Book 3
Reference Materials
140
9
Ordinances in Hong Kong for Heritage Preservation
141
Ordinances in Hong Kong for Heritage Preservation
Cap 53 Antiquities and Monuments Ordinance
To provide for the preservation of objects of historical, archaeological and
palaeontological l interest and for matters ancillary thereto or connected therewith.
Cap 123 Building Ordinance
To provide for the planning, design and construction of buildings and associated
works; to make provision for the rendering safe of dangerous buildings and land; to
make provision for regular inspections of buildings and the associated repairs to
prevent the buildings from becoming unsafe; and to make provision for matters
connected therewith.
Cap 131 Town Planning Ordinance
To promote the health, safety, convenience and general welfare of the community by
making provision for the systematic preparation and approval of plans for the lay-out
of areas of Hong Kong as well as for the types of building suitable for erection therein
and for the preparation and approval of plans for areas within which permission is
required for development.
Cap 499 Environmental Impact Assessment Ordinance
To provide for assessing the impact on the environment of certain projects and
proposals, for protecting the environment and for incidental matters.
Cap 563 Urban Renewal Authority Ordinance
To establish the Urban Renewal Authority for the purpose of carrying out urban
renewal and for connected purposes.
142
10
International Charters for
Conservation and Restoration
143
International Charters for Conservation and Restoration
All Charters of ICOMOS
International Council on Monuments and Sites
http://www.international.icomos.org/charters/charters.pdf
This document is a compilation of 14 articles from 1964 to 2003, aiming to reflect
problems and concerns relevant to working with heritage conservation and historic
monuments. It contains basic principles and guidelines addressing specific issues faced
in contemporary society. There is an exhaustive range of information and suggestions
on general theory and practice. The focus ranges from excavation and documentation,
to restoration and conservation, to management and education.
The Athens Charter for the Restoration of Historic Monuments 1931
International Council on Monuments and Sites
Adopted at the First International Congress of Architects and Technicians of Historic
Monuments, Athens 1931
http://www.icomos.org/docs/athens_charter.html
This article presents seven main resolutions – i.e. Carta Del Restauro and a summarized
account of the conclusions made at the Athens Congress. These include doctrines and
general principles related to the protection of monuments, administrative and
legislative measures regarding the historic monuments, aesthetic enhancements of
ancient monuments, information on the restoration of monuments, taking precautionary
measures to address the deterioration of ancient monuments, the technique of
conservation, the conservation of monuments and importance of international
cooperation. Customary practices and principles on excavation, protection,
conservation and restoration of monuments and historic sites were discussed, reviewed
and disseminated along with the strategies of intellectual collaboration and the
promotion of contextual artistic and historic values through community heritage
education.
Venice Charter 1964 - International Charter for the Conservation and
Restoration of Monuments and Sites (The Venice Charter 1964)
International Council on Monuments and Sites
Adopted at the 2nd International Congress of Architects and Technicians of Historic
144
Monuments
http://www.international.icomos.org/charters/charters.pdf
The discussion is becoming increasingly complex and new multifaceted problems
regularly surface in working with monuments and historic sites. The importance of
historic monuments shall not to be forgotten, as these have acquired cultural
significance through the passing of time, providing a living witness to age-old
traditions of a past civilization. A set of guiding principles were evaluated at the
Congress to assist with the proper treatment of conservation and restoration of
monuments and historic sites, whilst limiting the modification demanded by social
changes, within a framework of the culture itself.
Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural
Heritage 1972
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
http://whc.unesco.org/archive/convention-en.pdf
This document was prepared in response to the recent interest towards the protection of
the world cultural and natural heritage. It presents a list of detailed descriptions of the
terms and principles; the methods of applying for funding, and the conditions for
international assistance in documenting and conserving cultural and natural heritage.
The classification of cultural heritage broadly covers monuments, buildings and sites,
while natural heritage relates to biological formations, natural features, geological
environments and habitats of threatened species and animals. The role of the UNESCO
in organizing this Convention is to ensure the proper identification, protection,
conservation, presentation and transmission of cultural and natural heritage for future
generations.
Historic Gardens (The Florence Charter 1981)
International Council on Monuments and Sites
Adopted by ICOMOS in December 1982
http://www.international.icomos.org/charters/charters.pdf
This article is a compilation of the recommendations adopted by ICOMOS applicable
to the maintenance, restoration and reconstruction, of all historic gardens across the
world. It includes the definitions and objectives of the international committee;
maintenance, conservation, restoration, reconstruction of historic gardens; and the legal
and administrative documentation involved in the protection of the gardens. A historic
garden is an expression of affinity between civilization and nature, where a
horticultural composition is achieved through refined botanical and horticultural
145
practices. Gardens are primarily vegetal and therefore living; reflecting the perpetual
cycle of the seasons, and the growth and decay of nature, and the desire of the artist and
craftsmen to keep it maintained, and permanently unchanged by achieving ecological
equilibrium.
Charter for the Conservation of Historic Town and Urban Areas
(Washington Charter 1987)
International Council on Monuments and Sites
Adopted by ICOMOS General Assembly in Washington, DC, October 1987
http://www.international.icomos.org/charters/charters.pdf
This article defines the principles, objectives and methods necessary for the
conservation of historic towns and urban areas. It seeks to promote the harmony of both
private and community life in these areas and encourages the preservation of those
cultural properties, however modest in scale, that constitute the collective memory of a
particular society. A multidisciplinary study formed the basis of the urban and regional
planning scheme to ensure the harmonious adaptation to and protection of historic
towns and urban areas in contemporary life.
Charter for the Protection and Management of the Archeological Heritage 1990
International Council on Monuments and Sites
Prepared by the International Committee for the Management of Archaeological
Heritage (ICAHM) and approved by the 9th General Assembly in Lausanne in 1990
http://www.international.icomos.org/charters/charters.pdf
Archaeological heritage is a fragile and non-renewable cultural resource constituting a
vital part of indigenous people’s living traditions. It is essential to protect these sites and
their continued protection and preservation is ensured by a set of guidelines drawn up at
the General Assembly. Given the co-dependence of human history and heritage, the
emphasis is to acquire an understanding on the history of the indigenous people, in
order to wholly appreciate archeological heritage, and the significance of monuments
and sites. There is also a moral obligation for heritage protection and legislation should
make provision for the proper maintenance, management and conservation of
archaeological heritage. As international cooperation becomes integral, professional
conduct and training needs to be maintained.
Guidelines on Education and Training in the Conservation of Monuments,
Ensembles and Sites 1993
International Council on Monuments and Sites
146
http://www.international.icomos.org/charters/charters.pdf
Education plays a crucial role to impart knowledge to those who are in a direct or
indirect relation with cultural heritage. The Charter acknowledges the need to deepen
the general sense of cultural consciousness, and to safeguard and prolong the life of
cultural heritage. Recommendations and guidelines operate as a basis for such
activities, while variations depend on local traditions, legislation, the administrative
and economic context of each region. Conservation requires good communication and
coordinated action, supported by the input of interdisciplinary specialists, including
academics and craftsmen. Attitudes and approaches to the conservation of cultural
property include training in disaster preparedness and ways to strengthen and improve
security measures. Long term and short term courses and international exchanges
involving teachers, students and professionals are encouraged.
Nara Document on Authenticity 1994
International Council on Monuments and Sites
http://www.international.icomos.org/charters/charters.pdf
The ability to verify and authenticate ideas and issues concerning cultural identity and
conservation works is of great relevance. Depending on the nature of the cultural
heritage, its cultural context and its evolution through time, authenticity judgments may
be linked to the great variety of sources of information, and the requirement of
scientific analysis to provide supporting evidence. At the 1994 World Heritage
Convention held in Nara, Japan, the International Council continued to address the
concerns and interests built in the spirit of Venice. It highlighted the irreplaceable
nature of cultural heritage, as a source of spiritual, cultural and intellectual property,
and our obligations for its protection. An appendix supplements this article, with a list
of follow up suggestions and definitions of conservation and information sources.
Principles for the Recording of Monuments, Groups of Building and Site 1996
International Council on Monuments and Sites
http://www.international.icomos.org/charters/charters.pdf
Recording is among the principal ways of understanding the unique expressions found
in cultural heritage. It serves as an essential element in understanding the framework of
human development, and promotes the interest and involvement of people in the
preservation of heritage. This article identifies the importance of recording, with a
guideline on the planning and recording process, followed by a series of suggestions on
the management, dissemination and sharing of records. The various forms of records
include photographs, surveys, drawings, photographs, descriptions, accounts,
147
published and unpublished documents.
Charter on the Protection and Management of Underwater Cultural Heritage
1996
International Council on Monuments and Sites
http://www.international.icomos.org/charters/charters.pdf
Underwater cultural heritage is often threatened by undesirable commercial intentions.
These environments include submerged sites and structures, wreckage and their
archaeological and natural context. As a product of the General Assembly, this article
emphasises the scientific integrity of the processes and methods used to ensure the
protection and management of cultural heritage sites. International cooperation and
intellectual exchange is hence vital to facilitate the project’s successful implementation.
A series of guiding methodology follows the entire investigation process, from the
necessary channels involved, such as project design
ICOMOS UK Statement of Principles for the Balanced Development of Cultural
Tourism 1997
International Council on Monuments and Sites
Cultural tourism provides a solid framework for local communities to expand and
develop. The potential contribution of tourism is threefold, benefiting the community,
the place and the visitors. Tourism should be recognized as having long-term benefits,
so as to be enjoyed by future generations. While mass tourism generates a large source
of employment, such economic growth may encourage expansion, so the focus of the
paper is geared toward sustainable patterns. Proper treatment of the environment and its
resources are highlighted in this article. In particular, an emphasis on the sensitive
management of cultural tourism, the avoidance of short-term considerations and the
creation of harmony between the community and its visitors is presented. Overall, in
the development of tourism, a community ought to continue to explore ways to avoid
jeopardizing the natural environment and manmade environment.
Stockholm Declaration 1998 - Declaration of ICOMOS Marking the 50th
Anniversary of the Universal Declaration of the Human Rights
International Council on Monuments and Sites
http://www.international.icomos.org/charters/charters.pdf
The Universal Declaration of the Human Rights recognized the rights of people to
freely participate in cultural activities. The responsibilities of individuals and the
communities, the institutions and state, were started. Their role is to protect the current
148
rights and preserve the future rights of individuals and the community. In protecting
human rights, it affirms the major role of cultural heritage in the life of people. This will
ensure the protection of cultural heritage whilst respecting cultural diversity at the same
time.
Burra Charter for the Conservation of Places of Cultural Significance 1999
International Council on Monuments and Sites
http://www.icomos.org/australia/burra.html
Revised in 1999 and based on the knowledge and experience of its ICOMOS members,
the Burra Chapter provides guidance for the conservation and management of places of
cultural significance (cultural heritage places) in Australia. This revision takes into
account, the most up-to-date advancements in working with heritage conservation
while adopting the insights and involvement of those who have strong associations with
a place. The document contains three parts: definitions, conservation principles and
conservation processes, with a particular emphasis on management and protection. A
flowchart of the Burra Charter Process is presented at the end of this document. This
charter has been devised to facilitate decision-making of heritage places and it
describes a step by step process of understanding, identifying, recording and
monitoring places of heritage significance.
International Cultural Tourism Charter Managing Tourism at Places of Heritage
Significance 1999
International Council on Monuments and Sites
http://www.international.icomos.org/charters/charters.pdf
The dynamic interaction between tourism and cultural heritage offers an array of
potentially conflicting expectations and opportunities for a host community. Tourism
has become an increasingly complex phenomenon, with political, economic, social,
cultural, educational, bio-physical, ecological and aesthetic dimensions. Sustainable
approaches are sought to develop tourism and infrastructure in a manner that highlights
authentic visitor experiences. While cultural changes in vernacular society become
inevitable, the priority remains unchanged. This is to protect the rights and interests of
traditional customs of the indigenious people and manifest the significance of
heritage through conservational endeavors.
Charter on the Built Vernacular Heritage 1999
International Council on Monuments and Sites
http://www.international.icomos.org/charters/charters.pdf
149
Built vernacular heritage is an attractive product of society, fabricated by the work of
human hands and has achieved value over its time. It is a fundamental expression of the
culture and the pride of all peoples, offering a rich insight into the social and
environmental patterns of a region. This article outlines the Charter’s principles
towards the protection of our built vernacular heritage. Due to the vulnerability and
degradation of such cultural landscapes, ways to retain, record and reinstate the
regional character is a priority. The following recommendations are made by the
Assembly, advising the careful documentation of its pre-existing conditions before any
treatment and intervention takes place. It suggested adopting a thorough understanding
of the site and the cultural landscape as well as learning the traditional building
systems, including construction skills and way materials are prepared ; Principles of
conservation and guidelines in practice, describe approaches to conduct research and
documentation, adaption and reuse, educational training, restoration and conservation
works. Education programs help to arouse public interest towards an awareness of the
issues pertaining to the conservation and restoration of vernacular traditions.
Principles for the Preservation of Historic Timber Structures 1999
International Council on Monuments and Sites
http://www.international.icomos.org/charters/charters.pdf
Timber is a culturally significant material commonly associated with historic
structures. This article recognizes that historic structures are imperative to maintain
authenticity and cultural heritage, and through its preservation, the principles and
practices that underpin the protection of timber structures need to be understood. A
coherent and regular monitoring strategy is one of the recommendations for the
protection of timber structures. While in the restoration and maintenance process, new
materials should be disguisable from what is pre-existing. Proposed intervention should
follow traditional means, and be reversible, if technically possible, and must not hinder
the later access to historic evidences in the structure. In the repair of historic timber
structures, only appropriately selected timbers from forest or woodland reserves are
encouraged. Continuous education and training should further develop the
understanding between related professions behind preservation work.
ICOMOS Charter - Principles for the Analysis, Conservation and Structural
Restoration of Architectural Heritage 2003
International Council on Monuments and Sites
http://www.international.icomos.org/charters/charters.pdf
Structures are an essential part of architectural heritage. While care is taken to maintain
150
deteriorated structures rather than replace them, a number of challenges are met when
repair work occurs in a cultural context. Now the restoration-conservation work usually
coincides with legal codes and modern building standards. A basic guide to
conservation and restoration work is outlined in the article, offering some
recommendations. Within a multi-disciplinary framework, it describes the importance
of maintaining the integrity of components, the specific use and limitation of building
technology, while emphasizing that safety is a priority, in the restoration process.
ICOMOS Principles for the Preservation and Conservation-Restoration of Wall
Paintings 2003
International Council on Monuments and Sites
http://www.international.icomos.org/charters/charters.pdf
Wall paintings represent a significant part of a culture’s aesthetic freedoms, whilst also
serving as a reminder of the diversity of materials and technology available in its time.
This article presents the principles set out by ICOMOS at the Assembly in 2003, with
its main focus on the conservation-restoration treatments. It presents the aims of
restoration, the application of various bodies of knowledge in each stage of the
treatment and the contribution of relevant authorities. Also included are the policies and
laws to prohibit and protect the alteration of wall paintings, scholarly conventions to
investigate the historic, aesthetic and technical dimensions, analytical documentation
methods, appropriate monitoring, maintenance, and damage prevention, dissemination
of knowledge and the specialized training required to work with heritage preservation
Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage 2003
http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0013/001325/132540e.pdf
This document was prepared in consequence to the recent interest and attention towards
the safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage, which led to the UNESCO
Convention in 2003. The significance of this topic is highlighted by the fact a
Convention was held, to discuss ways to overcome the contemporary obstacles
hindering the safeguarding process. Presented in this document, is a series of
definitions and elaborated principles, used in the classification process of Intangible
Cultural Heritage. It recognizes the typical circumstances faced by the local
community, the state, and internationally, such as the deficiency of resources, both
division of labor and funds, required for the proper maintenance and management. This
guideline hence stipulates the need to promote and to raise the awareness of heritage
issues and also to stimulate the interest of both the individual and community. The
guideline also pinpoints the issues concerning viability, identification and future
151
protection of Intangible Cultural Heritage.
152
11
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153
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London: Routledge, 2000.
Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, Barbara. “Disputing Taste.” In Destination Culture: Tourism,
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Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998.
Lowenthal, David. “Reliving the Past: Dreams and Nightmares.” In The Past is a
Foreign Country, edited by David Lowenthal. Cambridge: Cambridge University
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Matero, Frank. “Ethics and Policy in Conservation.” Conservation: The Getty
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Urry, John. “Gazing on History.” In The Tourist Gaze: Leisure and Travel in
Contemporary Societies, edited by John Urry, 104-134. London: Sage
Publications, 1990.
Waldron, Arthur. “Representing China: The Great Wall and Cultural Nationalism in
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Befu, 36-60. Berkeley: Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California,
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Watson, James L. “From the Common Pot: Feasting with Equals in Chinese Society.”
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Watson, Rubie S. “Making Secret Histories: Memory and Mourning in Post-Mao
China.” In Memory, History, and Opposition under State Socialism, edited by
Rubie Watson, 65-85. Sante Fe.: School of American Research Press, 1995.
Watson, Rubie S. “Museums and Indigenous Cultures: The Power of Local
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Watson, Rubie S. “Palaces, Museums, and Squares: Chinese National Spaces.”
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Museum Anthropology 19(2) (1995): 7-19. 〔中譯本，華若璧著，廖迪生譯，〈
皇宮、博物院與廣場：在中國創造國家空間〉
（香港：香港科技大學人文學部
，1996）。〕
Watson, Rubie S. and Watson, James L. “From Hall of Worship to Tourist Center: An
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Watson, Rubie. “Tales of Two ‘Chinese’ History Museums: Taipei and Hong Kong.”
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（三）Video References
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the Graduate School of Journalism, University of California, 1982.
160
12
Annotated Bibliography
161
Annotated Bibliography
丁新豹，《香港歷史散步》（香港：商務印書館，2008）。[Ding Xin Bao, Hong Kong
Historical Journey, Hong Kong: Commercial Press, 2008.]
Central, as the British colonial city centre, and Sheung Wan, where the
Chinese expanded, are introduced. With reference to historical documents
and old newspaper clippings, the author introduced the readers to the past
shedding light on the life of early colonialists and the Chinese before and
after Hong Kong was opened for trade.
王文章，《非物質文化遺產概論》（北京：文化藝術出版社，2006）。[An Introduction to
Intangible Cultural Heritage]
Intangible Cultural Heritage is a reflection of human history. As societies are becoming
increasingly reliant on sustainable development, the preservation of the Intangible
Cultural Heritage has become a topical issue. Even though the notion of Intangible
Cultural Heritage was coined in the 1980s and has a short history, it has become an
imperative vehicle to map a blueprint of the world’s development. At present,
Intangible Cultural Heritage is a heated topic in the international community, with
contributors from all walks of life taking part. In order to understand and define the
notion of Intangible Cultural Heritage, the book draws on various disciplinary methods
and knowledge, including sociology, culture, history, anthropology and folklore. This
book discusses the key issues relating to Intangible Cultural Heritage, allowing its
readers to understand the value and meaning of Intangible Cultural Heritage, and the
crisis that it faces from different points of view, explained through a variety of
concepts, theories and classifications with examples from China and the rest of the
world. It sheds light on the various problems confronted while dealing with
preservation work and advocates the protection of Intangible Cultural Heritage with
references to international standard practices and methods of protection. Furthermore,
the efforts of China’s preservation work and its development are summarized alongside
the development of the Intangible Cultural Heritage discourse. The appendix includes a
collection of documents on Intangible Cultural Heritage released by China and the
United Nations.
162
白德（Bard, Solomon）著，招紹瓚譯，《香港文物志》
（香港：市政局，1991）。[Records o
f Hong Kong Heritage]
The author was previously the Executive Secretary of the Antiquities and Monuments
Office. He suggested this as a handbook for the public to facilitate monuments visits. In
this book, various heritage, such as walled villages, Chinese traditional architecture
(such as ancestral halls and study halls), inscriptions, Western architecture (such as
Government buildings and churches), and forts, are introduced. Photos and maps are
also included so as to enhance readers’ understanding of the relationship between
monuments and its surrounding environment.
陶立璠、櫻井龍彥，《非物質文化遺產學論集》（北京：學苑出版社，2006）。[Collected
Essays on the Study of Intangible Cultural Heritage]
This anthology contains 34 essays written by Chinese and foreign scholars on the
theme of Intangible Cultural Heritage. The scholars investigated the notion of
Intangible Cultural Heritage, in terms of fundamental principles, and looks at its
progressive development, supported by references to a variety of conservation works
around the world. Comparative studies involving the laws, theoretical issues, and the
strategies concerning national cultural heritage preservation and development were
used to explain the different points of view. The scholars also noticed the
interdependent connection of Intangible Cultural Heritage to the village folk
community. It also discussed the traditions transmitted orally and in literature, the local
cultural heritage, the ancient villages and cultural protection. In order to provide the
reader with an in-depth comparative study, cases of contemporary preservation works,
incorporating both theory and practice, are included with examples from Guizhou
China, Taiwan, Vietnam and Japan,
廖迪生，《非物質文化遺產與東亞地方社會》（香港：香港科技大學華南研究中
心，香港文化博物館，2011）。[Intangible Cultural Heritage and Local
Communities in East Asia]
This edited volume is a product of an international conference held in 2009. Scholars
and experts of Intangible Cultural Heritage (ICH) from Mainland China, Japan, South
Korea, Vietnam, Taiwan and Hong Kong were invited to present their research
findings and to share their experiences. The book volume, with 23 articles, is
organized on three main topics: (i) Keynote Speeches, (ii) Concepts and Experiences,
and (iii) Cases in Contexts. The introduction chapter explores the impacts of ICH, as a
new concept and a new institution, and analyses the responses of the local societies.
Two issues are examined in the “Keynote Speeches” part: Rubie S. Watson examines
163
the repatriation of cultural property in the United States and its relations with Native
American tribes, while James L. Watson discusses the politics of heritage in
community banqueting rituals in Hong Kong’s New Territories. In the “Concepts and
Experiences” part, different governmental measures and experiences in safeguarding
ICH in the East Asian region are explored. The experts examine the systems that the
local or state governments have adopted, and also how local societies have been
affected by these measures. In the “Cases in Contexts” part, different cases of ICH in
the East Asian region are examined. These in-depth case studies reveal that the state,
educated elites, tourists, and local societies have participated in the safeguarding of
the inscribed ICH items, while the meanings of the traditions have been constantly
redefined by the parties involved.
廖迪生、張兆和，《大澳》
（香港︰三聯書店（香港）有限公司，2006）。[Tai O]
This book on Tai O is based on field data collected by the authors for over almost
twenty years. The book explores the historical development of Tai O, which has
developed as a diversified society with different cultural and economic activities, and is
an integrated society with various ethnic groups. Each have accumulated their own
local knowledge, such as fishing techniques, farming methods, salt production, salty
fish making, marine conditions, religious activities, manufacturing ship and stilted
houses. This book comprises eight chapters. “Understanding Tai O” describes the
general background of Tai O, “Society Change through Tai O Heritage” is about the
temples in Tai O and how the inscriptions reflect the historical development and
connections beyond Tai O. “The Development of Fishing, Salt Production, Agriculture
and Commerce in Tai O” outlines the development of various industries. “Fishing
Industries and Ecology of Tai O” explains different methods of fishing practiced in Tai
O and describes the surrounding ecology. “Living in Stilted House” explores the
structure of stilted houses, the fishermen’s family economy and various religious
festivals. “Social Organizations in Tai O” describes the various social organizations of
the Tai O fishing industries. “Popular Religion in Tai O” explains the organization and
operation of local religious activities and the participant associations. The relationship
between religious activities and the local communal sectors is examined. “The
Interpretation of Tai O Heritage” concludes the study by suggesting that heritage is a
medium for maintaining various ethnic groups in a local community, and is a source of
community identity.
廖迪生、盧惠玲，《風水與文物︰香港新界屏山鄧氏稔灣祖墳搬遷事件文獻彙編》（香港︰香港科技
164
大學華南研究中心，2007）。[Geomancy and Heritage: Documents on the Case of
Relocating the Ping Shan Tang Ancestral Grave in Nim Wan, Hong Kong’s New
Territories]
This set of archives contains 151 documents, regarding the removal of the Ping Shan
Tang Lineage graveyards in Nim Wan. Presented in a chronological order, it includes
Government letters, newspaper clippings and meeting minutes, from 1993 to 2002.
Prior to the construction of the West New Territories Landfill in Ping Shan, the
Government ordered the removal of the two Tang burial sites at Nim Wan. The lineage
members opposed, with references to the New Territories’ non-intervention of
traditional customs and non-removal of graveyards system, yet still, the Government
officials covertly unearthed the remains of their ancestors. In consequence, to
compensate for the damage done to the geomantic patterning during the colonial
period, Mr. Tang Shing Sze demanded the conversion of the Old Police Station into a
museum. This compromise eventuated in 1997. This book provides readers with an
in-depth understanding of politics between the Hong Kong Government and the Ping
Shan Tang Lineage, by portraying the change and transfer of power and attitudes,
before and after the Handover, in terms of negotiations and the subsequent fruition of
Tang Museum and the Ping Shan Heritage Trail.
劉還月，《台灣民俗田野行動入門》（台北：常民文化事業股份有限公司，1999）。[An
Introduction to Field Research in Taiwan]
Since the 1990s, field research meets the development of regionalism, that is, local
cultures have been recognized by society. The author promotes “Field Research” as the
tool to study local history and culture, especially drawing on examples found in
popular religion. It also explores the symbolic meaning of statues and the relationship
between ethnic groups and local organization. Using case studies in Taiwan, the author
analyzes the essence, methodology, meanings and the difficulties encountered in
fieldwork. The first volume is about data collection. Here, the author points out that
field research faces the problem of popularization. Therefore the researcher should also
study local history in order to understand the context of governments, followed by
reviewing ethnographic studies in different eras. An example of studying this is Social
activities, ideas and cultural contexts can be investigated from local historical gazetteer
in Qing Dynasty. The second volume is about preparation. The author believes that
fieldwork research requires both hardware and software. Hardware means funding and
equipment; software means data collection, data analysis and selection of research
questions. After being categorized, encoded, themed, the field data becomes available
for research applications. Once again, the author draws on examples from popular
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religious activities to show that questionnaire preparation, seeking potential
informants, reading local publications and governmental materials are all vital to
understand the importance of local context. The third volume is the skeleton brief. The
author states that during fieldwork, not only is participant observation required but also
a sense of the landscape, social atmosphere, timing and the responses from the
participants. Taboos and secrets should be seriously considered prior to asking
questions. The author also suggests that a researcher should play a neutral role, develop
local organizational, communal networks and avoid being harmed or harm the
informant during the period of research. After collecting field data, it is necessary to
compile data for research purposes. The fourth volume is the examples of case studies.
The author uses popular religion to investigate environmental factors, the development
of deity worship and the relationship between religion and life cycle to understand the
uniqueness of local culture. Festival, music and opera, heritage, handicraft and local
products are all important aspects to understand the relationship between local people’s
life, local customs and systems of production.
鄭培凱，《口傳心授與文化傳承——非物質文化遺產：文獻，現狀與討論》（廣西：廣西師範大學
出版社，2006）。[Transmitting Oral Traditions and Intangible Cultural Heritage:
Writings and Current Affairs]
This book is a collection of essays about Intangible Cultural Heritage, edited by the
renowned Hong Kong scholar, Professor Cheung Pei-kai. The topics are divided into
four parts: “Documentary,” includes the Convention for the Safeguarding of the
Intangible Cultural Heritage, The Convention of “Masterpieces of the Oral and
Intangible Heritage of Humanity” issued by the United Nations Educational, Scientific
and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and essays on the research of the Conventions.
Kunqu, the well-known Chinese performance is also a major focus in this book. “The
Present” mainly discusses Kunqu, which has been listed in the Representative List of
the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity. In particular, there is an essay by the
Taiwanese author, Pai Hsien-yung, describing the Kunqu and one of its productions,
The Peony Pavilion, performed by a troupe of young artists. In the “Discussion” part,
combinations of theoretical and practical experiences were used to study Intangible
Cultural Heritage, from an aesthetic, cultural and environmental point of view. The
preservation of Kunqu, especially from the government position was also analyzed.
The “Appendix” introduces three kinds of performing arts which already appear in the
Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity: the traditional
long-tune folk songs of Inner Mongolia, the maqamat in Xinjiang Uygur and the
maqamat in Iraq.
166
任海，〈看的辯證：展覽櫥中的香港〉，劉青峰、關小春編，《轉化中的香港︰身分與秩序的再尋求
》（香港︰香港中文大學出版社，1998），頁195-219。[“Seeing as Dialectic: Hong Kong
in a Showcase”]
This paper is an exploration on the social changes in Hong Kong, resulting from the
transition of Government from a British Colony to a Special Administrative Region.
Grounded in the context of culture and history, the author attempts to unravel the
relationship between historical representation and local identity. “Telling – through –
showing” exhibits common elements seen in Hong Kong’s everyday life, after the
production of visual media. Various ideologies on Chinese Nationalism, British
Colonialism and Hong Kong Capitalism were depicted in the artifacts on display. The
author examines the role of the Hong Kong Museum of History and the narrative
portrayed by its permanent exhibition, The Hong Kong Story. It showcases the natural
progression of Hong Kong city and the society, contextualized in a natural setting, with
the rural village life appearing only as a segment of the city’s overall urban
development. The author also describes the correlation between the government’s
stance towards heritage preservation and heritage education, with the issue of local
identity tied in. Ping Shan Tang Heritage Trail was used as a case reference. Another
museum, this case, in Ping Shan, reveals the complexities between historical
interpretation and the difficult relationships of the past, especially between the Tang
lineage and the Government of the time. The concluding remarks, on the makeup of
Hong Kong’s social history, are that it is a product of three elements, Chinese
Imperialism, the rigid systems established by the British, and at the same time, the
influence of transnational capitalism in Hong Kong.
朱綱，〈涼茶入遺︰文化與商業的雙重變奏〉，《中國非物質文化遺產》（中山：中山大學出版社，
2006），頁250-259。[“Chinese Herbal Tea as Intangible Cultural Heritage:
Variations in Culture and Business”]
Chinese herbal tea (Liang Cha) is a product of South China. It is found in places like
Guangdong, Guangxi, Hong Kong and Macau, where the weather is sultry and is
characterized by high humidity. In terms of Chinese medicine, the tea has a cooling
effect, necessary to regulate body temperature and for detoxing. By definition, Chinese
herbal tea is either used in a general sense or a specific sense. The general sense
describes all Chinese herbal tea-soups including those with minor medicinal effects.
These include the “Five Floral Tea” (Wu Hua Cha), “Mulberry Leaf and
Chrysanthemum Tea” (Xia Sang Ju), “Sugar Cane and Imperatae/ Cogongrass
Rhizome Juice” (Zhuzhe Maojin Zhi) etc. Those Chinese herbal teas with potent
167
medical effects include “Shiqi Chinese Herbal tea” (Shiqi Liang Cha), “24 Herbs”
(Nian Si Wei), “Ban Sha Tea” (Ban Sha Cha) etc. In the specific sense, Chinese herbal
tea is described as being a refreshing tea-soup prescription, an example is the “Green
Chrysanthemum Tea” (Lu Ju Cha), composed of mung bean and chrysanthemum tea
leaves. In June 2006, Chinese herbal tea successfully made the Representative List of
the Intangible Cultural Heritage, for its widespread influence in Chinese society. This
article re-constructs the historical redevelopment of the Chinese herbal tea culture and
divides its development into three stages. The first stage is the initial stage of Chinese
herbal tea, which took place in Pre-Qin to the Tang Dynasty. During this stage, Chinese
herbal tea was yet to be named “Liang Cha,” but existed under a broarder classification
of traditional Chinese medicine. The second stage, from the Yuan Dynasty to Ming and
Qing Dynasty, was the formative phase of Chinese herbal tea. In this era, the name
“Chinese herbal tea” was coined to symbolize the emergence and development of
Chinese herbal tea, along with the identification of its medical properties. The third
stage, from Late Qing Dynasty to present-day, has been the phase of production and
development. During this stage, the representative brand name of Chinese herbal tea,
“Wang Lao Ji” saw the Chinese herbal tea culture reach its peak. The author’s
comprehensive research was used to synthesize that Chinese herbal tea was a
commercial product that was first nominated and finally selected, as an item in China’s
list of Intangible Cultural Heritage. The article also presents a case of Liu Dian Lin, the
professional counterfeit product investigator, who in 2005 bought a can of “Wang Lao
Ji” from the Dong’an Market, containing an apparently inedible product (withered
summer grass) prunella vulgaris (Xia Ku Cao). He later sued Dong’an Market and the
manufacturer Guangdong Jiaduobao Drink and Food Company Limited. This lawsuit
was brought to the attention of the Guangdong Food Industry, when Chinese herbal tea
was being considered as Intangible Cultural Heritage. In May 2006, Guangdong
Provincial Department of Culture, The Government of the Hong Kong Special
Administrative Region of the People’s Republic of China Home Affairs Department
and, the Government of the Macau Special Administrative Region of the People’s
Republic of China Cultural Affairs Bureau made a joint state-level application to
declare Chinese herbal tea in the first listing of Intangible Cultural Heritage of China.
The author points out that the selection of Chinese herbal tea shows the essence of its
intangible nature, where, in a cultural context, it exists in a state of dynamic flux,
undergoing continuous development and innovation. The author is assured of the future
prosperity of the industry, as it will provide a diverse variety of new Chinese herbal tea,
while at the same time, the production process of Chinese herbal tea should be
safeguarded along with the natural ecology from which it comes.
168
范可，〈「申遺」︰傳統與地方的全球化再現〉，《廣西民族大學學報（哲學社會科學版）》，第30
卷，第5期（2008年9月），頁46-52。[“Application for Intangible Cultural Heritage:
The Global Re-emergence of Traditions and Locals”]
In recent years, many places around the world have excitedly applied to the United
Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), to make their
oral traditions and Intangible Cultural Heritage, globally known. Many educational
institutes have been established in response to the interest towards the study of
Intangible Cultural Heritage. This atmosphere leads to different forms of
reconstruction of locality; many places are able to project its identity through the
enthusiastic presentations. The aim of the article is to analyze the concepts of tradition,
locality, and the invention of tradition. It also attempts to interpret the application of
Intangible Cultural Heritage under the dialogues of globalization, in order to
understand the phenomenon, the content and the meaning, in the construction of local
identity under the pretext and the invention of tradition. The author explains the
concepts of tradition and modernity in the age of Western powers, Colonial expansion,
after the emergence of social science and the Age of Discovery. The contemporary
understanding of tradition lies in the continuity and separate relationship between now
and the past. However, the author points out that in fact its meaning has been derived
over time. Moreover, the tendency is to identify tangible and intangible objects as
commodities acquiring traditional relevance. Since modernity is synonymously
entwined in the tread of urbanization, so the rural remains, as the place for traditions to
breed. The two anthropological concepts, local society and urban society, were adopted
in the analysis of tradition and local society. In the contemporary dialogue, local
society and urban society are traditional and modern metaphors, manifested in
literature. The search of local culture is usually a component of nationalistic
movement. The invention of tradition shows that the nationalist and ethno-nationalist
movement try to reconstruct its own history and culture to achieve a political goal.
Nationalists invented tradition is in fact, part of the national identity formation process.
Therefore local society or rural society becomes the indispensable means for defining
the nation and the state. Nowadays, the reverence towards the local society and
traditions in different parts of the world is strongly connected to globalization. Finally,
the cases of Yin Chuan, Ninxia Province, Quan Zhou, Fujian Province were selected by
the author to investigate the relationship between applying Intangible Cultural Heritage
and the invention of tradition. The author points out that UNESCO has proved
beneficial in raising awareness and in the maintenance of tangible and Intangible
Cultural Heritages in the local society. To some extent, at least it reminds people to pay
169
particular attention to the intangible and oral traditions that have vanished in some
places. It also stimulates the pursuit of utility in some areas. The author believes that
while globalization cannot achieve cultural homogeneity, but it can lead to the
construction of cultural diversities and the receation of tradition. The differences of
traditions in each local society must remain consciously presented while interacting
with others through globalization. Therefore, in a sense, Intangible Cultural Heritage
application becomes a way for mutual interaction to occur.
梁寶珊，〈傳統再造——「長洲太平清醮」與「中環廟會」〉，《文化研究＠嶺南》，第8期（200
7年11月）。 （http://www.ln.edu.hk/mcsln/8th_issue/feature_03.shtml）
[“Re-invention of Tradition: Cheung Chau Jiao Festival and Central Temple
Fair”]
The essay is a student’s project. Through on the Bun Festival in Cheung Chau and
other “Chinese Festivals,” organized by the Hong Kong Tourism Board, at the ferry
piers for outlying islands in Central, the author analyzed, how religious festivals have
lost its cultural significance and how the community has been, as a result of tourist
development.
張兆和，〈中越邊界跨境交往與廣西京族跨國身份認同〉，《歷史人類學學刊》，第2卷，第1期（2
004），頁89-133。[“Sino-Vietnam Border Crossing and the Transnational
Identity of Jing Nationality of Guang Xi”]
This paper takes the Jing nationality at Fangchenggang City of Guang Xi as an
example of the development of linkages to transnational culture and the changes in
social identities, as expressed in religious rituals at traditional festivals, for instance the
Hát Festival. Firstly the observations are discussed then analyzed in the context of
recent historical and the contemporary development of the regional economy. The
author also investigates the interplay between transnational identity and other aspects
of social identity, such as class, age, gender, lineage, ethnicity and citizenship. The Jing
Nationality originally emigrated from Vietnam to settle in the place of Guang Xi,
known locally as the “Jing people of Three Islands” (Jing’ju San Dao). Until 1964, the
people were identified as Vietnamese (Yue), before being officially recognized as the
Jing people, an ethnic minority group of China. In 1985 the Jing people saw the revival
of their traditional Hát Festival. The author’s participation and observations in
traditional and religious activities of Fangchenggang in 1996, underline the exploration
of national border control and the consciousness of national identity. This can be seen
in the behavior of the participants during the festivals, such that the changing attitudes
of the Jing people towards Vietnamese culture can be observed through the Hát
170
Festival. The first relates to the change in the myth of the patron sea-god in the Hát
Festival and the origins of Jing people. Also “The Legend of Three Islands (san dao)”
was distorted to prevent confusion after the change in the Government’s demarcation
of boundary and territory, with the change of Jing’s social identity in China. In the past,
the legend portrayed the Jing community of Wan Wei and its association with the
homeland in Vietnam. Another change related to border control. Previously the female
performers, hired for the Hát Festival rituals, travelled unofficially from Vietnam by
sea and since 1995 they travel on land, and are required to pass through a series of
registration channels at the border. In addition, the relationship between local Jing and
Vietnam people has transformed from local communal based relations to the national
and institutional style relations, hence emphasizing the concept of national boundary.
The author uses both a historical and socio-economic perspective to investigate the
changes of the local Jing’s linkage with Vietnamese culture. Since delimiting the
Sino-French boundary of China and Vietnam in 1887, the identity of the Jing people
has consolidated, and the inclusion of Jing people under Chinese authority has resulted
in the revival of traditional Hát Festival. In mid-1980s, the Jing people became a
successful ethnic minority, due to the reopening of the Sino-Vietnam border. Since
then, huge changes have been observed in Jing society as a result of cross-border trade.
During the period of economic development, the relations between the local Jing
people and Vietnam have evolved from a local communal level to a national and
institutional level. The paper shows, since the 1990s, the increase in cross-border
exchange and development did little to harm the Jing people’s ethnic identity, unlike
the theories of the West. In fact, on the contrary, the Jing identity has progressively
permeated into local society, through frequent interactions at the border, and this
becomes an essential ingredient in the sense of transnational identity.
廖迪生，〈把風水變成文物：在香港新界建構「文物話語」之個案研究〉，廖迪生、盧惠玲編，《風
水與文物︰香港新界屏山鄧氏稔灣祖墳搬遷事件文獻彙編》（香港︰香港科技大學華南研究中心，20
07），頁1-27。[“From Geomancy to Heritage: Construction of the Notion
Heritage in the New Territories, Hong Kong”]
This essay portrays the tension between the Government and the Tang lineage of Ping
Shan, over the removal of graveyards, in terms of the notional change from geomancy
to heritage. Geomancy, or feng-shui, an important aspect of traditional social discourse,
is used to justify the associations between place and social stratification, within and,
among different lineages. Ancestral graveyards were carefully built in accordance with
geomantic patterns. However, due to development, the Ping Shan Tang lineage was
forced by the Government to remove their burials, and geomancy facilitated an
171
imperative means in the negotiation process. Yet, the Government officials were
insensitive to local customs, and treated it as irrational. From the 1990s onwards,
heritage became a common topic for the masses and this has helped the local people to
construct a sense of local identity after the 1997 Handover. Under such circumstances,
the Tang lineage has spoken in the name of heritage, when negotiating with the
government, meanwhile publically promoting their lineage history and also setting up
their own Ping Shan Heritage Trail. This case study demonstrates the various terms
used by the villagers to best articulate the common interests of their people, at a
particular social context in time. This also paints a picture of the interactions among
folk religion, social organization and local politics within a community.
Appadurai, Arjun. “Introduction: Commodities and the Politics of Value.” In The
Social Life of Things: Commodities in Cultural Perspective, edited by Arjun
Appadurai, 3-63. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986.
A new perspective on the circulation of commodities has emerged in relation to social
life. While exchange is primarily the source of value and not vice versa, value is
embodied in commodities that are exchanged. The link between exchange and value is
political, and in the broadest sense of relations, assumptions, and contests pertaining to
power. Five sections are dedicated to elaborating the above argument and exploring the
conditions under which economic objects circulate in different regimes of value, in
space and time. The first part deals with the spirit of commodity. It is a critical exercise
to define that commodities, when properly understood, are not the monopoly of
modern, industrial economies, but exist as a primitive form, in many kinds of societies.
Two kinds of exchange methods are presented, barter and gifts. The author views
commodities as things in a certain situation. He proposes that the commodity situation
in the social life of the thing, be defined by the situation, such that, its exchangeabilitypast, present, or future, for some other thing is its socially relevant feature. The author
discusses the flow of commodity and individual and group involvement in the process
of value creation of the commodity under different timespan and space. By drawing
upon ethnographic examples, the author demonstrates the flow of commodities in any
given situation. It is seen as a shifting compromise between socially regulated paths
and competitively inspired diversions. Desire and demand, shows the links of short and
long-term patterns in commodity circulation. It shows that demand is neither a
mechanical response to the system and level of production, nor an endless cycle of
consumption, as it is subjected to social control and political re-definition. The
relationship between knowledge and commodities is described in the last section. The
particularly complex relationship among authenticity, taste, and the politics of
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consumer is examined. Political implication of value and politicized knowledge
explain that politics acts as the mediator between exchange and value. This part
concludes with the argument that politics acts as the mediator between exchange and
value.
Appadurai, Arjun and Breckenridge, Carol A. “Museums are Good to Think:
Heritage on View in India.” In Museums and Communities: The Politics of Public
Culture, edited by Ivan Karp, Christine Mullen Kreamer and Steven D. Lavine,
34-55. Washington D. C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1992.
Heritage is becoming an increasingly profound political issue. It is one in which
districts and states are often at odds, with museums and their collections caught in the
midst of this particular storm. Public culture is articulated as an interactive set of
cosmopolitan experiences and structures, of which museums and exhibitions are a
crucial part. In contemporary India, the two major forums that characterize the public
world are the exhibition-cum-sale and the ethnic-national festival. The gradual
progression from colonial to postcolonial times has seen the variety of change in the
display and visual representation of artifacts. This transformation has effectively
shifted from the former Indian modes of visualization, and is now influenced by the
juxtaposition of heritage politics, tourism, and entertainment.
Au, Ho Ping. “Appropriating Heritage and Social Integration in Tung Chung
New Town.” In Historical Memory and Relocation around the New Hong Kong
International Airport (M.Phil. Thesis). Hong Kong: The Hong Kong University of
Science and Technology, 2004.
This chapter investigates how heritage from old Tung Chung has been transposed in the
New Town in order to create a sense of communal identity. Kwong, as a District
Council member, organized an exhibition of nearly fifty artifacts, in the public square
of a shopping mall in Tung Chung, in hope that this might help to conjure up a sense of
community identity in the New Town. Artifacts were selectively chosen from the
farmers of the old village. Here, heritage was re-interpreted and manipulated by
popular discourse and by local leaders. In the process, social networks and social
relationships were developed by repackaging through campaigning events. Faced with
a lack of local common identity, the process of repackaging Tung Chung’s heritage in
the New Town realized this issue. However, this was also an activity that provided a
platform for a local leader to extend her social networks and to build up contacts while
developing her status within the community.
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Au, Ho Ping. “Religious Confrontation and Social Boundaries in the Relocation of
Chek Lap Kok Village.” In Historical Memory and Relocation around the New
Hong Kong International Airport (M.Phil. Thesis). Hong Kong: The Hong Kong
University of Science and Technology, 2004.
In the early 1990s, the process of relocating villagers from Chek Lap Kok to Tung
Chung resulted in not only a religious confrontation, but also a social demarcation. As a
joint initiative of the Hong Kong Government and a heritage institution, the shift saw
the erection of a temple, and later the celebration of the birthday of the popular deity,
Tin Hau. Clearly this decision was to symbolically re-construct Hong Kong’s heritage.
However, inadvertently, such a symbol reinforced the boundaries that separated the
people of the Chek Lap Kok from the local Tung Chung people. Hence, when the Tin
Hau deity entered Tung Chung, it posed a huge challenge to the Tung Chung
community, as the action was considered a threat from the outside. So, in the process of
integrating the new Tin Hau cult into Tung Chung, the villagers initially swung back
and forth, rejecting then accepting and then rejecting again, the villagers from Chek
Lap Kok. The differing religious attitudes of the Tung Chung community have in part,
been an excuse for the strong social divide between them and the newcomers.
Carroll, John M. “Displaying the Past to Serve the Present: Museums and
Heritage Preservation in Post-Colonial Hong Kong.” Twentieth-Century China 31
(2005): 76-103.
In the author’s own words, this article “examines the ways in which museums and
heritage preservation reflect some of the SAR government’s concerns about Hong
Kong’s new political, cultural, and economic status.” Carroll first gives a brief account
of the history of museums and heritage preservation in Hong Kong. He then explains
that the SAR government’s interest in heritage preservation stemmed from the needs to
erase the strong sense of colonialism in Hong Kong history, and to promote Hong Kong
as a cosmopolitan city where Chinese and Western cultures mingle. Finally, Carroll
demonstrates how Hong Kong is displayed in museum exhibits as a “depoliticized,
benevolent capitalist utopia.”
Chan, Ching Selina. “Politicizing Tradition: the Identity of Indigenous
Inhabitants in Hong Kong.” Ethnology 37(1): 39-54.
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This article investigates how the ethnicity of indigenous inhabitants in the New
Territories villages of Hong Kong is a case of the politicization of identity. The
indigenous inhabitants’ ethnicity is a dynamic process of becoming; its fluid nature,
reflecting and adjusting to changing socio-political and economic contexts. The notion
of tradition has always been a powerful weapon in shaping and reshaping of the
indigenous inhabitants, identity and has been a constant point of contention between
the villagers and the British colonialists, as well as between the villagers and the rest of
the Hong Kong’s people.
Cheng, Lai Mei. Festivals and Ethnicity: A Study of the Chaozhou Community in
Kowloon City, Hong Kong (M.Phil. Thesis). Hong Kong: The Hong Kong
University of Science and Technology, 2004.
Chaozhou is a region in eastern Guangdong. People in Chaozhou speak a distinctive
dialect, which is different from the dominant language, Cantonese, in Guangdong and
Hong Kong. The Chaozhou people have a long tradition of emigration to Southeast
Asia and Hong Kong. This research focuses on a Chaozhou community in Hong
Kong’s Kowloon City, an old urban area in urban Kowloon. Kowloon City has a long
history of Chaozhou settlement and is a place where Chaozhou businesses flourished.
However, the research reveals that many of the Chaozhou people involved in the
activities in Kowloon City live in some other parts of Hong Kong. They only go to
Kowloon City to run their business, to purchase traditional Chaozhou items, or to
participate in communal festivals. So, the author argues that different sectors of the
Chaozhou community deliberately maintain a Chaozhou environment in Kowloon
City, to sustain their ethnic traditions, identity, and business interests. Every year,
festivals are arranged to celebrate the birthdays of the goddess Tian Hau and the Earth
God, to take care of the wandering ghosts, and to worship their Chaozhou ancestors.
These regular communal events, contribute significantly to the maintenance of a strong
Chaozhou atmosphere in Kowloon City. During these festivals, the participants seek
blessings from the deities in Kowloon City, watch the Chaozhou operas and rituals,
meet their friends and former neighbours, and talk in their own dialect. The rich can
demonstrate their wealth and social statuses, by generosity, making contributions to the
festivals. Kowloon City thus is a training ground for local Chaozhou leaders. The
largest majority of the organizers of the communal activities are middle-aged
Chaozhou businessmen. These leaders join different associations and at the same time
constitute a pattern of overlapping membership, thereby creating a closed network
among leaders of various Chaozhou associations in Kowloon City. On the other hand,
these businessmen also use the communal activities to define the boundary of their
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business territory and to promote their ethnic businesses in Kowloon City. Based on
their social and political foundations in Kowloon City, the local elites also try to extend
their networks elsewhere in Hong Kong and also back to their hometowns in Chaozhou
by utilizing their cultural resources for sustaining their ethnic environment and
interests in Kowloon City. Although many Chaozhou people have moved out of
Kowloon City, Kowloon City remains a symbol of Hong Kong’s Chaozhou
community, a place the Chaozhou people look for their own traditions and identity. The
annual festivals, the business community, the local leaders, as well as the frequent visit
of Chaozhou fellows from other parts of Hong Kong collectively create and support the
“Chaozhou community” in Kowloon City.
Cheung, Sidney. “The Meanings of a Heritage Trail in Hong Kong.” Annuals of
Tourism Research 26:3 (1999): 570-588.
Tourism is often described as an encounter between the foreigners and the locals, but in
fact, in this transnational world such a polarization is too simple. So this paper
describes the establishment of the Ping Shan Heritage Trail and how it has been used,
interpreted and contested by different parties concerning its heritage significance in
Hong Kong’s New Territories. The Ping Shan Heritage Trail was established in
December 1993 as the first heritage trail in Hong Kong. Its construction also
encouraged the re-definition of local identity, both historically and traditionally, which
is neither colonial British nor mainland Chinese, but distinctively of Hong Kong. There
are at least four parties involved in the contested struggle over the significance of the
Heritage Trail. The first is The Antiquities Advisory Board, which represents the Hong
Kong Government and is the main organizer in the trail’s construction. The second is
the Hong Kong Tourist Association, whose duty is to promote all aspects of Hong
Kong’s tourism industry for the benefit of the city’s economy. The third is composed of
various tour organizers who bring local Hong Kong residents to discover local history.
The fourth is the Ping Shan Tang lineage, who are the traditional owners of the site, and
in the past these people have fought with the Government in order to restore the cosmic
harmony and balance in their defaced landscape.The Hong Kong Government, in
particular the Antiquities and Monument Office, are responsible for the selection of
traditional Chinese monuments, representative of the territory, to show the rest of the
world. While the Hong Kong Tourist Association try to present Hong Kong as the mix
of “East and West, traditional and modern.” For tourists, the trail is a reminder of an
unchanged pre-modernist Chinese setting. Meanwhile local tour organizers believe that
by taking locals to Hong Kong heritage sites actually reinforces their sense of
belonging in the place. Descendants of indigenous inhabitants, like the Tangs
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(re)-internalize the public heritage and resist political authority, by proclaiming their
indigenous identity. This study shows how the various conflicts in the past century
have led to the different contests over this tourist heritage site.
Cohen, Myron. “The Hakka or ‘Guest People’: Dialect as a Sociocultural
Variable in Southeast China.” In Guest People: Hakka Identity in China and
Abroad, edited by Nicole Constable, 36-79. Seattle: University of Washington
Press, 1996.
The linguistic diversity of Southeast China was a variable that influenced the social
organization of the region. The differences in language differentiated social groupings
of Hakka-speakers in Guangdong and adjoining areas of Guangxi with speakers of
Cantonese. The author strives to validate the assertion associated with the linguistic
heterogeneity of Southeast China, with the fact that dialect was a third structural
variable, and the third means of group affiliation. According to the works of Luo
Xianglin, the distribution of the Hakka nationality is the result of five successive
“migratory movements” southward, since 317 A.D. and lasting until the 19th century.
Evidence relating to Hakka-Cantonese conflicts should be viewed in conjunction with
the historical records of Hakka migration, from the North to the Southeast and the
historical developments of the region at the time. The analysis on the sequence of
settlements in Guangdong was a way to understand the inter-relationships. By the time
the Hakka people arrived, the land had already been claimed. The limited availability
of land for Hakka settlement, was not conducive to the immediate clustering of large
groups of people at one locale. The initial manifestation of the Hakka, on
Cantonese-owned land, indicated small group settlement patterns. An overall
population increase would soon place the hitherto symbiotic Cantonese-Hakka
relationship within a very different framework. Since the dispersed settlement pattern
of the Hakka precluded the localized groupings of a large size, the conflicts with the
Cantonese in Guangxi necessitated the mobilization of individuals. Certain features of
Southern Chinese social organization were minimized as an effect of intermarriage
between the different dialects. In an effort to discern structural coherence in a
large-scale mobilization based upon common dialect, we should first examine the
sociological model which takes into account that not all conflict in Southeast China
proceeded along kin-based or village lines. The sequence of migration, settlement
patterns and the differences in dialects in turn, played an important influence in the
alignment and formation of social groups in Guangdong and Guangxi. We can see that
dialect can therefore be treated with the same importance as kinship or territoriality,
which is basically a socio-cultural variable.
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Dann, Graham. “Tourism: the Nostalgia of the Future.” In Global Tourism: The
Next Decade, edited by William F. Theobald. Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann,
1994.
Today a great deal of time and energy has been invested into looking backwards in time
and to explore the religious activities of the past, golden oldies, conservation and
heritage. Current media and advertisers also focus on this theme, with the nostalgia
industry linked to the world’s number one enterprise – tourism. This exploratory essay
examines nostalgia-tourism with reference to: 1) Hotels; 2) Museum and other
emporia; 3) Infamous sites; and 4) Dirty dumps. Hotels are in fact, a tourist attraction in
itself. So in order to satisfy the tourists’ imagination in this de-differentiated
postmodern society, some hotels have been impressively decorated with expensive art
and antiques, providing items of comfort and luxury, or try to recapture a sense of early
20th century decor. With a price-tag attached, the tourist is free to decide if they would
like to be treated as potentates. Our modern society collects the symbols of the past and
places them in museums. Sometimes museums are dedicated to a famous person, or
better still, somebody infamous! An example is the Filipino Malacanang Presidential
Palace Museum in Manila. On other occasions, the museum becomes an emporium
actually retailing nostalgia, thereby allowing the tourist to purchase trophies from the
past as souvenirs for keepsake. Tourists more often than not, have a fascination with
notorious characters, whether they are drawn from the distant or recent past. The
infamous Rose Hall, KGB’s Lubyanka headquarters in the heart of Moscow and the
late 19th century Californian gold mining town of Bodie, are examples of such macabre
tourist attractions. Another dimension for attracting tourists is a community’s industrial
past. Examples of these places are the production factories of cars, planes, submarines,
and processing food plants etc. These places are suitably opened up for public gaze and
in so doing become a place of sightseeing interest, and an object of the gaze for tourists,
thus museumising the production factory in the process. Overall, the use of nostalgia
has been successfully manipulated, to sustain influx of tourists.
Faure, David. “The Lineage as a Cultural Invention: The Case of the Pearl River
Delta.” Modern China 15(1) (1989): 4-36.
The concept of lineage is of great prominence in the Pearl River Delta. With origins
found in the fifteenth to the eighteenth century, lineage was a form of village
organization that grew as a cultural form, to serve economic and political ends. In fact,
the lineage organization is a cultural invention of the Ming government. It was the
result of a variety of aspects. This included land and population registration
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requirements, the reclamation of waste-land for farming, the need to establish a local
defense system, the spread of literacy and scholarly ideals and the concept of social
hierarchy.
Henderson, Joan. “Heritage, Identity and Tourism in Hong Kong.” International
Journal of Heritage Studies 7 (3) (2001): 219-235.
“Once a part of the Chinese Empire, Hong Kong then became a British colony and
changed its status again in 1997 to that of a Special Administrative Region of the
People’s Republic of China. The implications of this history for heritage and cultural
identity are discussed with particular reference to their representation and promotion as
tourist attractions. Hong Kong is seen to be using its unique heritage in a time of
transition and uncertainty to assist in defining a distinct identity that is partly expressed
through tourism. There are, however, certain potential conflicts of meaning and
interpretation amongst the interested parties that have still to be resolved. The
experience of Hong Kong provides an insight into the dynamics of the relationship
between identity, heritage and tourism that are especially complex within the context of
decolonisation.”
Hobsbawm, Eric and Ranger, Terence. The Invention of Tradition. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1992.
Traditions which appear old-age are in fact, more often than not of newfangled origins.
Sometimes they are invented. The term invented tradition implies both that traditions
are actually invented and formally instituted. Those traditions emerging in a less easily
traceable manner, within a brief and dateable period have established themselves with
great rapidity. Traditions, however, must be clearly distinguished from customs,
conventions or routines. Inventing traditions is essentially a process of formalization,
with references to the past, and imposed by repetition. Towards the end, the author
provides some general observations about the nature of invented traditions after the
industrial revolution. Historians can greatly benefit from the study of the invention of
traditions, which are highly relevant to the comparatively recent historical innovation,
the nation, and its associated phenomena.
Hooper-Greenhill, Eilean. “Objects and Interpretive Process.” In Museums and
the Interpretation of Visual Culture, edited by Eilean Hooper-Greenhill, 103-123.
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London: Routledge, 2000.
This chapter analyses the processes of understanding how objects are made
meaningful. The meanings of objects are constructed from the position which they are
viewed. Meanings are plural rather than singular. The author concentrates on the
relationship between subject and object, between the viewer and the viewed. The
author first considers how objects are imbued with meaning-functions within everyday
life and, secondly, focuses on the relationship between the individual interpretive
processes and those of interpretive communities.
Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, Barbara. “Disputing Taste.” In Destination Culture:
Tourism, Museums, and Heritage, edited by Barbara Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, 259 281. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998.
The notion of taste has often been associated with those privileged with wealth, leisure,
and cultivation. However, how is taste formed? How can we distinguish good taste and
what is bad taste? Taste presents itself inherent to individual persons, so distinctions
attributed to good and bad taste are unstable. The same taste can be assigned to either
category, at the same time and also swing back and forth, over time. That is to say taste
is distinguished by the individual. The notion derives from Enlightenment values, and
the formation of taste closely relates to class difference and interest. The classic
markers of good taste are often read into the history of selected commodities and
involve a process of mystification on objects (about their universality, singularity, and
timelessness). The objects are conceptualized; the historical portrait is more like a
“make-up.” Without this, such objects bear only the general signature of human
manufacture. The more elaborate and variegated is the history of the object, the more
destabilized is the object’s location in space and time. At the same time, the detachment
of art, beauty, and pleasure also destabilizes the very category of taste. As a postmodern
concept, the aesthetics of kitsch subsumes the reception of kitsch as well as the object,
the commodity and its consumers, the programmed response and its subversion. The
condemnation of kitsch was a way the legitimate arts defended themselves as their
tokens were degraded, but the issue of kitsch also brings about the ambivalent
relationship of intellectuals to popular culture. Is the eroding of differences a kind of
mistake or liberation?
Lowenthal, David. “Reliving the Past: Dreams and Nightmares.” In The Past is a
Foreign Country, edited by David Lowenthal. Cambridge: Cambridge University
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Press, 1985.
Past and future attract – and repel – in quite different ways. Visions of the future are
mostly hazy and uncertain, as we may not be privy to what will come. We may affect
the future’s contingencies, but we can never control them. Unlike the vague lineaments
of times ahead, the fixed past has been sketched by countless chroniclers. Nostalgia is
today, the universal catchword used for looking back. It fills the popular press, serves
as advertising bait, merits sociological study; and no term is better to express modern
malaise. If the past is a foreign country, nostalgia has made it the foreign country with
the healthiest tourist trade of all. What meaning emerges from this swarm of nostalgic
invocation? Many seem less concerned to find a past than to yearn for it, eager not so
much to relive a fancied long-ago as to collect its relics and celebrate its virtues. The
original concept of nostalgic thoughts, however, was quite different. Swiss mercenaries
throughout Europe were nostalgia’s first victims and the concept long lingers on as an
organic malady. Today the word is rarely associated with its original meaning of
homesickness, and has become strictly a state of mind. Nostalgia is blamed for
alienating people from the present. When not catastrophic or fearsome, today’s world
becomes “undistinguished, unexciting and blank,” with another acclaiming, “it’s a time
that leaves nothing for our imagination to do except plunge into the past.” A nostalgic
longing for the past transcends to a fancifully imagined or surrogate yesteryear. Some
speculate at length about how to revisit the actual past. Such yearnings have long been
a staple of imaginative literature. Retrieving the past has been a major preoccupation of
sci-fi, ever since its origins in the late nineteenth-century. Such nostalgic thoughts on a
previous time may even surprise those who associate sci-fi chiefly with future worlds,
but a search reveals hundreds, if not thousands, of stories about returning to or
recovering the past and the replay of historical experience through the advent of time
travel. Modern science has given fresh impetus to an enduring tradition that promises
to recover the past. The belief itself is venerable. Others conceive of a past stored not in
memory, but in the material cosmos – though the notion of memory leaves traces.
Physical residues of all events may potentially yield unlimited access into the past. The
notion of a past permanently lodged in the remote reaches of the cosmos attracts
adherents bemused by the relative theory as well as by sci-fi. Sci-fi deploys science not
only to retrieve past insights and sounds, but also to recall the people’s bodily
experience of a previous time. Five reasons for looking into the past dominate
time-travel literature: explaining the past, searching for a golden age, enjoying the
exotic, reaping the rewards of temporal displacement and foreknowledge, and
refashioning life by changing the past. Four potential drawbacks frequently alluded to
are disappointment with the past, inability to cope with its circumstances, the danger of
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being marooned in it, and the possible damage to the fabric of both past and present.
Neither dreams nor nightmares of revisiting the past are less intense for their seeming
unlikelihood. Moreover, they offer clues to how we can either choose to accept or reject
the past. This sheds light on the underlying perspectives toward both tradition and
change. Intense devotion in the pursuit of the past is not as grievous as to lack feelings
for the past altogether.
Urry, John. “Gazing on History.” In The Tourist Gaze: Leisure and Travel in
Contemporary Societies, edited by John Urry, 104-134. London: Sage
Publications, 1990.
Heritage is playing a particularly important role in British tourism and somehow, this
phenomenon is more visible in Britain than in any other country. With the help of the
large sums of money invested in them, a number of buildings in Britain have become
places of heritage value and new museum buildings are rapidly opening their doors.
Similar developments have also been observed in many other industrialized countries
around the world. Under such circumstance, a lively public debate has been raging in
Britain concerned with evaluating the causes and consequences of working with
heritage. Hewison argues that nostalgia is generated at a time of discontent, anxiety and
disappointment; the protection of the past conceals the destruction of the present. He
links this with nostalgia of the industrial past in the growth of postmodernism. Aspects
of heritage are commonly used as the local strategy for economic regeneration. This
practice is widely supported by local people, tourist-related services and the local state.
The reasons why local states have recently become involved in both developing and
promoting tourism are: tourism presents a window of opportunity for generating
employment; the market has become more differentiated and particular places have
been forced to develop coherent strategies; local authorities play a critical role in the
ownership and structure of a tourist town; and local councils have been actively
promoting tourism with the benefit of the local residents in mind. Tourism is about
locating certain points of interest and pleasantness, and in effect the design and
development of architecture is to befit the environment. All sorts of places are on
display and in its entirety for the tourist, upon first setting eyes on the new
environment. In effect, some objects, have been specially (re)constructed for the
tourists’ gaze. An exceptional growth in the number of museums has emerged in
Western countries. This is clearly part of the process by which the past has become
much more highly valued in comparison to how it was viewed before. The sovereignty
of the consumer and trends in popular taste are colluding in transforming the social role
of the museum.
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Waldron, Arthur. “Representing China: The Great Wall and Cultural
Nationalism in the Twentieth Century.” In Cultural Nationalism in East Asia,
edited by Harumi Befu, 36-60. Berkeley: Institute of East Asian Studies,
University of California, 1993.
This essay examines the role of the Great Wall in Modern Chinese Nationalism and, in
particular, its connection to Cultural Nationalism. Throughout Chinese history, in both
literature and popular tradition, the Great Wall has been a symbol of dynastic evil,
rather than of national greatness. It was not until the 17th century, that the Great Wall
received positive appraisal, but this was not from the Chinese. The more
materially-minded Westerners have rated it both as a wonder and a symbol of Chinese
culture. Then in the early twentieth century, some Chinese began to adopt it as a symbol
of patriotism and national resistance. For much of the history of the People’s Republic
of China, the Great Wall has been overshadowed by the cult of Chairman Mao. Later
when the Maoist symbolic order collapsed, the wall was again pressed into service.
Watson, James L. “From the Common Pot: Feasting with Equals in Chinese
Society.” Anthropos 82 (1987): 389-401.
Cantonese villagers in the Hong Kong region celebrate births, marriages, and other
social transitions by holding communal banquets in public halls. Unlike feasts in
restaurants or private homes, the menu consists of a single dish called sihk puhn (lit. eat
pot); it is a large wooden basin containing foods that have been cooked separately and
later mixed together. This paper explores the symbolism of this unusual custom and
concludes that it represents a purposely-designed form of low cuisine, in contrast to the
high cuisine enjoyed by the Chinese elite. By sitting at the same table and eating from a
common pot, participants accept one another as equals. The elaborate etiquette and
hierarchical seating arrangements so characteristic of upper class dining is
conspicuously absent during village celebrations. Thus, in sharing the common pot,
villagers manage to momentarily create the illusion of social equality and negate the
status difference that governs their everyday lives.
Ward, Barbara and Law, Joan. Chinese Festivals in Hong Kong. Hong Kong:
Guidebook Company Ltd., 1993.
Barbara Ward was a well-known social anthropologist. She first came to Hong Kong in
1950 and lived among the boat people in Kau Sai, Sai Kung in order to conduct
research on the culture of boat people in South China. This book provides in-depth
information on the Chinese festivals in Hong Kong month by month, with insightful
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analysis of their activities and their meanings to the family and the community.
Watson, Rubie S. “Making Secret Histories: Memory and Mourning in Post-Mao
China.” In Memory, History, and Opposition under State Socialism, edited by Rubie
Watson, 65-85. Sante Fe: School of American Research Press, 1995.
In traditional Chinese society, funerals entailed a memorialization process. This
provided the occasion for retrospection (thinking about the past), and introspection
(self-reflection), plus, an arena for justice to be sought, grievances aired, and moral
blame apportioned. Untimely death, for instance, a violent death, would involve a more
elaborate ritual. However these practices were changed as a result of Mao’s Cultural
Revolution. In this paper, two ethnographic examples described how the connection
between memory and commemoration, and between mourning and injustice are
particularly dramatic. The post-Mao China treatment of violent deaths – especially
from the state-initiated violence – is presented to stimulate a more speculative
discussion. The author traced the death and secret cremation of Liu Shaoqi, second in
rank in the Chinese Communist Party, the President of the People’s Republic of China
and Mao’s heir apparent. The events of 1966 and 1976 – killings, torture, forced
migrations and internecine warfare – appear fragmented, making it seem as though
they were unrelated and independent. The author also draws upon two examples, to
show how memories can be transmitted and secret histories told, through the mourning
and commemoration process. The first is village funeral practices in Guangdong, and
the other is the Jiao Festival in Hong Kong. Next, the tragic event of June 4, 1989 is
used to exemplify the treatment of violent deaths, from tracing the cause and process of
the event. Such questions are raised: How are the histories and memories of June 4
constructed? How are the dead remembered? Official and unofficial accounts are
inconsistent. While official reports portray the counter-revolution as a rebellious act,
unofficial sources recall the campaigners as the inheritors of the patriotic student
movements of an earlier era. Like many other nation-states, the People’s Republic of
China was formed by a process of remembering and forgetting. However, there remain
millions of people, affected by the events who are suffering in silence.
Watson, Rubie S. “Museums and Indigenous Cultures: The Power of Local
Knowledge.” Cultural Survival Quarterly 21(1) (1997): 24-25.
From the earliest of days, museums were repositories for arts, crafts, ritual objects, and
functional artifacts – the material culture of indigenous peoples from every part of the
world. This paper describes how indigenous property was collected and displayed in
museums, the power of museums, issues of cultural representation and the new form of
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museum, which are operated by indigenous peoples themselves. An assorted collection
of goods from the most mundane, to the most sacred were purchased, bartered or
simply taken, by traders, scientists, missionaries, and explorers of all kinds. With the
advent of multiculturalism and the indigenous rights movement, museums have been
forced onto the center stage of cultural politics. Museums are therefore not just a
passive recipient of people’s belongings. In the process of cataloging, describing and
labeling, conserving, and storing objects, museums have transformed material culture
into artifacts. The power of museum is mostly publicly expressed in its displays and
exhibitions. Contemporary fashions affect the way curators and designers (re)present
museum collections. The ability to re-label, and thus re-define the products of
indigenous peoples is described by the author as an act of intolerable arrogance. Issues
of cultural representation are especially important in the post-colonial context. Cases in
Malaysia, Korea and Hong Kong prove that issues of decolonization, cultural identity,
historical preservation, and cultural representation interplay, in a complex and often
surprising way. In recent years, many indigenous peoples have established their own
kind of museum or cultural centers where local culture is displayed, local knowledge
discussed and ceremonies celebrated. This practice provides a new focus and direction
for the indigenous peoples to respond to the challenges of recapturing, incorporation,
and sharing a material culture that is now spread throughout the world.
Watson, Rubie S. “Palaces, Museums, and Squares: Chinese National Spaces.”
Museum Anthropology 19(2) (1995): 7-19.
This essay explores the process of how the new generation of Chinese political power,
more specifically the Chinese Communist Party, has transformed China’s Forbidden
City, the Chinese Imperial Palace and temples from Ming and Qing Dynasties, into
national public spaces. Watson delineates the museumfication process, from which a
new national space, Tiananmen Square, has emerged. It is through such transformation
that the issue of cultural identity is addressed, and subsequently questioned. The
Forbidden City was undeniably a national symbol of the highest authority, and in many
ways, it appeared as a mysterious place, closed off to the public, until the early 20th
century, when it became a museum for the general public. In the adaption of Tiananmen
Square into a national place, a new manifestation of the Communist Party surfaced,
embodying the Party’s revolutionary achievements that created the new national image
and as well as a place for mass demonstrations. In the period of the Cultural
Revolution, and later in the June 4 incident, Tiananmen Square has been the symbolic
centre of Chinese politics.
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Watson, Rubie S. and Watson, James L. “From Hall of Worship to Tourist
Center: An Ancestral Hall in Hong Kong’s New Territories.” Cultural Survival
Quarterly 21(1) (1997): 33-35.
This paper discusses how an ancestral hall (Man Lun Fung Hall) for worship in San Tin
in Hong Kong’s New Territories became a tourist center. The Year of Heritage in Hong
Kong coincided with the year of Handover. Hong Kong Tourist Association decided
that after 154 years of British Colonial rule, this particular year, 1997, was an excellent
time to launch a new set of day tours to temples, ancestral halls, shrines, and other
traditional Chinese buildings located in remote corners of the colony. The obvious
reason why the local government chose 1997 was for the visitors who came to witness
the grand historical event, may also want to experience Hong Kong’s rich array of
heritage and historical monuments, and this was indeed favored by the Hong Kong
Tourist Association. Another less apparent reason was that the Hong Kong people, at
the time, were experiencing an identity crisis. The New Territories in Hong Kong was
primarily a farming zone that produced vegetables, poultry, and fish for Hong Kong’s
booming urban market in 1960s. For most of Hong Kong’s urban population, it was
seen as a dirty, uncomfortable, and hopelessly backward place. Yet this situation
changed in 1985, a year after the commencement of repatriation talks, the New
Territories then became fashionable and urbanites were keen to visit it. One of the most
popular destinations on the Hong Kong Tourist Association’s Heritage Tour list is the
village, San Tan. The village boasts two exhibits that are highlighted in these tours: a
Scholar’s Mansion and a magnificent ancestral hall, Man Lun Fung Hall. In 1981, this
hall was officially preserved as an historical monument, and was subsequently opened
to the public in 1988. Man Lun Fung Hall is now not only a private place of worship,
but a listed historical monument open to the public as well. By accepting the Hong
Kong Government’s sponsorship, Man lineage elders relinquished their exclusive
control over the use of the hall. Man Lun Fung Hall has become a museumified
building. Yet for the people of San Tin, especially the descendents of Man Lun Fung,
the social significance of the hall has forever changed.
Watson, Rubie. “Tales of Two ‘Chinese’ History Museums: Taipei and Hong
Kong.” Curator 41 (3) (1998): 167-177.
The Forbidden City is a major tourist attraction for local and foreign tourists. It has
been domesticated and commercialized and does not appear to threaten or to be
threatened. The situation is very different in the cases of Taiwan’s and Hong Kong’s
most notable history museums. With the development of the Taiwanese independence
movement, the national Palace Museum has become less secure. This does not mean
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that it is under physical threat, but one expects that its role will change. In the past, it
was (or was portrayed as) a unifying force symbolizing participation in Great Chinese
Tradition. However, many people in today’s Taiwan increasingly think of themselves
as Taiwanese. So the associations between the KMT, the National Palace Museum and
Chinese culture are becoming problematic. Hong Kong’s Museum of History is a
history museum in search of a history in many respects. Defining that history cuts to the
very heart of Hong Kong’s current and future dilemma: How does this dynamic,
idiosyncratic outpost of entrepreneurial capitalism maintain its distinctiveness, while at
the same time embracing a “motherland” that has – during the past forty years – been
anything but motherly toward Hong Kong’s flamboyant entrepreneurs? The staff of the
Museum of History thus find themselves in the front lines of Hong Kong’s new culture
wars. The outcome of these debates will tell us a great deal about the future of Hong
Kong.
Yuen, Chi Wai. Competition for Interpretation: Politics of Heritage in Hong Kong’s
Northern New Territories (M.Phil. Thesis). Hong Kong: The Hong Kong
University of Science and Technology, 2005.
The members of a Tang lineage in Lung Yeuk Tau claim that they have lived in Hong
Kong’s Northern New Territories for centuries. Like many longtime residents of this
area, they were given the status of “indigenous inhabitants” when the British colonial
government leased the territory in 1898. At this time, local populations largely
governed themselves. However, after Second World War, immigrants from China
began to swell the population, and the colonial administration became more and more
involved in local politics. The “indigenous inhabitants” have long felt that they lost
influence and that their rights have diminished in this changing socio-political scene.
The reunification of Hong Kong with China in 1997, however, offered the Tangs an
opportunity to regain some of the lost resources as they organized themselves in order
to face challenges from their urbanized neighbors. The Tangs suddenly found
themselves in possession of important Hong Kong “heritage,” valued by the urbanities,
the British, and the post-colonial administrators alike as important links to the past. The
Tangs strategically collaborated with the government by manipulating and recreating
their own history and culture to be presented as “heritage.” At the same time, they
attempted to revive their dominance by negotiating tradition and bargaining for
resources in the context of government heritage policies. They used the public interest
in their historical buildings, walled villages, ancestral halls, and temples as a way to
promote their indigenous identity. In this thesis, the author argues that the meaning of
heritage is being manipulated by the Tang lineage to achieve specific ends as they
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confront the government’s continuous appropriation of their community’s properties.
The case of the Lung Yeuk Tau Tang lineage village illustrates a lineage’s struggle with
state agencies for better treatment by placing their history, tradition, and culture under
the motif of “heritage.” In sum, this thesis is a preliminary enquiry into the politics of
heritage through the discussion of a struggle for control of interpretation among the
Tang lineage and its neighbors, and among the lineage members themselves, under the
unique socio-political circumstances in which the native populations have been
marginalized by rapid urbanization.
Carrel, Todd. American Chinatown. Berkeley: Realtime Video & the Graduate
School of Journalism, University of California, 1982.
“American Chinatown” is a documentary film about conflicting values, a tale of
historical preservation, commercialization, tourism, and the struggle of a powerless
people to retain their dignity and sense of community. American Chinatown is a
reading supplement to the documentary “American Chinatown” which constitutes five
essays. The first essay, Chinese in California Agriculture, addresses the Chinese
contribution to the development of agriculture in California that is little known. In 19th
century, the Chinese worked in California agriculture as vegetable gardeners, fruit and
vegetable peddlers, harvest laborers, commission merchants, tenant farmers, farm
owner-operators, and farm cooks. The Chinese developed intensive agriculture and
built hundreds of miles of levees to hold the water from the extraordinarily fertile peat
soil of the delta. The Chinese immigrants were large-scale tenants and they also served
as labor recruiters and contractors, and were also made responsible for seasonal farm
workers during the harvest. The Chinese helped to build the foundation of Californian
agriculture. The second essay, The Role of Chinese Merchants, outlines how and when
many Chinese immigrated to the country and how a system developed to place them in
jobs. Large-scale immigration of Chinese to the United States began in the 1850s and
most of them worked in California’s gold mines. When machines took over
reclamation work, some Chinese moved away, but many stayed and found jobs as
laborers on the delta farms, orchards and ranches. Chinese merchants-grocery and fish
and vegetable whole-sellers began to send agents or setup shops, and by the mid-1880s
there were numerous Chinese settlements in the region. Most of the men who lived in
Locke came from Chungshan (Zhongshan) County in Guangdong province. By 1912,
three Chungshan Chinese opened a boarding house, a saloon and a gambling house to
cater for the workers. Very few Chinese could speak English, and so English-speaking
Chinese would instantly assume the role of employment agents or sub-contractors.
Though merchants composed only a small proportion of the Chinese community in
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Locke, they were a vital element. In the third essay, Locke – The Town and its History,
the writer traces the architectural and social development of the town of Locke. Streets
and lots in Chinatown were typically narrow and buildings were packed close together.
In fact, the buildings in Locke were intended to be simple, inexpensive and efficient in
the use of space. The population in Locke never surpassed 600 residents even at its
peak in the 1920s. After the Second World War, most of the town’s second generation
children settled in larger cities and the population dropped below 100 during 1970s.
The writer argues that the example of Locke could be used to dispel erroneous images
of the roles of the Chinese in California. But he cautions that finding a way to
accomplish preservation without disrupting the lives of people is a risky and delicate
business. The fourth essay, Ethnicity and Tourism, describes Locke, the old Chinatown
in California, inhabited by old Chinese farm workers and bought by a Chinese
businessman with plans to convert it into a tourist attraction because of its distinctive
social flavor. The desire of the Chinese businessman was to build up Locke in order to
“promote Chinese culture.” The writer argues, the unequal relationship between
tourists and residents could create, “a primary breeding ground for deceit, exploitation,
mistrust, dishonest and stereotype formation.” His analysis points out the vulnerability
of inhabitants in ethnic communities who themselves become the “attraction” to
tourists. The fifth essay, Who Should Decide About Locke, probes the central question
at stake in the disposition and future of Locke. He argues that no matter how
well-meaning and devoted those individuals in power may be, however, to plan for
change in a community, a moral imperative exists, by which the rights of the old people
still living in the town must be protected.
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13
Websites
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Websites
Bilingual Laws Information System
http://www.legislation.gov.hk/eng/home.htm
The Bilingual Laws Information System is the official website database containing the
statutory Laws of Hong Kong and selected constitutional documents. These include
Hong Kong Letters Patent, Standing Orders of the Legislative Council, the Sino-British
Joint Declaration, the Basic Law of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, and
National laws applying to Hong Kong. It also includes a bilingual glossary of terms
used in the Laws. These regulations are consolidated with amendments that came into
operation on or before the date as specified on the front page of the Bilingual Laws
Information System (BLIS) of the Department of Justice of the HKSAR Government.
Visitors can use common or special search functions.
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
World Heritage
http://whc.unesco.org/
The UNESCO/WHC is a bilingual website providing information on the 1972 World
Heritage Convention and UNESCO’s World Heritage Centre. Publications, official
documents (forms, decisions, declarations, letters, regulations, guidelines etc) and a
glossary in both in English and French are available for visitors. The data is organised
into the following tabs: News & Events, The List, About World Heritage, Activities,
Publications, Participate and Resources, with News & Events as its front page.WHC
provides links to other UNESCO websites, directing visitors to other areas of interest
with a special focus on topics about conservation and education.
International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS)
http://www.icomos.org/
ICOMOS is an international non-governmental organization of professionals,
dedicated to the conservation of the world’s historic monuments and sites. Its website
provides regularly updated, new and amended information, including publications;
recommendations and guidelines on heritage protection; links to the international
committees which the Council is comprised of, and a summary of results from their
meetings. There is a vast quantity of material available for download, in both English
and French, with some articles translated into Spanish.
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Antiquities and Monuments Office
http://www.amo.gov.hk
The Antiquities and Monuments Office provides an administrative backbone in the
conservation of places of historical and archaeological interest in Hong Kong. This
website was established to offer an interactive platform, to allow its visitors to easily
gain access to information on Hong Kong’s heritage and historic buildings. It provides
an account of the current projects and places of interest, such as Hong Kong’s declared
monuments and heritage trails. The information available for download may serve as
useful teaching material in the classroom.
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Programme Schedule
Part I - Lectures (4 lectures, 3 hours each)
5th December 2008
Lecture 1: What is “Heritage”?
Speakers: LIU Tik-sang, SIU Lai-kuen, Susanna, CHAU Hing-wah
2008年12月6日
Lecture 2: Heritage in Action
Speaker: POON Shuk-wah, WONG Wing-ho
Lecture 3: Heritage and Identity Politics
Speaker: CHEUNG Siu-woo
Lecture 4: Approaches in Understanding Heritage
Speaker: LIU Tik-sang
Part II - Field Workshops
The aim of the field workshops is to cultivate an understanding of heritage in the local
social context, and to provide opportunities for direct exchange with local people. The
briefing session will be arranged on the day of the field workshop. School teachers will
receive worksheets to assist them in understanding the issues raised in the tour. The
concluding session will be arranged following the field workshop. School teachers will
be encouraged to present and exchange their findings from the tour in the session.
Nansha Field Workshop
Date: 15 February 2009 (Sunday), 14 March 2009 (Saturday) and 27 March 2009
(Friday)
Instructors: MA Jianxiong, YAN Zhidan, CHOW Pang, LEUNG Yiu Wing,
MA Jianxiong, CHAN Kam Shui, MAK Mui Kwong
Tai O Field Workshop
Date: 28 February 2009 (Saturday) and 22 March 2009 (Sunday)
Instructors: LIU Tik-sang, CHEUNG Siu-woo, LAU Chuek-wing, WAN Fuk-ming,
LIU Tik-sang , WAN Ying-fai, WONG Noi-man
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Concluding and Sharing Session
Date: 28 March 2009 (Saturday)
Moderators: CHEUNG Siu-woo, MA Jianxiong
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Authors and Speakers
Mr. CHAU Hing-wah, Curator (Intangible Cultural Heritage), Hong Kong
Heritage Museum
Mr. Chau Hing-wah received his MA in Field Archaeology from the University of
London. He has been working for many years in the field of archeology and heritage
conservation. He is currently the Curator of Hong Kong Heritage Museum and
responsible for protection of Intangible Cultural Heritage in Hong Kong. His recent
publications include: “Pluralistic Development and Cultural Interaction: A Study of the
Assimilation into the Han Chinese Civilization of the Ancient Yue Culture in the Pearl
River Delta and the Ancient Shu Culture in Sichuan Province”
（多元互動：四川古蜀文化和珠江三角洲古越文化融入中華文化的過程） (in Splendor and
Mystery of Ancient Shu: Cultural Relics from Sanxingdui and Jinsha
《三星閃爍，金沙流采：神秘的古蜀文明》) and “Fishing, Hunting and Gathering; The
Livelihood of Prehistoric People Living in the Coastal Areas of Hong Kong”
（漁獵採集——香港沿海定居的史前先民生活模式） (in South China Research Resource
Center Newsletter).
Dr. CHEUNG Siu-woo (Associate Professor, Division of Humanities, HKUST)
Dr. Cheung received his PhD at the University of Washington in Anthropology. His
area of specialization extends from South China to Vietnam. His publications include
Tai O, “Liang Juwu’s Writings on Miao Identity: A Case Study of Marginal Ethnic
Groups’ Self-Representation through Chinese Writing in Modern China” (in Review of
Chinese Anthropology) and “Sino-Vietnamese Border Crossing and the Transnational
Identity of the Jing Nationality of Guangxi” (in Journal of History and Anthropology).
Dr. LIU Tik-sang (Associate Professor, Division of Humanities, HKUST)
Dr. Liu received his PhD in Anthropology from the University of Pittsburgh. He is a
cultural anthropologist with area specialization in South China and Hong Kong region.
His publications include The Cult of Tian Hou (Empress of Heaven) in Hong Kong, Tai
O, Fengshui and Heritage: Documents on the Case of Relocating the Ping Shan Tang
Ancestral Grave in Nim Wan, Hong Kong’s New Territories, Traditions and Heritage in
Tai Po, and Hong Kong History, Culture, and Society.
Dr. MA Jianxiong (Assistant Professor, Division of Humanities, HKUST)
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Dr. Ma received his PhD in Social Science at The Hong Kong University of Science
and Technology. His research interests are ethnicity, kinship, tourism anthropology,
ethnic minorities in China and in highland Southeast Asia. His publications include
“The Ethnic Politics in Ailao Mountains: Reforms to the Native Chieftain System since
Earlier Qing and the Mobilization of the Lahu Identity” (in The Bulletin of the Institute
of History and Philology) and “ ‘Miaoshe’, ‘Pudu’ and ‘Fenshui’: Popular Religion and
Communal Organization in Shenao” (in Journal of History and Anthropology).
Dr. POON Shuk-wah (Assistant Professor, Department of History, Lingnan
University)
Dr. Poon received her PhD in Humanities in The Hong Kong University of Science and
Technology. Her research interests are Republican China, Hong Kong history, popular
religion and urban change. Her publications include Negotiating Religion in Modern
China: State and Common People in Guangzhou, 1900-1937, “Refashioning Festivals
in Republican Guangzhou.” (in Modern China) and “Constructing State-power and
Deconstructing Superstition – The Case-study of the Guangzhou Social Customs
Reform Committee, 1929-1930” (in Popular Beliefs and Social Sphere).
Ms. SIU Lai-kuen, Susanna (Chief Curator of Hong Kong History Museum)
Ms. Siu received her MA in Conservation (Built Heritage) from University of York, UK
and MA in Architecture from the School of Architecture at Tsinghua University,
Beijing. She is currently the Chief Curator of Hong Kong History Museum. Her recent
publication is “Ancestral Halls in Tai Po” (in Traditions and Heritage of Tai Po, 2008).
Dr. WONG Wing-ho (Researcher, South China Research Center, HKUST)
Dr. Wong received his PhD in Humanities in The Hong Kong University of Science and
Technology. He is a Researcher in the South China Research Center in HKUST. His
research interests are Social and Economic History in Hunan, China, Reclamation
studies in Zhujiang area during Ming and Qing Dynasty and Hong Kong History. His
publications include Land Reclamation and Local Society: A Study of Shatian in the
Pearl River Delta in Late Qing, “Conflict on a Street in Changsha: A Case Study of the
Relationship between Urban Space and State-making in the Early Twentieth Century”
(in Journal of History and Anthropology).
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