Will Royer
Theory & Practice Paper
As professional educators, we must employ the best teaching strategies that are available.
There are a variety of strategies that are at the teacher’s disposal, all of which can be proven
effective; however, it is the teacher’s job to select the most applicable strategy and apply it in the
most beneficial manner. Teacher-centered strategies include direct instruction, lecture, mastery
learning, presentation and demonstration (Arends, 2008). Such strategies are utilized by teachers
when they wish to provide students with specific pieces of knowledge in a direct and straight
forward manner. Student-centered instructional models include both cooperative learning and
constructivist-based learning (Arends, 2008). In these models, students are granted the ability to
seek out their own knowledge with the absence of the teacher’s express or intentional instruction.
Teacher-centered instructional strategies will be the main focus of the below paper.
Direct Instruction
“We don’t give a damn what the teacher thinks, what the teacher feels. On the teachers’
own time they can hate it. We don’t care as long as they do it” (Kaplan, 2008, p.96). This quote
from direct instruction’s founder Siegfried Engelmann is meant to illustrate the fact that even
though some teachers may be opposed to the instructional strategy of direct instruction, its
application in the classroom is a must. According to Arends (2008), the direct instruction model
is “an approach to teaching basic skills and sequential material in which lessons are highly goaloriented and learning environments are tightly structured by the teacher.” Upon first reading this
definition, it is hard to digest what direct instruction is and how it is applied in the classroom. It
is important then, to break this broad subject into smaller and more applicable pieces such as the
current research on the model, the best and most applicable times for it to be used in the
classroom, the advantages and disadvantages of applying the model, and the possible
modifications that may need to be applied to both the model and/or the teacher’s individual
philosophy.
In simpler terms, direct instruction (DI) is a teaching practice employed by classroom
teachers in which the teacher gives the students direct and purposeful instruction. This is done so
that the students may learn to master a skill and/or gain fixed sets of knowledge that they may
need to apply at a later time. Sometimes referred to as active teaching or the mastery teaching
model, direct instruction is characterized by the teacher giving students the knowledge they need
as opposed to students seeking out their own knowledge. Examples of when this model may be
used include learning to drive a car, shoot a jump shot, or even tasks as simple as learning to
wash your hands. This is a teacher-centered model where the content of information that is given
to the students and the way in which the information is presented to the students are controlled
exclusively by the teacher.
Direct instruction is laid upon a firm foundation based on the educational theories of
behaviorism, social learning theory, and positivism. According to Arends, (2008) advocates of
behaviorism are most interested in studying observable behavior rather than areas such as human
thought and cognition. It is thought, in behaviorism, that human learning is a result of how
behavior is encouraged through reinforcement (Arends, 2008). In addition, this theory suggests
that teachers provide multiple learning experiences in which learning can be monitored and
recorded. This is applicable to direct instruction in the fact that direct instruction stresses the
importance of practice and response. The practice portion of direct instruction can be easily
recorded by giving children worksheets on the specific lesson that was taught. This would
provide the reinforcement that behaviorism points out as key to learning.
Another educational theory that supports direct instruction is the social learning theory.
This particular theory suggests that a significant portion of what is learned is obtained through
observation of others. This theory helps to support direct instruction in the simple fact that direct
instruction utilizes students’ observation of what the teacher is saying or what task they are
performing. In addition, Albert Bandura, a social learning theorist, proposed a three step process
to observational learning (Arends, 2008). The first step is for the learner to pay attention to the
critical components of what is to be learned. The second step is for learners to retain or to
remember the behavior being taught. Finally, the learner must be able to perform the behavior.
Directly corresponding to these steps, a teacher could incorporate this process into the classroom.
An example of this would be students paying attention to a lecture given by the teacher who is
highlighting the key points, the students actively remembering and retaining the information, and
lastly, the students applying their information in some way (test, performing the skill, completing
an assignment).
Another educationally supported commendation for teaching by direct instruction is the
positivist approach. When talking about direct instruction, Victor Dupuis, author of Foundations
of American Education (14th Edition), states, “this approach to teaching and learning fits the
positivist educational theory because in such an educational approach knowledge is considered
something that is clear and precise” (2007, pg.327) In saying this, Dupuis leaves no room for
students to obtain or formulate their own knowledge. All the knowledge given to students is
clear, precise, and universal to all students; therefore, teachers can reasonably expect all students
to learn this knowledge in the same way and instruct them in a purposeful and collective manner.
Victor gives an example of a positivist class activity which parallels that of a direct
instruction lesson. The teacher begins by telling the students what they will be doing. The
teacher then directs students on how the experiment is to be completed and the step by step
procedures for completing the lab. In addition, the teacher instructs students on the proper
procedure for collecting data and displaying their data in a graph. The students are then to
complete the experiment, as instructed, and display their data so that the class may compare
answers. Arends (2008) states five steps in direct instruction, many of which were represented in
the example of a positivist class activity: establishing set (telling the students what they will be
doing), explanation and/or demonstration (step by step procedures for completing the lab),
guided practice (students collect their own data and display it), feedback (class compares the
data), and extended practice (teacher could have assigned further assignments like this one). The
educational theories of behaviorism, social learning theory, and positivism all correspond to
direct instruction and all help to support the educational basis for why it should be implemented
into the classroom.
Perhaps the largest supporter of direct instruction is its founder Siegfried Engelmann.
For over forty years, Engelmann has been a proponent of his direct instruction model and has
had success in proving that his model is effective in teaching children. In 1968, under the Nixon
administration, the U.S. government undertook an educational study involving tens of thousands
of students in hundreds of school districts across the country (Failing Grade, September 18,
2009). In this billion dollar study known as Project Follow Through, Engelmann’s direct
instruction model was pitted against educational models such as Piagetian psychology, open
classrooms, extended Head Start, whole-language immersion, and self-esteem training. When
the smoke settled and the scores were in, the results were clear. No other model came close.
Many of the others’ models underperformed the control groups in the experiment. Direct
instruction even defeated the developmental and affective models in the schools where those
models were normally taught. Interestingly, students who were taught using direct instruction
also placed first in self-esteem. Apparently children who mastered reading, writing, and math felt
better about themselves than those who did not. Engelmann’s direct instruction model now had
the support of government funded research, and thus, it had its birth into the educational field.
When using this model, it is essential that the educator knows the best time in which to
employ it. The appropriate and applicable time to use DI varies, depending on the teacher’s
objective and the students that they have in class (Kambutu, Presentations / Lectures, September
18, 2009). DI should be, and often is, implemented at the higher grades in elementary school, in
middle schools, and in high schools. At these grades, the information that is often taught is being
placed on a foundation of previous knowledge. There is a greater influence placed on delivering
large amounts of information in a timely manner. Teachers should incorporate DI for lessons in
which mastery of a skill is essential or when the information is in a step-by-step process.
Additionally, the direct instruction model is particularly useful when teaching basic skills, and
when the skills needed to be learned can be reduced to small, independent segments. (Estes,
2002).
Direct instruction has its advantages and disadvantages as do all educational models.
These advantages and disadvantages come into play for four different segments of the learning
community: students, teachers, parents, and our society as a whole (E. Hargrave, Six Models of
Teaching, September 19, 2009). Advantages for students include clear objectives and time for
practice of the information taught. Students have the ability to put into practice what has been
demonstrated to them so that they may gain mastery of that information or skill. DI is
advantageous for teachers because it tends to be the easiest method to plan for in the fact that
teachers can specifically outline what information they want to be addressed, and are able to plot
out every step along the way. In addition, the performance of DI comes natural to many teachers
as they have seen it modeled throughout their lives and are able to perform DI with little stress or
planning. From the parents’ perspective, DI is the most typical method they imagine for
classroom instruction and it allows them to directly assess what information their children are
being taught. Lastly, direct instruction’s advantage to society is that society’s children are being
directly instructed from whom we consider experts on a particular subject. Children are learning
from the best society has to offer. This reminds me of Lee Iacocca’s quote, “In a completely
rational society, the best of us would be teachers and the rest of us would have to settle for
something else.”
Direct instruction also has disadvantages for these four members of the educational
system. Students are disadvantaged because they are not directly engaged during the
instructional part of the lesson. They are expected to sit quietly and passively as the teacher
feeds them information. The disadvantage to teachers is that some of their abstract creativity
may be hindered by simply instructing students with little student involvement. Parents, when
assessing instruction using DI, tend to focus more on the teacher’s performance rather than the
child’s learning. They can sometimes focus too much on what is being taught and the way that
the teacher presented the information. From a societal perspective, DI disadvantages students
because they are not in direct control of how they learn material. This could hamper the
student’s motivation to learn outside of the classroom where there is no instructor present to give
them all the information they need.
With direct instruction, it is vital that the classroom teacher has a defined set of roles
that they follow. Teachers must be efficient in their use of time. DI lessons have a logical
sequence of events that the teacher must follow, and therefore the teacher must manage their
time to insure that every aspect of the lesson is taught. Teachers must also be organized so that
their DI lessons follow the structure in which they intend to teach. Without organization, the
teacher will not be able to teach step-by-step procedures which often accompany lessons where
DI is the most beneficial model. The teacher’s role to the student is to be an expert of the
knowledge being taught. In direct instruction, the teacher is instructing students to master a
specific skill or body of information; therefore, teachers must be the utmost authority, within the
classroom, on the subject or skill being taught. Another key aspect of the teacher’s role is to set
up a classroom environment in which the teacher is the key focus for information. This might
include simple things such as seating formation or just making sure that all students have equal
access to the information (seeing the board, hearing the teacher, being able to witness a
demonstration).
Students also must adhere to their roles within direct instruction so that the lesson can be
most effective. There are four key components to the student’s role: students must ensure their
learning, demonstrate the knowledge learned, observe others, and pull upon their prior
knowledge (Kambutu, Roles, September 18, 2009). Students must take on personal
accountability for their own learning. It is necessary that students attempt to process the
information that is being taught by the teacher. If they do not engage their minds, little to no
learning will take place. Students also must give demonstration that they have acquired
information from the teacher’s instruction. This can be as simple as an informal oral assessment
or something such as a formal test. Students need also to observe other learners and at times try
to imitate what they are doing to best retain the information. An example of this may be a
student observing others taking notes on the subject matter, so they too participate in taking notes
to further their learning. Lastly, students must pull their prior knowledge. This is essential so
that students can build off of what they already know in order to accumulate a great deal of
information and enhance the lesson that is being taught.
When assessing what type of learner benefits most from direct instruction, my mind
immediately goes to the four types of learners: auditory, visual, kinesthetic, and tactile. I believe
that not one of these learners should be handicapped in their learning if the teacher takes proper
considerations and makes modifications for each type of learner. Initially, the auditory and
visual learner has an advantage in learning, as DI incorporates a lecture and presentation style of
instruction. These learners will benefit from hearing the information presented to them, and
could easily further their knowledge by engaging their minds to what is being said. Visual
learners have the advantage of being able to take notes on the presentation that they can
reference at a later time. In addition, visual elements such as electronic slides are often present
in presentations which would greatly benefit visual learners.
Critics argue that direct instruction may disadvantage learners who benefit most from
participating in hands on learning; however, the teacher can make accommodations for these
students by modifying the lesson to meet the students’ needs. As stated before, direct instruction
has five key steps: establishing set, explanation and/or demonstration, guided practice, feedback,
and extended practice. During the portion of the lesson on guided practice, the kinesthetic and
tactile learner has the opportunity to engage their bodies and minds into the specific style of
learning that fits them. An example of this may be when a science teacher instructs their
students on how to properly use a triple beam balance using the DI model of instruction. The
teacher will go through the five step process and, with consideration for the hands-on learners in
their class, incorporate hands-on activities such as physically weighing objects using the
knowledge gained during the lecture/presentation portion of the lesson.
According to Arends, (2008) there are numerous accommodations and modifications that
can be made to tailor DI lessons for all students, low-achieving and high- achieving students
alike. For all DI lessons, teachers should base their instruction and content on what their
students’ prior knowledge is. Going over information that students already know can be boring
and unproductive. For low-achieving students, Arends (2008) suggests that teachers
continuously encourage and support them. In addition, lessons for younger and low-achieving
students should be very structured and the information should be specific to what the teacher’s
objectives are. High–achieving students also deserve instruction that is tailored to their needs.
For these students, lessons should reach beyond the basic ideas or skills. Also, higher-achieving
and more independent children often have the ability to figure concepts out on their own and
seek to obtain information outside of the required information; therefore, teachers should not
restrict the amount of knowledge students are allowed to represent.
In addition to direct instruction, there are other teacher-centered instructional strategies
that should be explored. Mastery learning is a strategy that ensures all students have success at
learning, however long it may take them. It is often accompanied by a good deal of drill and
practice exercises, quizzes, or other activities that give the child multiple opportunities for
acquisition of knowledge (Kambutu, 2009). I will use this strategy in my classroom when the
information needed to be acquired is a prerequisite for future lessons. Presentations are also an
effective teacher-centered strategy. Presentations serve as a one-way channel of information to
students. While there are different types of presentations (formal, interactive, demonstration), all
are concentrated on a specific concept or set of knowledge points that the instructor is seeking to
give to students (Kambutu, 2009). I will utilize presentations in my classroom when I’m
introducing a new or unfamiliar concept to students. This will help to illuminate false or
incorrect pre-conceived notions about a concept and also help to solidify the key points about the
concept by giving students direct and universal instruction. The last teacher-centered
instructional strategy that will be discussed in this paper is lecture. In teaching, a lecture is an
explanation of a subject, for the purpose of helping students understand a complicated and/or
concrete subject. The information that is being addressed to students is not up for debate and the
knowledge needed to be given to students is straightforward and not confusing, as there is little
room for students to pose questions about the content of the lecture. Lectures will be of use to
me when I need to give students very specific knowledge that they won’t be confused on. These
teacher-centered strategies will greatly aid me in delivering effective and worthwhile lessons to
my students in the hopes of reaching my overall goal of student learning.
Direct instruction has not directly affected my philosophy of teaching; however, it has
given me a useful and vital teaching strategy that will inevitably be incorporated into my
teaching repertoire. Depending on the objective for my lesson, DI will be my preferred strategy.
Lessons in which I would incorporate DI include lessons where students need to master a
specific skill, times in which students will need to apply a specific set of skills to complete a
task, and for instances when students will need to follow step-by-step procedures to complete an
assignment. I still feel as though students must explore to find their own knowledge outside of
what is just being presented, but I know that DI is an extremely effective way of teaching
students specific skills and information.
After a close examination of current research on direct instruction, the best and most
applicable times for it to be used, the advantages and disadvantages of applying the model, and
the possible modifications that may need to be applied to both the model and/or my individual
philosophy, I feel confident and comfortable implementing DI into my teaching instruction. DI
is a must for all teachers, and should not be cast aside solely because you adhere to a certain
philosophy. When performed correctly, direct instruction is an efficient way to instruct students
when specific content and skills are the teacher’s primary goals.
Cooperative Learning
Cooperative learning is an instructional strategy that can yield big dividends for students
in the classroom. It’s an instructional strategy that utilizes students’ previous knowledge so that
they may learn in a social environment that fosters cognitive and affective growth. Students are
given the opportunity to learn with their peers in a non-competitive, student-centered learning
environment, that promotes their personal achievement along with the achievement of their peers
(Kambutu, Lecture, 2009). Students are granted the ability to seek out their own knowledge with
the absence of the teacher’s express or intentional instruction. The topic of cooperative learning
is a tree with many branches; meaning, there are many components to this strategy. It is
necessary then, to break this broad topic down into more manageable pieces such as the current
theoretical research on the model, the best and most applicable times for it to be used in the
classroom, the advantages and disadvantages of applying the model, and the possible
modifications that may need to be applied to both the model and/or the teacher’s individual
philosophy.
There are two main theories that give support to cooperative learning. The first of these
is the Democratic Classroom. Theorist John Dewey along with a later theorist, by the name of
Herbert Thelen, believed strongly that the classroom should mirror our society and be a
miniature laboratory for the way in which we will learn later in life. Dewey was adamant about
classrooms utilizing inquiry-based activities that addressed both social and interpersonal
problems. He believed that small, problem-solving groups of students should have the
opportunity to seek out their own answers using democratic procedures and scientific processes
(Arends, 2008).
Another main cog to cooperative learning is the theory of Experiential Learning.
Theorists and researchers that adhere to this theory are interested in how individuals learn from
their experiences. Preeminent cooperative learning theorists Roger T. Johnson and David W.
Johnson, believed that experiential learning is based on three key assumptions: people learn best
when they have personal involvement in the learning experience, people must discover their
knowledge if it is to be retained or affect their behavior, and people’s commitment to learning is
at its peak when learners are given the opportunity to set their own goals and pursue them
(Arends, 2009).
Careful consideration should be placed on when to use this strategy. Cooperative
learning (CL) should be implemented into the classroom when the basic and foundational skills
needed in the cooperative learning lesson have already been taught (Kambutu, Lecture, 2009).
This may mean the teacher should develop a cooperative lesson after they have spent time
explaining the key concepts surrounding the CL lesson. In addition, teachers should give proper
consideration to the students in the classroom and their potential ability to work cooperatively
with their peers. This might mean that the teacher should hold off using this strategy until they
feel they have a necessary understanding of their classroom’s social dynamics.
As is common with all teaching strategies, cooperative learning has both advantages and
disadvantages. There are three key advantages that cooperative learning offers. First,
cooperative learning makes use of team work requiring verbal interactions, which in turn, give
students the opportunity to develop their language skills. Second, cooperative learning activities
give students the chance to work together toward common goals set in place by the teacher. This
requires a degree of collaborative behavior and application of higher-order thinking skills
(Kambutu, Lecture, 2009). This places the responsibility of students solving a problem on the
student rather than the teacher. Students are accountable for acquiring their knowledge. The
third advantage is that research shows that cooperative learning promotes social interaction and
peer acceptance (Bryant, 2007).
While cooperative learning can be an effective strategy to use, it does have some
drawbacks. When placed in cooperative learning teams, a high-achieving student may feel
exploited by their teammates and may become the sole provider for their team. Teachers must
monitor carefully that the bulk of work does not fall on one or just a few children. On the flip
side, some low-achieving students may be, or feel to be, excluded from the team. This could
cause dissonance between the team’s high-achievers and children who are not at the same level
as them. Another perceived drawback to cooperative learning is parents’ perception of CL.
Some ignorant parents may feel as though their child is doing group work that is unbeneficial to
their learning, or that their child is relying on others for their success. Cooperative learning
activities also tend to create a classroom environment with more noise and student movement
(Kambutu, 2009). This may cause concern by administrators and other teachers that you are
unable to manage your classroom properly.
In cooperative learning lessons, there should be well-defined roles and expectations of
both teachers and learners. Teachers need to be a facilitator of their students’ knowledge when
giving a cooperative learning lesson as opposed to simply giving students the knowledge they are
expected to acquire. They should manage their classroom in a way that fosters student learning
and gives students the opportunity to learn with their peers. The foundation of knowledge should
have already been administered by this point, and teachers should have a good idea about what
their students know and need to know in order to work in teams toward further knowledge.
Students also have a specific role within cooperative learning. Students are most often in
active roles as they interact with their peers. Teachers must develop an environment that gives
students clear expectations for what their role, or purpose, is. Within a CL lesson, the teacher
should focus on the guidelines set by “P.I.G/T.S. Face.” This is an acronym for the way in
which students should be acting during a CL lesson. “P” stands for positive interdependence.
Students are dependent upon one another for success. The student’s role is to be a member of
the team and realize that in order to succeed they must rely on their peers. “I” stands for
individual accountability. Students have the role of being accountable for their own grade and
completing their individual piece of the larger puzzle. They must advocate for their own grade
without solely rely on others for their personal success. “G/T” stands for group/team processing.
It is the students’ job to help evaluate or reflect how well they are achieving the desired goal.
“S” stands for social skills in which the student is expected to demonstrate the ability to interact
in an appropriate manner with their peers. Finally, “face” stands for the face to face interaction
in which students are face to face with their peers and are expected to encourage and give
support to other team members. These five expectations of behavior make up the specific roles
that students are expected to follow in a cooperative learning activity.
There are certain learners that may benefit more from cooperative learning, just as there
are other learners that may be at a disadvantage. Both the abstract random and the concrete
sequential learners would flourish in the environment established in cooperative learning. The
abstract random learner is characterized by being flexible, personal, and imaginative. They
would do well in group discussions and situations where they can personalize their work.
Students who are classified as concrete sequential, in general, are hands-on learners who achieve
success when participating in labs and in lessons where there are short lectures. On the other
side of the learning spectrum, abstract sequential learners may be disadvantaged when engaging
in cooperative learning lessons. Students who meet the criteria to be labeled abstract sequential,
tend to learn better from lectures and through independent research. In addition, they are able to
retain information better from notes and through reading rather than through exploratory,
student-directed activities (Gregorc, 1984).
The classroom teacher must make modifications before and during a cooperative learning
lesson in order to meet all learners’ needs. One modification that may need to take place before
the lesson is to assign students to heterogeneous groups. By constructing teams beforehand that
are varied in scholastic ability, the teacher is taking into account the need for peers to aid in the
learning process. If team members vary in ability, the low-achieving students will have a better
opportunity to succeed. This requires that the teacher has a proper understanding of their
classroom’s dynamics and each individual’s capacity for learning. Teachers may also need to
make modifications during the lesson. These modifications may be something as simple as the
teacher walking around the room while students are working cooperatively and identifying points
in the lesson that children are struggling with. If many teams are having difficulty with a
particular aspect of a lesson, the teacher may need to redirect the entire class and later modify
that part of the lesson. These troubles may occur specifically while engaging students in
cooperative learning lessons because the teacher is not in direct control of the students’ behavior.
I have seen such modifications made in my practicum classroom. My mentor teacher,
Ms. Sandercock, often uses heterogeneous grouping to help low-achieving students succeed and
be aided by their peers. This takes some time and extra planning, but it proves to be beneficial to
all students. Also, there have been multiple times when students have been working in teams to
experiment with a particular concept, and Ms. Sandercock has had to redirect either a single
group or the entire class in order for them to fully understand what she was trying to teach. If
this happens in one class, she will make sure to modify her lesson for the next classes, so that the
problem does not continue to plague students.
Although I have only discussed the instructional strategy of cooperative learning in this
paper, some time should also be spent talking about another realm of student-centered learning
known as constructivism. Arends states that “A constructivist perspective holds that learning is a
social and cultural activity, that knowledge is somewhat personal, and that learners construct
meaning through interaction with others” (2008, p. 12). Educators that practice this type of
teaching believe that learning will take place when the information given to students is personal
and meaningful. There are two key learning strategies that fall under constructivism. These are
problem-based learning and classroom discussion. Problem-based learning differs from
cooperative learning in the fact that students are presented with problem situations that serve to
facilitate investigations and inquiry about the solution to that specific problem, and also lead to
further learning that may surround the initial topic. While using the constructivist strategy of
classroom discussion, teachers open a dialog with and between student where learning can take
place in an open and comfortable environment. Students are able to share their opinions and
ideas to not only better understand their own thoughts, but also for the benefit of their peers.
Cooperative learning is likely to affect my teaching philosophy by giving me the
opportunity to let students gain knowledge through other resources other than me, the teacher.
Through effective use of cooperative learning, teachers can take the role of facilitator rather than
the giver of knowledge. In science, this is critical because the subject itself is based on inquiry
and investigation. Students must have the opportunity to inquire rather than receive. By
working in teams with other students, children have the opportunity to not only gain intellectual
knowledge, but also social knowledge as well. The classroom should not just be a place to gain
book smarts, it should also be a model of the larger world they interact with. They must learn to
cooperate with others, as this is a skill that they can most definitely apply to their life inside and
outside of school. This changes my philosophy from one of only giving kids subject knowledge,
to also helping them manage their social skills.
Cooperative learning is a teaching strategy that can, and should, be implemented into
every classroom regardless of age group or subject. With a strong theoretical foundation and
many advantages to both the teacher and student, CL should not just be considered as an option,
but rather be considered as a must in every effective teacher’s toolbox. This strategy does not
just encourage cooperation and appreciation for others, but instead it requires students to work
together to achieve. The students learn that if one succeeds, both succeed, but if one fails, so
does the other. As Benjamin Franklin declared in 1776, “we must all hang together, or most
assuredly we shall all hang separately.”
References:
Arends, R. I. (2008). Learning to Teach (8th ed.). New York City: McGraw-Hill.
Bryant, B. R., Bryant, D. P., & Smith, D. D. (2007). Teaching Students With Special
Needs in Inclusive Classrooms. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Dupuis, V. L., Gollnick, D. M., Hall, G. E., Johnson, J. A., & Musial, D. L. (2007).
Foundations of American Education (14th Edition) (MyLabSchool Series).
Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Estes, T. H., & Gunter, J. S. (2002). Instruction: A Models Approach [4th Edition].
Needham Heights: Allyn And Bacon.
Failing grade: Siegfried Engelmann developed an amazingly effective method of
teaching. Why don't you know his name? - Free Online Library. (n.d.). Retrieved
September 18, 2009, from
http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Failing+grade:+Siegfried+Engelmann+developed+
an+amazingly+effective...-a020632861
Gregorc, A., & Butler, K. (1984). Learning Is a Matter of Style. VocEd, 59(3), 27-29.
Hargrave, E. (n.d.). Reflection On Six Models. Retrieved September 18, 2009, from
http://academic.evergreen.edu/h/hareri16/Docs/modelreflect.html
Kambutu. J (2009). Presentation/Lectures. Retrieved September 18, 2009, from
http://uwacadweb.uwyo.edu/KAMBUTU/Teaching/Resources2.htm
Kaplan, E., & Kaplan, R. (2008). Out of the Labyrinth: Setting Mathematics Free. New
York: Oxford University Press, USA.
Estes, T. H., & Gunter, J. S. (2002). Instruction: A Models Approach [4th Edition].
Needham Heights: Allyn And Bacon.
Failing grade: Siegfried Engelmann developed an amazingly effective method of
teaching. Why don't you know his name? - Free Online Library. (n.d.). Retrieved
September 18, 2009, from
http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Failing+grade:+Siegfried+Engelmann+developed+
an+amazingly+effective...-a020632861
EDST 3000 Theory and Practice Research Paper Common Assessment Rubric
Content: (30)
Instructional models paper
includes theoretical
frameworks, educators,
when to use,
advantages/disadvantages,
teacher/student roles, type
of learner disadvantaged
and modifications.
Unsatisfactory
5 points
Basic
15 points
Proficient
20 points
Distinguished
30 points
* paper does not
thoroughly address
areas specified in
assignment
criteria.
* paper
adequately
addresses most
areas specified
in assignment
criteria.
*paper
addresses all
areas specified
in assignment
criteria
* author
understands
strategies and
their
applications to
K-12
classrooms.
* paper exceeds
criteria specified
in the assignment.
*author
understands
thoroughly
strategies and
their applications
to K-12
classrooms
7 points
10 points
15 points
* some
mechanical
errors cause
interruption for
reader
* some
organization
* most
reference or
style criteria
(APA) met.
2 points
* limited
personal
reflections and
evidence of
influences on
personal
philosophy.
* minimal
mechanical
errors
* paper is well
organized
* reference and
style criteria
met.
* excellent
writing skills
* exemplary
organization and
flow
* reference and
style met.
3 points
* paper
includes
detailed
personal
reflections and
influences on
personal
philosophy.
5 points
* paper has
evidence of
extensive personal
reflections and
influences on
personal
philosophy
relating to
instructional
strategies in K-12
classrooms.
3 points
Organization, structure
and mechanics (15)
Introduction/conclusion,
writing mechanics
including sentence and
paragraph structure, APA
referencing.
Reflections and personal
philosophy (5)
Made meaning of
knowledge gained by
connecting to teaching
experiences during
practicum experiences,
etc. and shows how
knowledge gained
influences personal
philosophy of teaching
and learning.
* multiple
mechanical errors
* poor
organization
* reference or style
criteria (including
APA) not been
met.
0 point
* no evidence of
personal reflection
* no evidence of
influences on
personal
philosophy.