes. This water could be
maintained simmering at boiling point by adding the occasional hot stone to the trough. In this
experiment a 4.5kg leg of mutton wrapped in straw was ‘cooked through to the bone and free
of all contaminants’ in three hours and forty minutes. ‘Thus we satisfied ourselves that such a
trough made in the ground could be used effectively for the cooking of meat in a manner
described the early Irish literature’. (O’ Kelly 1954, 122). In more recent years similar
experiments have been undertaken by Christy Lawless in Co. Mayo (1990).
Despite the fact that it has been demonstrated that fulachta fiadh could be used for cooking
there is no agreement in the literature that they were always used in this way. Although
Keating’s description of burnt mounds in his account of the Fianna (quoted above) appears to
suggests they were cooking sites, Gillespie (1991, 69-70) has urged caution in how this
account is interpreted. Citing other literary references from the late 16th and early 17th century
it is suggests that fulacht fiadh should not be considered simply as cooking sites but temporary
camps where a range of activities, of which cooking is only one element, were carried out.
General problems associated the value of Irish literary sources have been discussed by O’
Drisceoil (1990 157-164). References to fulachta fiadh are found in an assortment of texts
from early Irish law tracts, glossaries and hagiographies to histories, poetry and annals and
span a very large time frame from 9th to the 18th century. This presents a huge time gap
between their use in the Bronze Age and references to their use in medieval texts. Written in
old, middle, early modern and modern Irish the language of these texts is very difficult to
interpret and translate. In addition many accounts are fanciful and would have had a long life
in oral tradition before being written down, affecting their reliability as sources for
interpreting the function of fulachta fiadh. As O Drisceoil has noted these sources have limited
19
archaeological value ‘It would be wrong to uncritically accept the early Irish literary evidence
in an interpretation of the cultural, social and economic contexts of fulachta fiadh, in dating
them and in ascribing a function to them’ (1990, 157)
An alternative interpretation to cooking is that burnt mounds may have been used as
saunas/sweat houses or for bathing (Barfield and Hodder 1987, O’ Drisceoil 1988, Barfield
1991). The proximity of these sites to a source of water as well as the many ethnographic
parallels for sweat bathing are cited in support of this hypothesis. If these sites were used as
saunas the trough which is a feature of many excavated sites could have been used to collect
water for steam production or used as a source of cold water for pouring over the body.
The general absence of animal bone from excavated fulachta fiadh is also used to argue
against the interpretation of fulachta fiadh as cooking places. However the presence of acidic
soils, which would greatly affect preservation of bone, offers one possible explanation for the
lack of this type of material. It is also possible that there is a behavioural explanation for the
lack of bone on excavated fulachta fiadh. Quite simply cooked food may have been removed
from these sites for consumption elsewhere, perhaps in nearby settlements. While bone is
often absent from fulacht fiadh this is by no means always the case. Excavation of a fulacht
fiadh from Fahee South in Co. Clare, produced a large number of animal bones perhaps
reflecting the low acidity of the soil in the area (O’ Drisceoil 1988).
Beyond cooking and bathing the possibility that fulachta fiadh may have functioned as
laundries and centres of textile production where clothes were prepared, fulled, washed and or
dyed has suggested (Jeffery 1991). Fulling is the process of cleaning, shrinking and thickening
clothes.
It has been argued that the debate about the function of fulachta fiadh should take into account
the general range of uses to which hot stones can be put. Barfield lists the following suggested
uses for hot stone technology - storage heating, beer making, canoe manufacture, drying meat
or fish, fumigation to eliminate flies, butter production, pottery firing, leather preparation,
metal working, fulling, steam for birthing, the extraction of grease from animal bones, salt
production and the use of steam to bend long timbers for use in building (Barfield 1991, 6264).
20
Fulachta fiadh should perhaps not be thought of simply as cooking sites but rather multifunctional features of temporary settlements used for both cooking and washing. While this
discussion has focused on the possible domestic uses of fulachta fiadh the possibility that
some of these sites may have had a role within the ritual/spiritual world of prehistoric
communities should also be considered.
While the position of fulachta fiadh in the wider settlement patterns of the Bronze Age is not
very well understood, associations between these sites and other contemporary monument
types has been noted across a number of regions. In the south Limerick region, survey has
shown that fulachta fiadh are one component of an extensive range of Middle Bronze Age
sites, including burial and domestic sites forming an integrated settlement pattern (Cooney and
Grogan 1994, 124). Similarly Waddell (1998, 117) points out that a number of fulachta fiadh,
near Carron, Co. Clare, seem to be part of a complex of sites including field system, cairns and
wedge tombs (Hayden 1994). In the Monavullagh Mountains, Co. Waterford a group of
fulachta fiadh have been found in close association with house sites, stone circles and multiple
cist cairns (Buckley 1991, 7). In Mooghaun, Co. Clare an association between the distribution
of fulachta fiadh and standing stones has been identified (Grogan 1996).
Perhaps a greater understanding of these ubiquitous monuments will emerge from more
intensive regional landscape studies which place more emphasis on integrating these sites into
the broader settlement patterns of Bronze Age Ireland. With so many previously unknown
fulachta fiadh being discovered every year across the country this presents a challenge for
Irish archaeology.
Fulachta Fiadh in Co. Mayo
As recently as 1986, there were only two fulachta fiadh known from County Mayo. One from
Dooros Td near Balla (Buckley & Lawless 1986) and another near Ballina. The fulacht fiadh
at Dooros is of particular note as an undecorated gold dress fastener, is recorded from this
area, (NMI reg. no. 1934:5600) (Cherry 1990,53). Intensive fieldwalking by Christy Lawless
between 1986 and 1987 within a 16 sq. km area in the centre of the parish of Turlough lead to
the discovery of 130 new sites (Buckley and Lawless 1986), (Lawless,1990). The number of
recorded sites in Turlough parish continues to increase with some 152 fulachta fiadh now
known (Lawless 2001, 84). Additional sites have been recorded in Killasser, near Foxford (O’
Hara 1991) and the Clare Island survey has discovered several new fulachta fiadh (Gosling
21
1994). For Co. Mayo as a whole, the Sites and Monuments Record classifies 258 sites as
fulacht fiadh or fulachta fiadh (Gibbons et al 1991, 17).
Over the last five years archaeological monitoring associated with major infrastructure
projects in Co Mayo has lead to the discovery and excavation of a large number of new sites,
adding greatly to the corpus of fulachta fiadh known from the county. While many of these
sites have yet to be fully published, a quick survey of the Excavations Bulletins suggests that
in excess of 50 fulachta fiadh have been excavated in the county over the last number of
years.
New sites have been identified as a result of monitoring works during the construction of the
Knock/Claremorris by-pass (Nolan 2000a-c, 2003, King 2003, Zajac 2000, 2002, 2003).
Additional concentration of fulachta fiadh have also come to light during works associated
with Claremorris sewage and Westport main drainage schemes (Gillespie 2000, 2001 and
2003a-d, 2004 a-c). The discovery of fulachta fiadh around Ballinrobe have been reported
upon in by Gerry Walsh (1995a and b and 2000). Drainage works have exposed fulachta fiadh
at Lough More, Bofeenaun (Moloney and Keane 1992). Additional sites have been excavated
near Ballina (King 2000), Knock, (King 2004), Crossmolina (Zajac 2004), Claremorris (Nolan
2003) and a site at Coolavally, near Ballinrobe (Ryan 1996). Work by the writer in recent
years in south Co. Mayo has resulted in the discovery and excavation of many additional new
sites (Guinan 2002 and 2003a).
A re-appraisal of our understanding of burnt mounds was undertaken in 1988 and a series of
papers published in Burnt Offerings: International Contributions to Burnt Mound
Archaeology (Buckley 1990) This was followed by a second international burnt mound
conference in Sandwell in the UK (Barfield and Hodder 1991). Since then an explosion of
archaeological activity across the country in the 1990’s has greatly increased our data on the
subject. On a national level the numbers of fulachta fiadh known in Ireland continues to grow.
Waddell (1998,174) put the number of known fulachta fiadh across the country at 4500. With
the current rate of discovery the actual number of sites is probably far in excess of this. At
present it can be said that the collection of archaeological data on burnt mounds is currently
outpacing our ability to synthesise the available evidence.
22
The Fulacht Fiadh at Carrowcor II
The site at Carrowcor II was the disturbed remains of what was originally a much larger
mound. Evidence of significant modern post depositional disturbance affecting the site was
discovered. The sod, topsoil and layer of compact redeposited, mixed, brown & yellow clay
which covered the site was the result of recent agricultural land reclamation. The mound itself
was subject to further agricultural disturbance in the form of cross ploughed cultivation
furrows which cut through the archaeological strata, resulting in a degree of mixing.
While there is no obvious surface source of water at the site at present, extensive land
reclamation in the area may have altered pre-existing watercourses. Extensive deposits of
marl which underlay the site and surrounding environs may suggest the existence of open
water in the past. In any event the water table lies close to the surface in this area and even a
relatively shallow trough would gather sufficient water. The land owner indicated that there
are a series of springs located along the base of the glacial ridge north of the site. An area
10.5m north/south by 13m was excavated up to the limit of the acquired pipeline wayleave.
Excavation showed that the site extended beyond the wayleave acquisition line to the south.
No boiling pit or trough was found in the excavated portion of the site but it is possible that
one or more may be located in the unexcavated part of the site.
Archaeobotanical analysis of environmental samples revealed no non-wood remains. Wood
appears to have been the exclusive source of fuel at the sites as there was a general absence of
any other charred plant remains. All the environmental evidence suggests that the materials
used at the site were available within the immediate locality.
Three species of wood - hazel, prunus and alder - were identified from charcoal samples
recovered from the site investigated at Carrowcor II. Alder suggests local wet condition along
river banks or peat bogs. Prunus is a thorny shrub found in woods and scrub on all soil types.
The hazel would have grown in drier conditions preferring free-draining soils and nutrient rich
clays. The site was located at the interface between a glacial ridge and an area of low- lying
deep peat so it is probable that these materials were readily available within the immediate
area.
23
Although a quantity of faunal remains (pig, horse, sheep/goat and cattle) were recovered from
the site (Bonner, 2003) this material largely came from contexts disturbed by modern
agricultural activity.
In addition to a range of lithic debitage, a chert end scraper and a quartz hammerstone, a
polished stone axe was found at the edge of the site. A number of stone axes have been found
close to or associated with fulachta fiadh. In the 19th century Quinlan (1885-6, 392) reported
the discovery of three axeheads ‘within a few feet of the burnt stones’ of a fulacht fiadh at
Clonkerdon, Co. Waterford. However there is some confusion about these artefacts as it is not
certain whether they were made of stone or bronze (Cherry 1990, 53). At Kiltrassy in Co.
Kilkenny a stone axe made of schist was found within ‘a destroyed fulacht fiadh exposed by
ploughing’ (Cherry 1990, 52). At Sheephouse in Co. Meath a burnt stone found within the
burnt mound of a fulacht fiadh was ‘probably the mid-section of a polished stone axe’
(Campbell 1994, 73). A polished mudstone axe was found close to a Middle Bronze Age
fulacht fiadh dated 1606-1400BC at Leedaun, Co. Mayo (Walsh 2000, 311-2). Polished stone
axes was recovered during excavations at Gorteen in Co Limerick (Deevy 2000, 166), and in
Clare Co. Mayo (Nolan 200b, 228). Recently a polished stone axe was found within a fulacht
fiadh (site 23 at George’s land in Co Tipperary during archaeological excavation in advance of
N8 Cashel By-pass (www.nra.ie, 2004, 3).
Dating the Fulacht Fiadh at Carrowcor II
Export and alteration licences were obtained to send charcoal extracted from sample no. 4 for
radiocarbon dating, to the Scottish Universities Research and Reactor Centre. (Appendices 2
and 3).
Sample no. 4 was taken from the southern side of the main body of the burnt mound (C7). 7
grammes of charcoal, was extracted from this sample. This comprised of Prunus (5g), Hazel
(1g) & Alder (1g). This charcoal was dated by the University of Arizona AMS facility to
2890+/- 45 BP (Cal BC 1220 –920) (AA-54325 GU-10830), (Appendices 4 and 5).
The date from the site suggests that much of the activity at this fulacht fiadh took place in the
early stages of the Late Bronze Age (1200-600 BC) date. The 13 lithic artefacts recovered
from the site were mainly debitage but also included one end scraper and one hammerstone. In
24
relation to the chronology of these artefacts Milliken (2003) remarks that “The artefacts are
not chronologically diagnostic beyond a generic attribution to the later prehistoric period.”
The polished stone axe recovered from the site is of a type whose main period of production is
the Neolithic (4000-2500 BC). However “the use of stone axes begins in the early Mesolithic
and continues well into the Bronze Age” (Cooney and Mandal 1998, 3).
Excavations undertaken by the author in recent years on a number of fulachta fiadh within the
general area of the site at Carrowcor II have produced a number C14 dates ranging from the
Final Neolithic to the Late Bronze Age.
At the neighbouring fulacht fiadh, Carrowcor I, located only 30m to the west, two radiocarbon
samples from the burnt mound dated the main activity at the site to Cal BC 1749 and Cal BC
1896-1685, placing the site at the end of the Early Bronze Age (2300-1700 BC) (Guinan
2004). Despite its proximity and similarity, the Late Bronze Age date (Cal BC 1220 –920) for
the site at Carrowcor II indicates that fulacht fiadh activity in this area occurred as two distinct
episodes circa five hundred years apart.
The excavation of a fulacht fiadh in Bekan townland, c. 2.2km east of Carrowcor, produced
dates indicating that activity involving burnt stone technology took place there in the Middle
Bronze Age (1700-1200) (Guinan 2003d and e). Also in Bekan townland a charcoal sample
extracted from a fulacht fiadh found in a road cut pipe trench 3.2km east of Carrowcor has
produced an Early Bronze Age date (Guinan forthcoming). Two fulachta fiadh, excavated in
Cloonbulban townland, c. 2.8km to the south-east of Carrowcor, produced the earliest dates
with activity here occurring in the Final Neolithic and Early Bronze Age (Guinan 2003f and
2003g).
25
Summary and Conclusion
A large spread of burnt sandstone (Carrowcor II) was identified in Carrowcor townland, near
Claremorris, Co Mayo during topsoil stripping in advance of pipelaying associated with the
Lough Mask Regional Water Supply Scheme Stage III.
The site consisted of a low mound of heat shattered sandstone within a compact, dark charcoal
rich matrix. The burnt mound was heavily disturbed by a range of post depositional processes,
the most significant of which was the damage caused by a number of cultivation furrows that
cut through the site. No boiling pit or trough associated with the burnt mound was found. Such
features may well be present in the portion of the site which lies outside the pipeline wayleave
and so remain unexcavated.
Thirteen lithic artefacts, made from chert and quartz were recovered from Carrowcor II. In the
majority of cases, the chert pebbles were broken using the bipolar technique. Amongst the
assemblage were one chert end scraper and a quartz hammerstone. A polished stone axe was
also recovered from the site.
Archaeobotanical analysis of soil samples revealed no botanical evidence for activities at the
fulacht fiadh. Three species of wood (alder, prunus and hazel), were identified from charcoal
taken from the site.
One radiocarbon date was obtained from charcoal samples taken from the site. This indicate
that activity at the site took place in the Late Bronze Age.
Note on site reinstatement
Excavations took place solely within the Mayo County Council acquired wayleave. After consultation with
Duchas the following actions were undertaken to protect the surviving section of the site along the wayleave
acquisition line.
1. Heavy-duty teram was used to cover the exposed site section created by the wayleave acquisition line
(Plate 15).
2. A layer of gravel was placed on the teram to keep it is place against the section.
3. Normal topsoil reinstating was carried out under strict archaeological supervision.
4. The precise survey location was supplied to Duchas so that the site could added to the RMP.