The Centre for Australian Weather and Climate Research
A partnership between CSIRO and the Bureau of Meteorology
THE INDOOR AIR PROJECT
PART 2: APPENDICES
A report to the
Air Quality Section, Environment Standards Branch,
Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and
the Arts
COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA
Enquiries should be addressed to:
Ian Galbally
CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research
Private Bag 1, Aspendale
Victoria 3195
Australia
Phone +61 3 9239 4400
Facsimile +61-3-92394444
Ian.Galbally@csiro.au
This Report was prepared by: Min Cheng, Ian Galbally, Rob Gillett, Melita Keywood, Sarah
Lawson, Suzie Molloy and Jennifer Powell.
Distribution list
Robyn Gatehouse Project
Manager DEWHA
1
Judith Smith Librarian CSIRO
1
John Gras Stream Leader CSIRO
1
Copyright and Disclaimer
© 2009 CSIRO To the extent permitted by law, all rights are reserved and no part of this
publication covered by copyright may be reproduced or copied in any form or by any means
except with the written permission of CSIRO.
Important Disclaimer
CSIRO advises that the information contained in this publication comprises general statements
based on scientific research. The reader is advised and needs to be aware that such information
may be incomplete or unable to be used in any specific situation. No reliance or actions must
therefore be made on that information without seeking prior expert professional, scientific and
technical advice. To the extent permitted by law, CSIRO (including its employees and
consultants) excludes all liability to any person for any consequences, including but not limited
to all losses, damages, costs, expenses and any other compensation, arising directly or
indirectly from using this publication (in part or in whole) and any information or material
contained in it.
ii
Contents
PART 2: APPENDICES
APPENDIX A - SELECTION OF DWELLINGS .......................................................... 99
A.1 Recruitment ................................................................................................................ 99
A.2 Statistics of Dwellings Sampled ................................................................................ 102
A.3 Results Obtained / Data Coverage for Study Period ................................................ 103
APPENDIX B – THE INSTRUMENTAL METHODS USED AND THEIR
CHARACTERISTICS ...................................................................................... 105
B.1 PM10 ........................................................................................................................ 106
B.2 PM2.5 ....................................................................................................................... 106
B.3 NO2 ........................................................................................................................... 107
B.4 O3 .............................................................................................................................. 108
B.5 Nicotine ..................................................................................................................... 108
B.6 Carbonyls .................................................................................................................. 109
B.7 VOCs ........................................................................................................................ 110
B.8 CO ............................................................................................................................ 111
B.9 CO2 ........................................................................................................................... 111
B.10 Temperature, Relative Humidity and Pressure ....................................................... 112
B.11 Fungi and Bacteria .................................................................................................. 112
APPENDIX C – VENTILATION MEASUREMENTS ................................................. 114
C.1
The Tracer Method of Measuring Ventilation ........................................................ 114
C.2
Selected Dwellings ................................................................................................ 114
C.3
Diaries and Surveys .............................................................................................. 115
C.4
Measurements ...................................................................................................... 116
C.5
Analysis ................................................................................................................. 118
C.6
Conclusions .......................................................................................................... 119
C.7
References ........................................................................................................... 119
APPENDIX D – EMISSION FACTORS .................................................................... 120
D.1
Emission Factors for Materials ............................................................................. 120
BTEX, TVOC and Formaldehyde Emissions from Paints .................................................. 121
Formaldehyde, TVOC and BTEX Emissions from Wood-Based Panels and Furniture ..... 122
Formaldehyde and TVOC Emissions from Carpet ............................................................ 123
Formaldehyde, BTEX, TVOC, Carbon Monoxide and Respirable Particle Emissions from
Oven Insulation ................................................................................................. 123
Formaldehyde, TVOC, BTEX, Carbon Monoxide and Nitrogen Dioxide Emissions from
Unflued Gas Heaters ........................................................................................ 125
Formaldehyde, TVOC, BTEX, Ozone, Nitrogen Dioxide and Respirable Particles Emissions
from Photocopiers and Laser Printers .............................................................. 126
iii
TVOC and Formaldehyde Emission in Australia Building Products/ Materials from
Commercial Testing .......................................................................................... 127
References......................................................................................................................... 128
D.2
A Review of Emission Factors for Various Activities ............................................. 129
D.3
Ingredients of Common Household Chemicals .................................................... 135
APPENDIX E – ACTIVITY DIARY CATEGORIES ................................................... 142
E.1 Definitions ................................................................................................................. 142
APPENDIX F - ACCOMPANYING DATA (ON CD) .................................................. 146
CONTENTS OF THE DATA CD ..................................................................................... 146
iv
v
APPENDIX A - SELECTION OF DWELLINGS
A.1 Recruitment
Recruitment methods used were:
 mail drops, both along busy roads (Near-Road) and in areas away from busy roads (FarRoad)

CSIRO media release “CSIRO Melbourne air quality survey volunteer call” picked up by
Herald Sun and local newspapers, CSIRO staff interviewed in newspapers

contact with community groups (Girl Guides)

CSIRO, EPA Victoria and Victorian Public Service bulletin boards

word of mouth.
Approximately 2000 letters were delivered to individual dwellings in the mail drops that
targeted dwellings near and far from 15 busy roads in the study area. Maildrops were centred
around the following roads (see Figure A-1):
Nepean Hwy between White St and Lower Dandenong Rd, Parkdale
Nepean Hwy and Station St between Beach Rd and Edithvale Rd, Aspendale
Wells Rd between Governor and Edithvale Rd, Aspendale Gardens
Centre Rd between Jasper and East Boundary Rd, Bentleigh
Wellington Rd between Springvale and Jacksons Rd, Mulgrave
Warrigal Rd between Centre Rd and Dandenong Rd, Oakleigh South, Oakleigh and Hughesdale
Williams Rd between Dandenong Rd and Malvern Rd, Armadale
Denmark St/Power St between Barkers Rd and Chandler Hwy, Kew
Dandenong Rd between Hawthorn Rd and Denbigh Rd, Armadale
Murrumbeena Rd between Neerem Rd and Dandenong Rd, Murrumbeena
Belgrave Rd between Dandenong Rd and Waverley Rd, Malvern East
Dandenong Rd between Poath Rd and Koornang Rd, Murrumbeena/Malvern East
Warrigal Rd between High Street Rd and Riversdale Rd, Burwood/Camberwell
Princess Hwy between Huntingdale Rd and Ferntree Gully Rd, Oakleigh East
Stevensons Rd between Waverley Rd and High Street Rd, Mount Waverley
Blackburn Rd between High Street Rd and Highbury Rd, Mount Waverley
Springvale Rd between High Street Rd and Highbury Rd, Glen Waverley
Springvale Rd between Ferntree Gully Rd and Waverley Rd, Glen Waverley
Ferntree Gully Rd between Springvale Rd and Jells Rd, Wheelers Hill
As a combined result of the recruitment methods, around 100 people expressed interest in
participating in the study by asking for an information pack and selection questionnaire.
Approximately 90 people returned the completed selection questionnaire, and from this group
47 volunteers were excluded based on location, main selection criteria or other considerations.
A total of 42 volunteers were included in the study.
99
Figure A-1 Map of inner and south eastern Melbourne with roads maildropped highlighted
The basis for the initial inclusion/exclusion of dwellings in the data set were:
 Likelihood of participant remaining in the same dwelling for the study period

ability of participant to fill in the English Language questionnaire and diary

renovations, painting or other maintenance and construction, either within the home or in
the near vicinity

secure location for outdoor equipment

presence of pets that may interfere with equipment e.g. dogs that may chew cables

residence within selection region (the region sampled covered approximately 40 x 20 km of
Melbourne, was selected to cover a range of socio economic groups, family units and
occupancy rates, and was bounded by ambient air quality sites at Aspendale, Richmond,
Alphington, Box Hill, Brighton and Dandenong and a meteorological measurement site at
Moorabbin).
The selection procedure aimed to provide a sample of dwellings with characteristics as close as
possible to that of the Australian population.
The first criterion in selection of dwellings was that half the dwellings should be near busy
roads (Near-Road dwellings) and half away from busy roads (Far-Road dwellings), to ensure
statistical robustness between Near-Road and Far-Road cohorts. Busy roads were classed as
greater than or equal to 30,000 vehicles per day (mid week). This traffic volume data for
Melbourne roads was obtained from Vic Roads (Department of Transport and VicRoads), and a
classification of 30,000 vehicles per day represented the highest traffic volume bracket. NearRoad dwellings were classified as having the boundary of the property, typically the front or
back fence, within 150 m from the edge of a busy road. Near-Road dwellings were
100
preferentially chosen if the property border was within 100 m of a busy road, as studies have
indicated that the impact of the road on pollutant concentrations decreases rapidly when the
residential setting is beyond 100-150 m from the road (Roorda-Knape et al 1998, Zhu et al
2002) and some studies show pollutant levels drop quickly within 20-50 m from the roadside
(EPA 2006, Laxen et al 2002) For this reason, when sampling Near-Road dwellings the
outdoor monitoring equipment was located on the side of the house which was closest to the
busy road. However in many cases the front of the property was closest to the busy road but
was not considered a secure location due to lack of fencing and openness to the street – in these
cases the equipment was located in the backyard. This meant that the actual distance between
the edge of the busy road and the outdoor sampling unit was often a greater distance than the
distance from the property boundary to the edge of the road. Actual distances from the outdoor
sampling equipment and property boundary to the nearest busy road for each house are given in
Table A.1. These distances are approximate to ± 5 m.
In this study, Far-Road is classified as greater than 300m from a busy road, as the effects of
busy roads on nearby pollutant levels have shown to be negligible at this distance. Dwellings
located between these Near-Road (<150 m) and Far-Road limits (>300 m) were excluded from
the selection where possible.
Figure A-2 shows the distance between the edge of the nearest busy road and the outdoor
sampling equipment for each of the dwellings that were sampled in this study. 22 dwellings are
classified as Near –Road and have sampling equipment within 150 m of the nearby road. Of
these Near-Road dwellings, 15 have the monitoring equipment located within 50 m of a busy
road. 21 dwellings are classified as Far-Road being >300 m away from the busy road.
Approximate distance of measurement equipment from
Busy Road (m)
2500
Near Road
houses
<150m
Far Road Houses
>300m
2000
1500
1000
500
H
3
P1 4
U6
2
X21
W 4
2
R3
1
E3 8
V21
Q2
17
L1
2
J1
T20
D0
3
G0
33
A2
Z27
O6
1
S1 5
G9
0
N7
1
F04
C6
0
P4 3
K12
E01
L35
D8
04
J3
F36
2
I3
5
K3
C7
2
M9
39
M
1
B0 3
2
I0
Y29
N5
4
B2 0
O8
4
A0 1
H1
08
0
House number
Figure A-2. The approximate distance of the sampling equipment from the nearest Busy road for each
house sampled in this study
101
The secondary criteria for selection of dwellings were:
- structure: separate house or semi-detached/flat
- construction materials: double brick, brick veneer, wood
- age of residence (years): <5, 5-19, 20-49,50+
The tertiary selection criteria were:
- fuel used for stove: gas, electric
- smoking habits
- attached garage with connecting door
- type of heating/cooling e.g. wood heater, ducted, gas etc.
Some weighting was given to dwellings with electric stoves due to the low proportion of
Victorian homes that use electric stoves compared with the proportion across Australia.
Some weighting was given to dwellings with attached garages and connecting doors, as it was
believed this could be a significant contributor of pollutants into the residence.
Of the 89 selection questionnaires returned, 3 households stated that smoking regularly
occurred in the home (3% of households). 15 households stated that there was regular smoking
outdoors on the property by residents or visitors (17% of households).
Seven households were chosen that stated smoking occurred outdoors regularly (this
represented 17% of total 42 households). Out of these 41 households selected, smoking
outdoors was reported by 7 dwellings in winter (17%) and 4 dwellings in summer (10%).
One household was chosen that stated smoking occurred inside regularly out of a possible 3.
One was not chosen as they returned their selection questionnaire at a time when we had
selected enough households to satisfy the primary and secondary selection criteria that the
house fitted in to (50+ Near-Road brick veneer). The other was not chosen because the
dwelling type (bedsitter) did not fit into our ‘typical’ Australian categories.
Houses that were known to double as a place of business e.g. dental or medical clinics were
avoided. This was not always known prior to selection. One house included in the study also
doubles as a massage/aromatherapy business as well as a private residence.
Due to time restrictions on the conduct of the study and the limited number of volunteers to
participate in the study, it was not possible to wait for all people to respond to the surveys, and
select dwellings from a large pool of respondents. As completed surveys were returned,
dwellings were assessed for their suitability and where they met the study requirements,
appointments were made.
A.2 Statistics of Dwellings Sampled
Table A1 shows details of dwellings sampled in this study, including unique participant
identification number, distance of the outdoor measurement equipment and property boundary
from a Busy Road, and Near/Far-Road classification for each dwelling. Dwellings are sorted
according to distance of outdoor measurement equipment to Busy Road.
102
Table A.1. Details of Participant dwellings, including distance from outdoor measurement equipment and
property boundary from busy road, nearest busy road and Near/Far-Road classification.
Participant
number
H34
P16
U21
X24
W23
E31
R18
V22
Q17
A27
D30
G33
J10
L12
T20
Z26
O15
S19
G07
N14
F06
C03
P42
K11
E05
L38
D04
J36
F32
I35
K37
C29
M39
M13
B02
I09
Y25
N40
B28
O41
A01
H08
Distance outdoor
Distance property
measurement unit to boundary to busy
busy road (m) Approx road (m) Approx
12
12
15
20
25
30
30
30
35
38
50
50
50
50
50
65
80
80
100
110
115
150
175
185
200
200
225
250
265
285
300
330
350
360
400
415
470
500
600
720
1000
2500
11
10
5
20
15
30
30
5
5
15
12
20
35
47
15
45
80
90
80
80
85
90
170
150
175
200
220
240
255
280
300
330
335
350
400
400
450
495
590
690
1000
2500
Nearest busy road
Near/Far
Road
Ferntree Gully Road
Murrumbeena Rd
Warrigal Rd
Wells road
Ferntree Gully Road
Murrumbeena Rd
Wells Rd
Nepean Highway
Warrigal Rd
Wells Rd
Dandenong Rd
Springvale
Princess Highway
Kingston Road
Dandenong Rd
Nepean Highway
Dandenong Rd
Princess Hwy
Nepean Highway
Dandenong Rd
Wells Road
Nepean Highway
Nepean Highway
Nepean Highway
Ferntree Gully Road
Princess Highway
Stephensons Road
Ferntree Gully Road
Bridge Rd
Maroondah highway
Grange Rd
Huntingdale Rd
Grange Rd
Warrigal Rd
Nepean Highway
Jasper Road
Grange Rd
Bay st
Middleborough Rd
Nepean Highway
Frankston-Dandenong Road
Nepean Highway
Near
Near
Near
Near
Near
Near
Near
Near
Near
Near
Near
Near
Near
Near
Near
Near
Near
Near
Near
Near
Near
Near
Far
Far
Far
Far
Far
Far
Far
Far
Far
Far
Far
Far
Far
Far
Far
Far
Far
Far
Far
Far
A.3 Results Obtained / Data Coverage for Study Period
Table A.2 shows details of measurements successfully made at each of the dwellings in
Summer/Autumn and Winter/Spring. Dwelling F06 did not have any measurements made
because the participant asked for the equipment to be removed after one night. Dwelling L12
only has measurements in winter because the participant withdrew before the summer
sampling. Dwelling P42 did not have any measurements made in winter because this
participant was recruited in the summer to replace dwelling L12.
103
Table A.2. Details of measurements obtained at each dwelling in summer and winter. Y indicates a successful measurement was made, N indicates it was not,
and N/A indicates that the measurement was not attempted because the dwelling was not sampled in that particular part of the study.
winter
CO
A01
B02
C03
D04
E05
F06
G07
H08
I09
J10
K11
L12
M13
N14
O15
P16
Q17
R18
S19
T20
U21
V22
W23
X24
Y25
Z26
A27
B28
C29
D30
E31
F32
G33
H34
I35
J36
K37
L38
M39
N40
O41
P42
104
in
Y
Y
Y
Y
N
N/A
Y
Y
Y
Y
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N/A
out
N
Y
Y
N
Y
N/A
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
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Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
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Y
Y
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N
N/A
CO2
in
Y N
Y
Y
Y N
Y
N/A
Y
Y
Y
Y
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
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Y
Y
Y
N/A
out
N
Y
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N
Y
N/A
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N
N/A
PM10
in
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N/A
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N
Y
Y
Y
N/A
out
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N/A
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N/A
PM2.5
in
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N/A
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
?
Y
Y
N
?
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N/A
out
N
Y
Y
N
Y
N/A
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N/A
summer
Carbonyl
in
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N/A
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N/A
out
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N/A
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N/A
VOC
in
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N/A
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
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Y
N/A
out
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Y
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Y
Y
N/A
Y
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Y
Y
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Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N/A
NO2, O3, Mould
Nicotine bacteria
in
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N/A
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N/A
out
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N/A
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N/A
in
N
N
N
N
Y
N/A
Y
Y
Y
Y
N
Y
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N/A
out
N
N
N
N
Y
N/A
Y
Y
Y
Y
N
Y
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N/A
CO
in
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N/A
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N/A
Y
Y
Y
Y
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Y
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Y
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Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
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Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
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Y
Y
Y
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Y
Y
out
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N/A
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N/A
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
CO2
in
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N/A
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N/A
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
out
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N/A
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N/A
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
PM10
in
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N/A
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N/A
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
out
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N/A
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N/A
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
PM2.5 Carbonyl
in
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N/A
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N/A
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
out
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N/A
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N/A
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
in
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N/A
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N/A
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
out
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N/A
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N/A
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
VOC
in
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N/A
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N/A
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
out
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N/A
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N/A
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
NO2, O3, Mould
Nicotine bacteria
in
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N/A
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N/A
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
out
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N/A
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N/A
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
in
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N/A
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N/A
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
out
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N/A
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N/A
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
APPENDIX B – THE INSTRUMENTAL METHODS USED AND
THEIR CHARACTERISTICS
The measurement system consists of a single integrated instrument bundle with continuous
measurements of CO2, CO, Temperature, absolute humidity, air pressure and aerosol loading of
PM2.5. There are also weekly integrated measurements of O3, NO2 and Nicotine by passive
sampling and PM10, formaldehyde, other carbonyls, TVOCs and speciated VOCs by active
sampling. Fungi and bacteria are measured by a single spot sample. An inside and an outside
sampler are shown in the following photos.
Figure B.1. An indoor air sampler in a dwelling during the study
Figure B.2. An outdoor air sampler outside a dwelling during the study
105
Each of the measurement techniques are described in the following sections.
B.1 PM10
Particle mass less than 10 µm in diameter (PM10) is measured by gravimetric mass
determination. PM10 samples are collected using the Micro-Vol which draws air at a constant
flow rate (3 L min-1 ) through a PM10 size-selective inlet (which removes particles greater than
10 µm in diameter) and onto a 47 mm stretched Teflon filter (Pall R2PJ047, 2 µm pore size) on
which particles less than 10 µm diameter are trapped. Each filter is weighed before and after
sampling to determine the mass of particles collected. Gravimetric mass measurements are
performed using a Mettler UMTA2 microbalance at 30-50 % relative humidity. Electrostatic
charging is reduced by the presence of static discharge sources within the balance chamber.
The resolution of the balance is 0.0001 mg (0.1 µg). Each 47 mm Teflon filter is weighed
repeatedly, both before and after sampling, until three weights within 0.001 mg are obtained.
The detection limit was calculated from the standard deviation of 14 blanks collected during
Winter/Spring and Summer/Autumn (ISO, 1994). The precisions were calculated separately
during Winter/Spring and Summer/Autumn, as the % relative standard deviation, when kits
were co-located at CMAR, and sampling was carried out for 7 days.
Detection limit:
Precision:
Resolution:
Accuracy:
<0.1 μg m-3
4.6 % and 1.9 % for summer and winter respectively
N/A
N/A
Reference Methods
AS/NZS 3580.9.9:2006 Methods for sampling and analysis of ambient air - Determination of
suspended particulate matter – PM10 low volume sampler - Gravimetric method.
ISO Standard 9168:1994(E), Air Quality – Determination of performance characteristics of
measurement methods, International Organization for Standardization, Geneva, Switzerland, 18
pp, 1994.
B.2 PM2.5
Particle mass less than 2.5 µm in diameter (PM2.5) is determined by the light scattering
behaviour of the particles using an E-Sampler. This method allows a real-time measurement of
particle concentrations. However, light scattering behaviour of particles is dependent on the
chemical composition and size of the particles. Hence in order to convert light scattering to a
gravimetric mass metric, the light scattering data must be calibrated against a gravimetric mass
measurement. This is achieved in the E-Sampler by collecting a sample of PM2.5 on a filter at
the same time as the light scattering measurements are in progress and determining the
gravimetric mass concentration using the methodology described for PM10 above. The
gravimetric mass concentration is used with the light scattering data integrated over the
106
sampling period to determine a calibration factor that is applied to the time-resolved light
scattering data.
Detection limit:
Precision:
Resolution:
Accuracy:
1 μg m-3
0.003 µg m-3 or 2 %
N/A
8 % of NIOSH 0600
Reference Methods
AS/NZS 3580.9.10:2006 Methods for sampling and analysis of ambient air - Determination of
suspended particulate matter – PM2.5 low volume sampler - Gravimetric method.
B.3 NO2
Mean nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is determined for an exposure period of approximately 7 days
using passive samplers. The NO2 passive samplers trap sample gas that diffuses into the
cylindrical body of the sampler. This is driven by a concentration gradient of gas in the
sampler that decreases from the ambient level to a very low level at the filter paper interface,
where the gas reacts with a filter that is coated with a mixture of NaOH and NaI to form nitrite
ion. At the end of sampling the coated filter is extracted in water and the nitrite ion
concentration is then measured as a diazonium salt, which is produced from a reaction of nitrite
ion with sulphanilamide, phosphoric acid and N-1-naphthyl ethylenediamine dihydrochloride
(NEDA). The absorbance of the diazonium salt produced in the reaction is measured in a
Shimadzu UV-2401PC UV/Vis spectrophotometer at a wavelength of 540 nm. The accuracy of
the passive samplers (relative to real-time instruments) for one week samples is better than 3%.
The precision of the NO2 passive samplers was measured as the difference between the sample
pair as a percentage of the average of the sample pair. The detection limit of the technique was
calculated, for a 7-day period, from the standard deviation of the blanks collected during the
Summer/Autumn and Winter/Spring periods (ISO, 1994).
Detection limit:
Precision:
Resolution:
Accuracy:
0.1 ppb
3.9 % and 4.8 % for the outdoor and indoor samples respectively
N/A
±3%
Reference Methods
Ayers G.P., M.D. Keywood, R.W. Gillett, P.C. Manins, H. Malfroy and T. Bardsley (1998).
Validation of passive diffusion samplers for SO2 and NO2 under Australian conditions. Atmos.
Environ., 32, 3587-3592.
Ferm, M. (1991). A sensitive diffusional sampler. Report L91–172, IVL, Box 47086, 402 58
Goteborg, Sweden.
107
Powell, J. P. 2006 CMAR Chemlab Wet Chemistry NATA Work Instructions. Version 1.1
ISO Standard 9168:1994(E), Air Quality – Determination of performance characteristics of
measurement methods, International Organization for Standardization, Geneva, Switzerland, 18
pp, 1994.
B.4 O3
Mean O3 is determined for an exposure period of approximately 7 days using passive samplers.
In the case of the O3 passive sampler, O3 reacts with the coating solution (a mixture of K2CO3
and NaNO2) on the filter paper to produce NaNO3. The concentration of nitrate ion is
determined by ion chromatography using a Dionex DX500 gradient ion chromatograph with an
AS17-c column and an ASRS ultra-suppressor and a gradient eluent of sodium hydroxide. The
accuracy of the passive samplers (relative to real-time instruments) for one week samples is
better than 10%. The precision of the O3 passive samplers was calculated as the difference
between the sample pair as a percentage of the average of the sample pair. The detection limit
was calculated for a 7-day period, from the standard deviation of 15 blanks collected during the
study (ISO, 1994).
Detection limit:
Precision:
Resolution:
Accuracy:
0.2 ppb
9.2 % and 15.1 % during Winter/Spring and Summer/Autumn
respectively
N/A
±10%
Reference Methods
Ferm, M. (1991). A sensitive diffusional sampler. Report L91–172, IVL, Box 47086, 402 58
Goteborg, Sweden.
Powell, J. P. 2006 CMAR Chemlab Wet Chemistry NATA Work Instructions. Version 1.1
ISO Standard 9168:1994(E), Air Quality – Determination of performance characteristics of
measurement methods, International Organization for Standardization, Geneva, Switzerland, 18
pp, 1994.
B.5 Nicotine
The mean nicotine concentration was determined for an exposure period of approximately 7
days using passive samplers. In the nicotine passive sampler nicotine reacts with an acidic
coating solution (NaHSO4) on the filter paper to produce nicotine sulfate. The concentration of
nicotine ion is determined by ion chromatography using a Dionex DX500 gradient ion
chromatograph with a Dionex OmniPac PCX-500 column preceded by a Dionex OmniPac
guard PCX-500 column. The detection limit for a 7-day sampling period was estimated from
the standard deviation of 7 injections of a 0.15 µm l-1 standard. The precision of the nicotine
passive sampler was calculated as the difference between pairs of samplers as a fraction of the
mean of the pairs.
108
Detection limit:
Precision:
Resolution:
Accuracy:
0.01 ppb
8%
N/A
± 10%
Reference Methods
Ayers G.P., Selleck P.W., Gillett R.W. and Keywood M.D., (1998) Determination of nicotine
in water by gradient ion chromatography, Journal of Chromatography A, 824, 241-245.
Department of Natural Resources, Wisconsin, Laboratory Certification Program, Analytical
Detection Limit Guidance & Laboratory Guide for Determining Method Detection Limits,
1996.
B.6 Carbonyls
Samples for the analysis of carbonyl compounds (including formaldehyde) are collected by
drawing air through Supelco LpDNPH H10 air monitoring cartridges at a flow rate of 300 ml
min-1 for approximately 7 days. Carbonyls are trapped on high purity silica adsorbent coated
with 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine(2,4-DNPH), where they are converted to the hydrazone
derivatives. An ozone scrubber was placed in front of the LpDNPH cartridge. The derivatives
are eluted from the cartridge in 4.5 ml of acetonitrile. The analysis of carbonyls is based on
EPA Method TO11A.
The acetonitrile extractions are analysed by HPLC consisting of a Dionex GP40 gradient pump,
a Waters 717 autosampler, a Shimadzu System controller SCL-10A VP, a Shimadzu diode
array detector SPD-M10A VP, a Shimadzu Column Oven CTO-10AS VP and Shimadzu
CLASS-VP chromatography software. The compound separation is performed with a Supelco
Supelcsil LC-18 column, 5 µm, 4.6 mm ID x 250 mm in length, Part No 58298. The
chromatographic conditions include a flow rate of 2.0 ml min-1 and an injection volume of 20
µl, and detector wavelength of 360 nm. The peaks were separated by gradient elution with a
mobile phase of 60% acetonitrile and 40% Milli-Q water initial conditions to 100% acetonitrile
at 17min, and column temperature of 30ºC. Standard solutions were prepared from Supelco
Carb Method 1004 DNPH Mix 2, and the HPLC grade acetonitrile was purchased from Merck.
The water used for analysis was 18.2 mΩ.cm grade produced from a Millipore Milli-Q
Advantage 10 system.
The concentrations have been blank corrected. Where the mass of carbonyl on the DNPH tube
is less than the blank, half the Limit of Detection has been substituted. The precision was
estimated as the relative standard deviation over a 7-day period when eight kits were co-located
at CMAR, Aspendale during summer 2009. The detection limit was calculated from the
standard deviation of blanks collected during the study period (ISO, 1994).
Detection limit:
Precision:
Resolution:
0.03 ppb
7.7 %
N/A
109
Accuracy:
N/A
Reference Methods
EPA Method TO11A (US EPA Compendium Method TO-11A), Determination of
Formaldehyde in Ambient Air Using Adsorbent Cartridge Followed by High Performance
Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) [Active Sampling Methodology].
(http://www.epa.gov/ttn/amtic/files/ambient/airtox/to-11ar.pdf)
ISO Standard 9168:1994(E), Air Quality – Determination of performance characteristics of
measurement methods, International Organization for Standardization, Geneva, Switzerland, 18
pp, 1994.
B.7 VOCs
VOC Samples were collected by drawing air through two Markes Carbograph 1TD / Carbopack
X adsorbent tubes at a flow rate of 20 ml min-1 for 60 minutes, twice per day at varying times
for 7 days, giving a typical volume of 16.8 L. The absorbent tubes were placed in sequence,
with a back up tube being used to assess sample break-through. Sampling was conducted
according to USEPA Compendium method TO-17 (USEPA TO-17). The sorbent tube
desorption method is also in accordance with USEPA TO-17.
The method of ATD-VOC analysis in this study was compatible with ISO16017-1:2000 (ISO
2000). The tubes were analysed by a PerkinElmer TurboMatrix™ 650 ATD (Automated
Thermal Desorber) and a Hewlett Packard 6890A gas chromatography (GC) equipped with a
Flame Ionization Detector (FID) and a Mass Selective Detector (MSD). The ATD/GC/MS
procedure was as follows: The tube was thermally desorbed at 250°C for 5 minutes while backflushed into the GC/FID/MSD. Analysis was carried out on a DB5-MS capillary column (60 m
 0.32 mm internal diameter x 1.0 m film thickness) using a GC program from 35–240°C.
Compounds were identified by MS and quantified by FID. There were 6 working standard
gases used for the calibration before each batch of samples. They are a TO-15/17, a BTEX, a
VOC 42, a Carbonyl and an Alcohol mixture purchased from Scott Specialty Gases (San
Bernadino, CA, USA) and a US EPA PAM gas standard from Spectra Gases (Branchburg, NJ,
USA). All calibration and sample tubes were loaded with TO14a Internal Standard (Spectra
Gases, Branchburg, NJ, USA) prior to thermal desorption.
Tubes were cleaned prior to transporting to the field site by heating the tubes with helium (ultra
high purity grade) for 30 mins at 280°C and 45 mins at 250°C consecutively. Cleaned tubes
were also analysed before shipping to the field to determine the blank levels of VOCs. The
cleaned tubes were then capped with Swagelok fittings with PTFE ferrules and then stored in
sealed containers in a refrigerator. One cleaned tube was transported with sampling tubes to
each field site and returned unused. It was used as a field blank.
The detection limit was calculated from the standard deviation of blanks collected during the
study period (ISO, 1994). The precision was calculated as the relative standard deviation of
TVOC concentrations measured on 8 adsorbent tubes which were co-located at CMAR, over a
7-day sampling period. TVOC was measured as the sum of all FID peaks from early eluters
110
(such as C6 alkanes) to late eluters (such as pentadecane), expressed as a toluene-equivalent
concentration.
Detection limit:
Precision:
Resolution:
Reference Methods
2.0 µg m-3 (TVOCs)
7.9 % (TVOCs)
N/A
USEPA Compendium method TO-17 (USEPA TO-17), Determination of Volatile Organic
Compounds in Ambient Air Using Active Sampling Onto Sorbent Tubes.
(http://www.epa.gov/ttnamti1/files/ambient/airtox/to-17r.pdf)
ISO16017-1:2000 (ISO 2000), Indoor, ambient and workplace air -- Sampling and analysis of
volatile organic compounds by sorbent tube/thermal desorption/capillary gas chromatography -Part 1: Pumped sampling, Switzerland, International Organization for Standardization, 2000.
ISO Standard 9168:1994(E), Air Quality – Determination of performance characteristics of
measurement methods, International Organization for Standardization, Geneva, Switzerland, 18
pp, 1994.
B.8 CO
CO concentrations were determined using a TSI Q-Trak Indoor Air Monitor. Passive sampling
across an electrochemical sensor is used to detect CO with a resolution of 0.1 ppm with a
response time of approximately 1 minute. Data were logged every 2 minutes. The CO
electrochemical sensor was calibrated before and after each installation using a zero air
calibration and a 100 ppm CO calibration gas.
Detection limit:
Precision:
Resolution:
Accuracy:
Drift
N/A
N/A
0.1 ppm
±3% of reading or 3ppm, which ever is greater
±0.1 ppm per 7 days
B.9 CO2
CO2 concentrations were determined using a TSI Q-Trak Indoor Air Monitor. Passive sampling
across a non-dispersive infra-red detector was used to detect CO2 with a resolution of 1 ppm
and a response time of approximately 20 seconds. Data were logged every 2 minutes. The CO2
detector was measured before and after each installation against a zero air calibration gas, a 360
ppm ambient standard and 1000 ppm CO2 calibration gas standard.
Detection limit:
Precision:
Resolution:
N/A
N/A
1 ppm
111
Accuracy:
Drift
±3% of reading or ±50ppm, which ever is greater
±50 ppm per 7 days
B.10 Temperature, Relative Humidity and Pressure
Temperature, relative humidity and pressure were determined on the indoor and outdoor
sampling racks using a TSI Q-Trak Indoor Air Monitor. Passive sampling across a thermistor
was used to measure temperature with a resolution of 0.1 °C and a response time of 30 seconds.
Passive sampling across a Thin-film capacitive detector was used to measure relative humidity
with a resolution of 0.1%. Data were logged every 2 minutes. The accuracy of the thermistor is
± 0.6 °C and the relative humidity probe is ±3% relative humidity.
Temperature, relative humidity and pressure were also measured in the main bedroom of each
home using a Hobo Pro V2 logger that includes a temperature sensor (resolution of 0.02 °C and
response time of 40 minutes ) and an relative humidity sensors (resolution of 0.03% and
response time of 10 minutes.). The accuracy of the thermistor is ± 0.2 °C and the relative
humidity probe is ±2.5 % relative humidity.
Temperature
Detection limit:
Precision:
Resolution:
Accuracy:
N/A
N/A
0.1 %
±3%
Relative Humidity
Detection limit:
Precision:
Resolution:
Accuracy:
N/A
N/A
0.1 °C
± 0.6 °C
B.11 Fungi and Bacteria
Viable fungi and bacteria samples in air were collected on malt extract agar (MEA) and tryptic
soy agar (TSA) plates, respectively using a SKC BioStage Single-stage Viable Cascade
Impactor with a SKC QuickTake 30 Sample Pump. Samples were collected for 2 and 5
minutes at a flow rate of 28.3 l min-1, using a SKC supplied rotameter. The agar plates were
supplied by Integrated EnviroSciences Pty Ltd (IES, Baulkham Hills, NSW) and stored in a
refrigerator before use. Before sampling, the SKC BioStage Single-stage Viable Cascade
Impactor was cleaned according to SKC’s operation instructions. After sampling, the agar
plates were sealed and stored in a refrigerator before being returned to IES in an esky for
analysis within 1 to 2 days. Sampled agar plates were then incubated at the IES lab. Fungi and
Bacteria were analysed on the exposed agar plates by IES SOP MM-1-8 Bioaerosol Sampling
Methods for quantification and identification on both a genus and species level.
Concentrations are reported in colony forming units, CFU m-3.
Reference Method
112
IES (Integrated EnviroSciences) SOP (Standard Operating Procedure) MM-1-8 Bioaerosol
Sampling Method for Bacteria & Fungi, Integrated EnviroSciences Pty Ltd, Baulkham Hills,
NSW 2153
113
APPENDIX C – VENTILATION MEASUREMENTS
C.1
The Tracer Method of Measuring Ventilation
The method of assessing typical ventilation in dwellings was to make measurements of typical
closed and open ventilation states on 15 dwellings that proportionally represent the Australian
statistics of dwelling structure, age and material. Dwellings were tested in the ventilation states
that were reported by the participants to be typical during occupation, rather than testing the
minimum and maximum possible ventilation rates for the dwelling.
Ventilation was measured using the carbon dioxide (CO2) tracer release method similar to that
described by Dunne et al. (2006). In the first instance the external openings were configured in
a typical ‘closed’ state. The air inside the dwelling under test was enriched with CO2 and
QTrak CO2 monitors (TSI Inc.) were placed in areas inside and outside the dwelling to measure
the change in CO2 concentration indoors and outdoors over time. Fans were used to mix the
CO2 within the dwelling. Once all rooms were filled with approximately 5000 ppm of CO2, the
fans were switched off and measurements were commenced. The dwelling was left unoccupied
for 3 hours, with indoor and outdoor concentrations of CO2 being logged at 1-minute intervals.
The experiment was repeated with the dwelling left in a typical ‘open’ state. The following
information was recorded for each experiment:
 indoor and outdoor carbon dioxide, at 1-minute intervals;
 indoor and outdoor temperature, pressure and relative humidity, at 1-minute intervals;
 interior volume of the house (ignoring furniture);
 area of external openings in doors and windows;
 number of external doors and windows kept open;
 age of dwelling; and
 outdoor wind speeds measured at the closest Bureau of Meteorology observation
station.
Whilst ventilation measurements were only performed at 15 of the 42 dwellings, the rest of the
above information is recorded at all dwellings. Thus if significant relationships can be
established with the above variables, then survey and diary information from dwellings can be
used to estimate air exchange rates in dwellings where it was not directly measured.
C.2
Selected Dwellings
Dwellings listed in Table C.2 were selected for the ventilation measurements so that they
proportionally represented secondary selection criteria of Australian statistics for dwelling
structure, age and material. Near and Far-Road dwellings were included in all categories except
for the brick veneer category, where only Far-Road dwellings were measured.
114
Table C.2 The statistics of dwellings selected for ventilation measurements compared with the ABS
statistics for dwelling structure, age and material.
Population
% of dwellings from
ABS statistics
Approx. no. required
per 15 dwellings
Number sampled
(Far-Road, NearRoad)
Separate House
77.5
12
14 (12, 2)
Semi-detached or flat
22.5
3
1 (0, 1)
Less than 5 years
7.8
1
3 (2, 1)
5 - 19 years
31.9
5
2 (2, 0)
20-49 years
41.5
6
6 (5, 1)
50 or more years
18.9
3
4 (3, 1)
Double brick
35.4
5
5 (3, 2)
Brick veneer
48.4
7
7 (7, 0)
Weatherboard
16.2
3
3 (2, 1)
Dwelling structure
Other
Dwelling age
Dwelling material
Other
C.3
Diaries and Surveys
The following information collected in the diaries and surveys can be used to estimate typical
ventilation rates in dwellings:
 time and number of external windows & doors opened during sampling period;
 use of extraction fans (bathroom/toilet, kitchen);
 typical number of windows and doors open in summer and winter during the day,
evening and overnight;
 location of extraction fans and whether they are vented externally or internally;
 materials and structure of the building, including whether there are fixed vents in each
room;
 dimensions of the rooms; and
 furnishings contained within the house.
115
C.4
Measurements
Participants were asked to set up the ventilation in the dwelling to that typical for closed and
open ventilation states. Air exchange rates for closed and open ventilation states were measured
for 13 of the 15 dwellings. In 2 of the 15 dwellings, participants reported they typically
maintained only a closed ventilation state, hence only closed-state air exchange measurements
were performed in these dwellings. Tables C.4.1 and C.4.2 show air exchange rates measured
in the dwellings in (1) closed; and (2) open ventilation states.
Table C.4.1 Measured air exchange rates and variables for dwellings in typical closed-ventilation states.
Dwelling
ID
Dwelling
age
(years)
Dwelling
volume
(m3)
Area of
openings
(m2)
Indooroutdoor
temp. (oC)
Wind
speed
(ms-1)
Air exchange mean
(range) (h-1)
1
13
408
0.00
4.4
4.2
0.44 (0.42, 0.46)
2
75
312
0.00
2.2
5.2
0.78 (0.77, 0.80)
3
3
567
0.01
3.9
4.7
0.20 (0.20, 0.21)
4
45
239
0.00
-5.5
11.1
0.55 (0.51, 0.58)
7
75
333
0.08
3.0
9.1
1.10 (1.06, 1.15)
9
75
316
0.00
-0.6
5.7
0.41 (N/A, N/A)
13
53
227
0.54
-2.2
5.5
0.88 (0.74, 1.21)
15
42
200
0.00
2.2
7.6
0.51 (0.49, 0.52)
28
45
291
0.00
-2.9
8.4
0.47 (0.46, 0.48)
29
45
207
0.00
1.7
7.2
0.64 (0.62, 0.66)
35
4
268
0.00
-0.7
9.1
0.36 (0.35, 0.37)
36
38
258
0.91
0.4
8.2
0.81 (0.75, 0.95)
37
14
392
0.00
-6.1
4.5
0.33 (0.32, 0.34)
41
32
484
0.02
0.5
4.2
0.44 (0.26, 0.80)
42
1
432
0.00
0.1
4.9
0.09 (0.09, 0.09)
116
Table C.4.2 Measured air exchange rates and variables for dwellings in typical open-ventilation states.
Dwelling
ID
Dwelling
age
(years)
Dwelling
volume
(m3)
Area of
openings
(m2)
Indooroutdoor
temp. (oC)
Wind
speed
(ms-1)
Air exchange mean
(range) (h-1)
1
13
408
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
2
75
312
2.48
-1.4
6.7
4.19 (3.87, 4.87)
3
3
567
3.45
2.6
3.9
3.64 (2.91, 6.03)
4
45
239
1.60
-6.9
11.3
2.58 (N/A, N/A)
7
75
333
2.12
0.3
10.8
11.5 (9.21, 13.5)
9
75
316
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
13
53
227
4.66
-2.4
4.6
8.95 (8.52, 9.98)
15
42
200
3.01
1.5
7.5
7.32 (6.03, 7.95)
28
45
291
1.80
-2.1
10.0
2.69 (2.61, 2.74)
29
45
207
1.92
1.5
7.0
3.88 (3.61, 4.84)
35
4
268
4.91
-0.5
10.3
11.5 (11.3, 12.0)
36
38
258
6.02
1.0
8.0
9.82 (8.44, 10.7)
37
14
392
3.16
-4.7
4.1
3.43 (3.39, 3.52)
41
32
484
1.70
0.4
4.3
3.26 (3.22, 3.31)
42
1
432
3.97
0.5
4.9
1.91 (1.86, 1.96)
Table C.4.3 shows air exchange rates are typically about 0.53 air exchanges per hour when
dwellings are “closed up” and have minimal windows (1) and doors (0) open to outside air. The
air exchange rate increases by a factor of 10 to 5.8 air exchanges per hour when dwellings are
opened up, typically having 5 windows and a door open to outside air.
Table C.4.3 Summary of air exchange rates for dwellings in closed and open ventilation states.
Ventilation State
Average
Dwelling
age (years)
Average
number
windows
open
Average
number
doors open
Average
opening
area
(m2)
Average
Air
exchange
(h-1)
Closed average
(standard deviation)
37
(26)
1
(1)
0
(0)
0.10
(0.26)
0.53
(0.27)
Open average
(standard deviation)
36
(25)
5
(4)
1
(1)
3.1
(1.4)
5.8
(3.6)
117
C.5
Analysis
The relationship between air exchange rate and each of the following variables was examined
using correlation coefficients:
1. Dwelling age (years) as an indicator of leakiness
2. Ratio of external dwelling openings to interior unfurnished volume (m-1)
3. Indoor minus outdoor temperature (°C) as an indicator of thermal gradient
4. Outdoor wind speed (m/s) as an indicator of pressure gradients
Table C.5 Correlations between air exchange rate and dwelling age, degree of opening, temperature
gradient and wind speed (pressure gradient). Correlations highlighted in bold are significant at 95%
confidence.
Dwelling age
(years)
Ratio dwelling
opening/volume
(m-1)
Indoor-outdoor
temperature
difference (oC)
Wind speed
(ms-1)
Closed-state air
exchange (h-1)
0.55
(p<0.05, n=15)
0.24
(p>0.05, n=15)
0.02
(p>0.05, n=15)
0.14
(p>0.05, n=15)
Open-state air
exchange (h-1)
0.05
(p>0.05, n=13)
0.45
(p<0.05, n=13)
0.06
(p>0.05, n=13)
0.14
(p>0.05, n=13)
Open- and closedstate rates (h-1)
0.01
(p>0.05, n=28)
0.74
(p<0.05, n=28)
0.00
(p>0.05, n=28)
0.08
(p>0.05, n=28)
When dwellings are in a typical closed-up state, half the variance in air exchange rate is due to
the age of the dwelling. Newer dwellings have lower air exchange rates than older dwellings.
This is probably due to factors such as:
 newer building codes do not require fixed open ventilation;
 as dwellings age, the envelope can become more leaky as foundations shift, and
materials deteriorate; and
 modern building methods and materials can reduce the ‘leakiness’ of a house.
When dwellings are in a typical open state, one third of the variance in air exchange rate is due
to the degree of openings in the building shell. The degree of openings is expressed as the area
of openings in external windows and doors divided by the interior volume of the dwelling.
When the air exchange rate is considered for dwellings in all ventilation states, degree of
opening explains two thirds of the variance, shown in Figure C.5.
118
Closed- and open-state air exchange rates (h-1)
14
12
y = 449.17x + 0.60
R2 = 0.74
10
8
6
4
2
0
0.00E+00
5.00E-03
1.00E-02
1.50E-02
2.00E-02
2.50E-02
-1
Ratio external opening area to interior volume (m )
Figure C.5. Air exchange versus the degree of external openings in a dwelling. The degree of external
openings is expressed as the area of external openings divided by the unfurnished interior volume.
C.6
Conclusions
Air exchange rates were measured for 15 dwellings that proportionally represent the Australian
statistics of dwelling structure, age and material. Dwellings were tested in closed and open
ventilation states that were reported by the participants to typically occur during occupation.
When dwellings are in a closed ventilation state, with one window and no external doors open
on average, the air exchange rate is 0.53 changes per hour. When dwellings are in a state of
open ventilation the air exchange rate increases by a factor of 10 to 5.8 air exchanges per hour.
Open ventilation state dwellings typically have 5 windows and one door open to outside air.
When dwellings are in closed ventilation states, there is a significant relationship between
house age and air exchange rate. In all ventilation states, there is a significant relationship
between the number of external openings and air exchange rate.
C.7
References
Dunne E., Kirstine W.V., Galbally I.E., Powell J.C., Selleck P.W. & Lawson, S.J. 2006, A
study of gaseous indoor air quality for a Melbourne home. Clean Air and Environmental
Quality, 40:45-51.
119
APPENDIX D – EMISSION FACTORS
D.1
Emission Factors for Materials
Many studies have found that most indoor air pollutants result from emissions from the
building materials, contents and appliances, rather than from infiltration of outdoor air
pollutants.
Indoor air pollutant emissions from materials and appliances are usually measured in simulated
building environments using a dynamic environmental chamber (e.g. Brown 1999a). Typical
conditions in such chambers are temperatures of 23°C±0.5°C, relative humidity (RH) of 50% ±
5%, ventilation rates of 0.3 to 5 ± 0.05 air changes per hour (ACH) and air velocity of 0.2–0.3
ms-1. The chamber is usually constructed with non-emitting materials, such as glass and
stainless steel, with little or no ‘sink’ effects for air pollutants. Purified air is generally supplied
to the chamber to ensure that any pollutants measured in the chamber are produced only by the
test material. As the air in the chamber is well mixed, the pollutant concentration in the
chamber air (C g m-3) is directly related to the pollutant emission rate of the material (R g h1
) by:
R = C.V.N
(1)
where V is the chamber volume (m3); and N is the chamber ventilation rate (h–1).
The emission factor (EF) of the material can then be estimated from R. In particular, the
pollutant emission rate relative to the quantity of material is estimated, e.g. relative to area (g
m-2h-1) or item (g h-1.workstation) or process operation such as gas combustion (ng J -1) or
printing (g copy-1). EF is defined as the mass of pollutant emitted per time from a unit area of
the material and is derived from the equilibrium concentration of pollutant C in a space of
known ventilation rate N (ACH) and material loading L.
EF = C.N/L
where L is the ratio of the quantity of testing material used in the chamber to the chamber
volume. It is similar to that which is typically used in buildings (e.g. flooring and floor
coverings 0.4 m2m-3, paint 0.5 m2m-3).
A wide range of materials, products and appliances in Australia have been studied on pollutant
source emission using the CSIRO dynamic environmental chambers. They include interior
paints (Brown 1998), wood-based panels (Brown 1999a), carpets (Brown 2001), office
furniture and equipment such as photocopier and laser printers (Cheng et al., 2005 and Brown
1999b) and electric ovens (Brown et al., 2005) and gas appliances (Brown et al. 2004).
EF for many pollutants may be constant for some products (e.g. office equipment, gas
appliances) or vary rapidly over time, particularly for ‘wet’ products such as paints, adhesives
and sealants.
The Green Building Council of Australia (GBCA) uses the Product Certification Project (PCP)
under the Green Star environmental rating system for buildings (Green Star) (GBCA 2009). For
Low VOC Emissions products including interior fitout items such as walls, ceilings, floor
coverings and furniture, etc., TVOC emission limit should be less than 0.5 mg m-2 hr-1 at 1, 3, 7
120
(2)
or 28 days after manufacture depending on the product. The Low Formaldehyde Emissions
products with composite/engineered wood content should be in the range of <0.1 to <3.5
mg m-2 hr-1or <1 to <1.5mg L-1 at various days after manufacture for different testing methods.
BTEX, TVOC and Formaldehyde Emissions from Paints
Brown (1998) studied BTEX and Formaldehyde emissions from four types of interior paints,
including conventional acrylic paints, solvent-based coatings, “natural” paints and low-or zeroVOC paints. The “natural” paints were manufactured by using plant-based or natural oils
without “man-made” chemicals or free of solvents. The product loading ratio was 0.50 m2 of
coating m-3 of chamber volume (51 L) at 23 ± 0.5C, 45 ± 5% RH, 1.00±0.03 ACH, surface air
velocity 0.3m s-1. Table D 1 lists the TVOC and formaldehyde emissions from these tests.
Table D 1. BTEX, TVOC and Formaldehyde emissions from four types of paints.
Paint
conventional acrylic
8h
1d
3d
14d
Ethylbenzene
<6
<4
<2
<0.5
m,p-Xylene
21
<6
<1
<0.5
11000-
1100-
95-600
7-230
43000
16000
Ethylbenzene
29-70
<9-26
<4-20
<1-13
o,m,p-Xylene
57-1300
<16-55
2-42
<1-28
Toluene
<50
8
2
<1
TVOC
210-
180-
130-6600
90-1000
420000
39000
49
69
30
10(6days)
28-2200
110-210
22-420
<10
Ethylbenzene
2
<1
<1
<0.5
o,m,p-Xylene
31
10
<2
<1
36-570
10-150
<10-81
<10
TVOC
solvent-based
“natural”
Formaldehyde
TVOC
low-or zero-VOC
Concentration ((g/m3) at
VOC
TVOC
121
Formaldehyde, TVOC and BTEX Emissions from Wood-Based Panels and
Furniture
Brown (1999a) tested emissions of formaldehyde, BTEX and TVOC from particleboard,
medium density fibreboard (MDF), new office furniture with low emission (LEF) and
conventional manufactured furniture (CMF) using both a small chamber (SC) with chamber
volume of 51 L and room chamber (RC) with chamber volume of 33.6 m3 at the controlled
environmental conditions of: 23±0.5C, 45±5% relative humidity (RH), 1.00±0.03 ACH,
surface air velocity 0.3m/s (SC) and 0.2m/s (RC). The chamber loading ratio is 0.41 and 0.5
m2/m3 for SC and RC, respectively. The results of these tests are reproduced in Table D 2,
Table D 3 and Table D 4.
Table D 2. Formaldehyde Emissions from Wood-Based Panels.
Formaldehyde Emission factor (g m-2h-1) on
Wood-Based Panel
1day
7day
14day
day
MDF (SC)
365
330
299
184 (312day)
MDF(RC)
320
320
320
237(260day)
Particleboard (SC)
442
362
287
84(214day)
Particleboard(RC)
415
354
293
148(160day)
Table D 3. TVOC Emissions from Wood-Based Panels.
TVOC Concentration (g m-3) on
Wood-Based Panel
1day
7day
14day
day
Particleboard (SC)
129
52
27
<10(214day)
Particleboard(RC)
400
170
57
<10(160day)
122
Table D 4. Formaldehyde, BTEX and TVOC emissions from low emission (LEF) and conventional
manufactured furniture (CMF).
Furniture
Concentration (g m-3) at
4h
24h
10
14
257
126
190
230
59
48
970
820
VOC
Formaldehyde
m,p-Xylene
TVOC
Formaldehyde
m,p-Xylene
TVOC
LEF
CMF
Formaldehyde and TVOC Emissions from Carpet
Brown (2001) measured TVOC emissions from two new 100% wool carpets within a week of
manufacture. The chamber loading ratio was 0.36-0.5 m2/m3 and conditions were 23oC, 45-47
%RH and 1.00 ACH. The results of these tests are listed in Table D 5.
Table D 5. TVOC Emissions from new carpets.
TVOC Concentration (g m-3) on
Carpet
3-4hr
18-26hr
73-90hr
169-199hr
237-240hr
314-334hr
A(SC)
750
220
500
380
360
390
B(SC)
980
400
200
190
140
-
B(RC)
570
310
89
26
37
79
Formaldehyde, BTEX, TVOC, Carbon Monoxide and Respirable Particle
Emissions from Oven Insulation
Brown et al. (2005) studied BTEX, TVOC, CO and respirable particle emissions from three
types of oven insulations. These include:
 Insulation A – rockwool insulation with a phenol formaldehyde binder resin which was
originally formulated with ~10% free formaldehyde, subsequently reacted with
ammonia to bind the formaldehyde;
 Insulation B – identical (same batch of product) to insulation A, to assess whether oven
components other than insulation (e.g. residual oil on the metal surfaces,
wiring/switches) may have contributed to emissions when testing insulation A; and
 Insulation C – rockwool insulation with an acrylic binder.
123
The chamber was controlled to 25 ± 1oC and 50 ± 2% RH, and 1.0 ACH of a nominal
ventilation rate. Table D 6 and Table D 7 reproduce the results of these tests.
Table D 6. Formaldehyde, BTEX and TVOC Emissions from oven insulations.
Oven
Concentration (g m-3)
VOC
insulation
A
B
C
124
0.5h
1hr
2hr
4hr
1day
2day
Formaldehyde
1600
2400
1800
850
110
37
Benzene
20
30
24
13
1
1
Toluene
16
12
17
6
<1
<1
TVOC
1900
5300
4200
1800
160
97
Formaldehyde
1200
1900
1300
700
-
-
Benzene
25
49
10
12
-
-
Toluene
9
14
6
2
-
-
TVOC
3000
5700
3800
1600
-
-
Formaldehyde
<10
<120
<10
380
-
-
Benzene
110
-
110
59
-
-
Toluene
37
45
10
<10
-
-
TVOC
2400
3800
2300
1100
-
-
Table D 7. Emissions of Carbon Monoxide (CO) and Respirable Particles (RP) from oven
insulations.
Oven
Pollutant
Concentration (g m-3)
insulation
A
B
C
0.5h
1hr
2hr
4hr
1day
2day
CO
9160
9160
4580
0
1145
0
RP
7900
17000
13000
5900
700
300
CO
5725
6870
4580
0
-
-
RP
900
300
4200
2700
-
-
CO
13740
17175
12595
3435
-
-
RP
2000
4700
5100
2600
-
-
Formaldehyde, TVOC, BTEX, Carbon Monoxide and Nitrogen Dioxide
Emissions from Unflued Gas Heaters
Brown et al. (2005) tested emissions of formaldehyde, TVOC, BTEX, CO, and NO2 from five
heaters. These included:
 Heaters A1, A2 and A3 were brand new natural gas unflued heaters of 17 MJ h-1
capacity and nominally identical. They were tested at the heating rate of 6.2, 5.3 and
4.0 MJ h-1 and after 1200, 1400 and 1400 hours of use, respectively.
 Heater B1 was a brand new natural gas heater of 18 MJ h-1 capacity. It was tested at the
heating rate of 6.9 MJ h-1and after 1400 hours of use.
 Heater B2 was a 9-year-old liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) heater of 17 MJ h-1 capacity
and tested at 8.7 MJ h-1 heating rate.
The chamber was controlled to 23oC and 50% RH, and 2.0 ACH of a nominal ventilation rate.
The chamber blank pollutant concentrations are: NO2 < 5 g m-3; formaldehyde < 10 g m-3;
respirable particles < 3 g m-3; CO < 1 ppm and TVOC 40–80 g m-3. Table D8 reproduces the
results of these tests.
125
Table D 8. Pollutant emissions from unflued gas heaters.
Pollutant
NO2
CO
Formaldehyde
Benzene
TVOC
Heater
Concentration
(g m-3)
Emission rate
(ng J-1)
A1
A2
A3
B1
B2
A1
A2
A3
B2
270
190
230
530
810
4 ppm
2 ppm
1 ppm
4ppm
3.1
2.5
4.1
5.3
6.6
40
30
20
42
A1
A2
A3
B1
B2
A1
A2
A3
B1
B2
A1
A2
A3
B1
B2
180
97
130
<10
57
<1
<1
<2
11
33
25
1.9
1.3
2.5
<0.1
0.5
Formaldehyde, TVOC, BTEX, Ozone, Nitrogen Dioxide and Respirable
Particles Emissions from Photocopiers and Laser Printers
Cheng et al. (2005) and Brown (1999b) measured the emissions of formaldehyde, TVOC,
BTEX, Ozone, NO2 and respirable particles from one new photocopier and four laser desk-top
printers (two new, two old used for 5-10 years) . Pollutant concentrations were measured in
different modes of copier operation: copier-off (no power), copier-idle (copier powered but not
operating) and copier operating (producing copies at 10 sheets per minute, double-sided). The
chamber was controlled to 25 ± 0.5oC and 50 ± 5% RH, and 2.0 ± 0.05 ACH of a nominal
ventilation rate. Table D9 and Table D 10 reproduce the results of these tests.
126
Table D 9. BTEX, TVOC and Respirable particle average concentrations (g m-3) from new
photocopiers.
VOC
Concentration (g m-3)
Chamber
Copier-off
Copier-idle
Copier-operate
blank
Benzene
<2
<2
<2
<2
Ethylbenzene
<0.2
2.0±0.4
4.1±0.9
608
m,p-Xylene
0.4
2.3±0.6
4.5±0.9
515
Styrene/o-Xylene
<0.2
1.4±0.4
3.1±0.7
390
TVOC
24
28±2
49±10
1900
Respirable particle
21-28
27-39
46-50
Table D 10. Pollutant emission rates for laser printers.
Printer
OP1a
OP2
OP2
OP2
OP2
NP1a
NP1
NP2
NP2
a
Ventilation
rate
ACH
0
0
1.0
2.0
2.0
0
2.0
0
2.0
Copy
Rate
/min
3
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
Emission rates (g copy-1) of pollutants
O3
2.7
53-60
63-69
57-75
50
2.0
<6
<1
<3
NO2
3.4
5.0
3.8-4.2
5.4-5.5
4.4
0.8
<2-1.5
<1
<1
Formaldehyde
<1
<3
<3
<1
<3
-
Respirable
particle
1.1
10
5.0-8.1
8.1-9.9
2.7-6.8
1.2
8.7
TVOC
38
35-66
12-32
26
31
27-70
68
90
OP1 = Old Printer 1, OP2 = Old Printer 2, NP1 = New Printer 1, NP2 = New Printer 2
TVOC and Formaldehyde Emission in Australia Building Products/
Materials from Commercial Testing
The emissions of TVOC and formaldehyde from Australian building products and materials
have been tested by Yerramilli (2009). In these tests chamber test conditions were temperature
23 ± 0.5oC, RH 50 ± 5% and product loading ratio 0.5-1.0 m-2 m-3. The tests were carried out
for a specified period e.g. for 1 day, 7, 14 and 28 days. The results are shown in Table D 11.
127
Table D 11. Typical TVOC emission from Australia building products/ materials.
Application
Material
TVOC Emission
factor (mg m-2h-1)
Formaldehyde Emission
factor (mg m-2h-1)
Flooring
Carpet
Vinyl
Rubber
Cork
0.1-0.3
0.05-0.2
0.5-2
0.1-0.4
2.5
4.1
5.3
Fit-Out
Plasterboard
MDF
Plywood
Particleboard
High Pressure Laminate
Cement Sheet
Ceiling Tile
Bamboo
0.05-0.2
0.1-0.3
0.1-0.3
0.1-0.3
<0.05
0.02-0.1
0.1-0.4
<0.05
<0.02
0.01-0.04
<0.01-0.05
0.1
Fibreglass
Polyester
Rubber
Solvent-based Glue
Water-based Glue
Natural Wood
Coated Wood
Foam
Upholstery Fabric
Plastic (PP,PE,ABS & PVC)
Steel/Aluminium
Stone/Marble
0.05-0.2
<0.05
0.1-0.5
5
<0.05
0.2-0.5
<0.1
0.1-0.6
0.05-0.02
<0.05-0.2
<0.01
<0.01
<0.03
<0.01
-
Insulation
Furniture
References
1. Brown, S.K. (1998), VOC emissions from interior coatings – measurements and
mechanisms, Proceedings of. RACI Symposium. on Advances in Polymers V ‘Coatings’, 2
October 1998, CSIRO Molecular Science, Clayton, Victoria, Australia.
2. Brown, S.K. (1999a), Chamber assessment of formaldehyde and VOC emissions from woodbased panels, Indoor Air, 9, 209–215.
3. Brown, S.K. (1999b), Assessment of pollutant emissions from dry-process photocopiers,
Indoor Air, 9, 259–267.
4. Brown, S.K. (2001), Emissions of volatile organic pollutants from building materials: impact
on indoor air quality, PhD thesis, RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia.
5. Brown, S.K., Mahoney K. J. and Cheng, M. (2004), Room chamber assessment of the
pollutant emission properties of (nominally) low-emission unflued gas heaters, Indoor Air, 14,
(Suppl 8): 84–91.
6. Brown, S. K. and Cheng, M (2005) Pollutant emissions from new electric ovens, 10th Int.
Conf. on Indoor Air Quality and Climate, Int. Soc. of Indoor Air Quality and Climate, Beijing,
China.
128
7. Cheng, M. and Brown, S. K. (2005) IAQ Control and solutions CSIRO chamber technology,
10th Int. Conf. on Indoor Air Quality and Climate, Int. Soc. of Indoor Air Quality and Climate,
Beijing, China.
8. Green Building Council of Australia (2009), the Product Certification Project (PCP) - Part I Criteria for Evaluating Product Certification Schemes
9. Yerramilli S., Schiller R., Downie R. and Garnys Y. (2009), Measurement of Chemical
Emissions from Building Products, EcoForum 2009, 28 - 30 April, Australian Technology Park,
Sydney NSW, Australia.
D.2
A Review of Emission Factors for Various Activities
Table D 12 summarises Emission Factors of PM2.5, PM10, CO, CO2, TVOCs and NO2 from
common household activities.
129
Activity
Cooking
Cooking (burned
food)
Frying (gas)
Frying (electric)
PM2.5
0.11± 0.99 mg min-1
(He et al., 2004)
1.7 ± 0.6 mg min-1
(Wallace, 1996)
0.05± 0.002 mg min-1
(Powell, 2001)
1.14 ±0.75 mg min-1
(Powell, 2001)
1.22 ± 1.09 mg min-1
(Powell, 2001)
1.59 mg min-1 (He et
al., 2004)
470 mg min-1(Olson
and Burke, 2006)
2.68± 2.18 mg min-1
(He et al., 2004)
1.2 – 2.8 mg min-1
(chips in oil)
(Buonanno et al.,
2009)
60 mg min-1(Olson
and Burke, 2006)
0.031 – 0.2 mg min-1
(chips in oil)
(Buonanno et al.,
2009)
Table D 12. Emission factors for activities
130
PM10
4.1 ± 1.6 mg min-1
(Özkaynak et al.,
1996)
CO
CO2
VOC
NO2
0.30± 0.03 mg min1
(Abt et al., 2000b)
0.36 ± 0.34 mg
min-1 (Abt et al.,
2000a)
192 ± 35 mg min-1
(Dennekamp et al.,
2001)
Activity
Grilling
PM2.5
2.78 ±17.8 mg min-1
(He et al., 2004)
0.52 ±0.002 – 13 ±
0.5 mg min-1
(Buonanno et al.,
2009) (bacon, low
and high gas
power)
173 mg min-1(Olson
and Burke, 2006)
Microwave
Oven
CO
CO2
VOC
NO2
0.24 ± 0.27 mg min1
(Abt et al., 2000a)
BBQ
Kettle
PM10
0.03 ± 0.31 mg min1
(He et al., 2004)
0.03 ±0.11 mg min-1
(He et al., 2004)
11 mg min-1(Olson
and Burke, 2006)
0.03 ±0.03 mg min-1
(He et al.,
2004)
10 mg min-1(Olson
and Burke, 2006)
0.15 ± 0.09 mg
min-1 (Abt et al.,
2000a)
Bake cake 424 ±24
mg min-1
Roast meat 546 ±96
mg min-1
Bake potatoes 688±
129 mg min-1
1 gas ring 805 ±404
mg min-1
±256 mg min-1
(Dennekamp et al.,
2001)
131
Activity
Stove
Toasting
Smoking
Sweeping floor
Vacuuming
Washing
132
PM2.5
0.24± 1.29 mg min-1
(He et al., 2004)
17 mg min-1(Olson
and Burke, 2006)
0.11± 0.37 mg min-1
(He et al., 2004)
51 mg min-1(Olson
and Burke, 2006)
0.99± 0.81 mg min-1
(He et al., 2004)
1.67 mg m-1 (Brauer
et al., 2000)
1.7 mg m-1 (Ferro et
al., 2004)
0.05± 0.01 mg min-1
(He et al., 2004)
0.07± 0.04 mg min-1
(He et al., 2004)
0.48 mg m-1 (Ferro et
al., 2004)
0.028 – 176 ug min-1
(Lioy et al., 1999)
0.04 ± 0.03 µg m-1
(Powell, 2001)
0.04± 0.04 mg min-1
(He et al., 2004)
PM10
5.48± 4.68 mg
min-1 (Abt et al.,
2000a) (Sauteing)
CO
0.16± 0.07 mg
min-1 (Abt et al.,
2000a)
23-140 mg min-1
(Klepeis et al.,
1999) (cigar)
CO2
VOC
NO2
170 ± 9 mg m-1
(Dennekamp et al.,
2001) Stir fry
Activity
Dusting
PM2.5
0.09 mg min-1 (He et
al., 2004)
0.30 mg min-1
(Ferro et al., 2004)
PM10
Hair dryer
Shower
Washing Machine
Candle
CO2
6722 – 13444 mg
min-1 (Brown et al.,
2004)
Unflued Gas Heater
Fan heater
CO
0.05 mg min-1 (He et
al., 2004)
0.04 mg min-1 (He et
al., 2004)
0.04 mg min-1 (He et
al., 2004)
0.12 mg min-1 (He et
al., 2004)
0.91 mg min-1 (He et
al., 2004) #
0.055 – 0.443 mg
m-1 (Fine et al.,
1999)
0.22± 0.12 mg min-1
(Fan and Junfeng,
2001)
0.006± 0.0004 min-1
steady burn
0.13 ±0.04 min-1
unsteady burn
0.004± 0.001 mg
min-1
smouldering(Sun et
al., 2006)
0.08 ± 0.05 mg min1
(Fan and Junfeng,
2001)*
VOC
NO2
HCHO 40 –725 mg
min-1 (Brown et al.,
2004)
TVOC 44 – 173 mg
min-1 (Brown et al.,
2004)
766 3266 mg min-1
(Brown et al., 2004)
91.7 ±11.7 mg min-1
(Fan et al)*
133
Activity
Mosquito coil
PM2.5
43.4 – 109.8 mg h-1
(Lee and Wang,
2006)
Incense
6 – 202 mg h-1
(Jetter et al., 2002)
0.4 mg min-12
persons walking
(Ferro et al., 2004)
0.1 mg min-1
I person walking
(Ferro et al., 2004)
Walking
(resuspending
particles)
Human breathing
134
PM10
32.0 – 112.1 mg h-1
(Lee et al., 2001)
CO
2.5 –3.7 mg min-1
(Lee and Wang,
2006)
CO2
0.5 g min-1
VOC
0.1 – 13.3. mg h-1
(Lee and Wang,
2006) Burning (ug
m-h-1)
Methylene chloride:
28.8 – 64.5
Chloroform ND –
5.5
Benzene: 7.2 – 25.6
Toluene: 7.6 – 40.1
Ethylbenzene: ND –
8.2
M, p-xylene: ND –
4.5
Styrene: ND
O-xylene: 0.9 – 1.7
NO2
0.003 – 0.02 mg
min-1 (Lee 2006)
NOx
D.3
Ingredients of Common Household Chemicals
A large range of household products with various brands are sold in Australia each year. The
products used in each dwelling during the sampling programs were recorded via the activity
diary. Products were classified according to their use as shown on the horizontal axis of Figure
D 1.
100%
Percentage of dwellings using product
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
D
is
O
ra
lc
hw are
La ash
un
in
g
dr
y
D car
eo
e
do
r
Sk ant
in
ca
Su Ha re
rfa ir c
ce ar
cl e
ea
n
Fr
ag e r
D ran
is
in ce
fe
ct
Pe ant
Ai stic
rf
re ide
O
th
sh
er
en
(
O
er
th stor Na
i
er
l
e
(s d in car
to
e
re tern
d
ex ally
)
te
rn
al
ly
Fa
Te )
b
xt
as
Pa ric/
in Ca
t(
pe
Fu
st
or t c e l
ed le
Bi
ex ane
oc
r
te
id
rn
e
C
al
(
le
ly
an stor
)
e
e
So r (s d e Glu
x
t
lv
e
en ore ter
n
d
t(
ex ally
st
or
)
t
ed ern
ex ally
)
te
r
W nall
y)
ax
/P
ol
is
Pa
Ve h
in
t/P
t(
Ad et
st
or
ed hes
iv
in
e
te
rn
al
ly
)
0%
Figure D 1. Percentage of dwellings using different groups of products containing chemicals. (Stored
internally is stored in the dwelling, stored externally is stored outside of the dwelling e.g. in a shed or
garage).
Figure D 1 shows the percentage of houses that recorded the use of the different classes of
products. Over 90% of houses used oral care, dishwashing and laundry care products. Of these
Colgate toothpaste was the predominate oral care product used, Morning Fresh dishwashing
liquid and Finish were the most used dishwashing liquid and dishwasher powder, respectively.
Omo, NapiSan and Biozet were the major brands of laundry care products.
Deodorant, hair care and skin care products were used in over 80% of the dwellings with
Rexona (liquid) being the dominant deodorant brand. No particular brand of hair care or skin
care product dominated however.
Surface cleaners were used in over 60% of dwellings and Spray and Wipe was the dominant
surface cleaner used. Fragrance was used in over 50% of the dwellings (with no particular
brand dominating) and disinfectant was used in over 40% of dwellings (Pinoclean and
Domestos were the dominant disinfectants used). Pesticides and air fresheners were used in
135
over 20% of dwellings, with Mortein fly spray being pesticide and no particular air freshener
being dominant (Glen 20, Ambipure and Orange Power being equally used).
The ingredient lists for some of the most widely used products during the sampling periods are
shown in Table D 1. These lists are taken from available material safety data sheets (MSDS)
from the manufactures. The information available in MSDS’s varies, in some instances for
example the proportions of chemicals considered to be non hazardous are not reported; in other
instances a MSDS is not available (e.g. Rexona deodorant). The paucity and variable in the
quality of information about the chemical constituents that make up many consumer products
commonly used in the home highlight the need for further study in this area, ultimately leading
to the development and production of a readily available data base with this information. Such
a data base exists for US consumer products (http://hpd.nlm.nih.gov/index.htm).
136
Table D 1 Chemical constituents for Colgate toothpaste, Napisan laundry powder, Morning
Fresh dishwashing liquid.
Colgate toothpaste chemical constituents (proportion varied with different types of the
toothpaste)
Chemical Name
CAS No
Sorbitol
000050-70-4
Sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS)
000151-21-3
Sodium fluoride
007681-49-4
Calcium hydrogen
007789-77-7
Sodium hydroxide
001310-73-2
Mannitol
000069-65-8
Tetrasodium pyrophosphate (TSPP)
007722-88-5
Water
007732-18-5
PEG-12
006769-09-6
Glycerin
000056-81-5
Potassium citrate
000866-84-2
Sodium monofluorophosphate
007631-97-2
Hydrated silica (Silica gel)
112926-00-8
Ingredients determined not to be hazardous
Not required
137
NapiSan (Vanish) OxiAction Intelligence
Chemical Name
CAS No
Proportion (%W/V )
Sodium carbonate
497-49-18
30-60
Sodium percarbonate
15630-89-4
30-60
Surfactants
68081-81-2/68137-39-5
<10
Sodium disilicate
1344-09-8
<10
Protease enzyme (Subtilisin)
9014-01-1
<0.1
Alpha-amylase
9000-90-2
<0.1
Mannanase
37288-54-3
<0.1
Lipase
9001-62-1
<0.1
Other ingredients classified as non hazardous according to NOHSC
to 100
Morning Fresh dishwashing liquid
Chemical Name
CAS No
Proportion (%W/V )
Organic Surfactant
Non Hazardous
<5%
Palm Oil Extract
Non Hazardous
<20%
Preservative
Non Hazardous
Trace
Perfume
Non Hazardous
Trace
Colour
Non Hazardous
Trace
Water
Non Hazardous
Remainder
138
Finish 2in1 Powder
Chemical Name
CAS No
Proportion (%w/w )
Sodium Silicate (amorphous
non-crystalline)
1344-09-5
1 - <5
Tetrasodium pyrophosphate
7722-88-5
0.1 - <1
Sodium tripolyphosphate
7758-29-4
10 - <30
Disodium carbonate
497-19-8
30 - 60
Sodium carbonate
peroxyhydrate
15630-89-4
1 - <5
Protease
9014-01-1
0.1 - <1
Alpha-amylase
9000-90-2
<0.1
Benzotriazole
95-14-7
0.1 - <1
The other ingredients to 100%w/w are classified as not hazardous according to NOHSC
(Australia)
Mortein NaturGard Fly Control Spray
Chemical Name
CAS No
Proportion (%w/w )
Hydrocarbon propellant1
106-97-8/74-98-6
30 - 60
Hydrocarbon solvent
64771-72-8
<10
Butylated hydroxytoluene
128-37-0
<1
Piperonyl butoxide
51-03-6
1.61 (16.1g/kg)
Pyrethrins
8003-34-7
0.35 (3.5g/kg)
non hazardous according to
NOHSC
to 100
1
Our supplier of butane has provided documentation stating that the butane component
contains less than 0.1%w/w 1,3-butadiene.
139
Ajax Spray N Wipe chemical constituents (proportion varied with different flavors)
Chemical Name
CAS No
Propylene glycol
5131-66-8
n-butyl ether ethanol
64-17-5
Sodium hydroxide
1310-73-2
Triethanolamine
102-71-6
Ethanol
64-17-5
2-Bromo-2-nitropropane-1,3-diol
52-51-7
5-Chloro-2-methyl-2H-isothiazol-3-one
26172-55-4
2-Methyl-2H-isothiazol-3-one
2682-20-4
Paraffinic wax
8002-74-2
Sodium carbonate
497-19-8
Ingredients determined not to be hazardous
Pine O Cleen 4 in 1 Multi Purpose Cleaner
Chemical Name
CAS No
Proportion (%w/w )
Sodium secondary C13-17
alkyl sulphonate
75534-59-7
<10
Citric acid
77-92-9
<10
C9-11 fatty alcohol
ethoxylated
68439-46-3
<10
non hazardous according to
NOHSC
140
to 100
Orange Power Multi Purpose Cleaner*
Chemical Name
Proportion (%w/w )
Water
>85%
Anionic Surfactant (Plant derived)
<5%
Orange Oil (from Peel)
<5%
D-Limonene (from Peel)
<5%
Water Softener
<5%
Alcohol (Sugar derived)
<5%
* CAS No not specified by the manufacture
141
APPENDIX E – ACTIVITY DIARY CATEGORIES
E.1 Definitions
Correlations were calculated for the following variables derived from the activity diaries, with
the correlations calculated from weekly means for each house.
1). No. Occupants
The number of occupants is the equivalent number of adult humans calculated from the number
of people and pets indoors. The number of people living in the residence was recorded in the
house surveys, with people divided into five age categories (0-4 years, 5-14 years, 15-25 years,
26-59 years, and 60+ years). For the purpose of calculating the number of occupants, people
from the age of 15 upwards were considered to be adults and their weight estimated as 75kg.
Children aged 5-14 years were given an estimated weight of 35kg, and children 0-4 years were
given an estimated weight of 12kg. Dogs and cats were included in the calculation of number of
occupants, with the estimated weight of a dog given as 17kg and a cat as 5kg.
Taking these weights, the average weight of a human in the house was calculated as the sum of
all estimated weights divided by the number of people living in the house. The average
proportion of an adult human was calculated by dividing this number by the estimated weight
of an adult human i.e. 75kg. Pets were included in a similar way by calculating the average
weight of the pets in the house, then converting this to a proportion of the weight of an adult
human. The number of occupants in each half hourly interval was calculated by taking the
number of people and pets indoors, weighted by the appropriate average proportion of an adult
human.
This method assumes that any visiting people or animals to the house have the same average
proportion as those who live in the residence.
2). Level of ventilation
This is calculated from the total number of windows and doors open to the outside in
each half hourly block.
3). Occupant density
This value is calculated from the number of occupants / volume of the house, where the number
of occupants is the equivalent number of adult humans as described in (1) above. The unit
value is the number of adult humans per metre3.
4). Particles – chemical
This variable records the number of incidents during the week of activities that are
likely to produce particles through chemical means, i.e. VOCs production. It includes the
following activities:
142
-
use of wood heaters
-
smoking
-
burning incense
-
burning candles
-
grilling
-
frying
-
baking
-
toasting
6). Particles – cooking
Particles produced chemically are broken into two main categories, one of those being
particles produced chemically through cooking activities. The following activities are included
in this group:
-
grilling
-
frying
-
baking
-
toasting
7). Particles – burning
The second main group of chemically produced particles are those due to burning. This
includes the following activities:
-
use of wood heaters
-
smoking
-
burning incense
-
burning candles
8). Particles – mechanical
This variable records the number of incidents during the week of activities that are
likely to produce particles through mechanical means. It includes the following activities:
-
vacuuming
-
sweeping
-
dusting
143
5). Combustion events
These were divided into two categories: all combustion and unflued combustion events. The
unflued combustion events are a sub-set of combustion events, and exclude events such as use
of gas heaters, as all gas heaters are by law in Victoria required to be flued in order to reduce
the emissions of some pollutants.
All Combustion events include the following activities where burning is involved:
-
use of wood heaters
-
use of wall gas heaters
-
smoking
-
burning incense
-
burning candles
-
grilling on gas stoves
-
frying on gas stoves
-
baking in gas ovens
-
any other use of gas stovetops
Unflued Combustion events include the following activities where burning is involved and the
emissions are released within the dwelling:
-
smoking
-
burning incense
-
burning candles
-
grilling on gas stoves
-
frying on gas stoves
-
baking in gas ovens
-
any other use of gas stovetops
9). Solvent use
The followings products which were used and recorded during the week are classified as
solvents or odorous products.
-
deodorant
-
fragrance
-
skin care products
-
hair care products
-
oral care products
-
nail care products
144
-
textas
-
glue
-
paint
-
dishwashing products
-
air freshener
-
cleaners
-
laundry care products
-
fabric/carpet cleaners
-
pesticides
-
disinfectants
-
adhesives
-
sealants
-
wax/polish
Weekly averages of these variables were calculated for each house, and correlations calculated
between the weekly average and all other variables measured during the week and collected
through the surveys e.g. distance from busy road.
145
APPENDIX F - ACCOMPANYING DATA (ON CD)
CONTENTS OF THE DATA CD
This data CD contains additional information to supplement the ‘INDOOR AIR PROJECT
PART 1: MAIN REPORT’, prepared by CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research, as
commissioned by the Air Quality Section, Environment Standards Branch of the Department of
the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, Commonwealth of Australia.
The contents of the CD are divided into folders, described below. For further information, see
the full report: ‘INDOOR AIR PROJECT PART 1: MAIN REPORT’.
Data Sets
Continuous and integrated data sets for each species. Separated into Summer/Autumn and
Winter/Spring sets, and further into indoor and outdoor.
Activity Diaries
Activity diaries as recorded by the participants during Summer/Autumn and Winter/Spring
sampling periods.
Plots
Plots of indoor and outdoor continuous data, separated into Summer/Autumn and
Winter/Spring sampling periods, for each house.
Frequency plots (histograms) of weekly mean values.
Half-hourly quantile plots of continuous data.
146
147