Essay Tips for Writing Art History Essays
Compiled by Geoffrey Simmins
University of Calgary Department of Art
These brief notes are not intended to replace existing style guides for essay writing. The bible of style
guides, by the way, is generally held to be The Chicago Manual of Style, 14th edition (1993). But this is a
large and daunting publication; few but professional editors navigate with confidence amid its
complexities. So in an effort to produce a very abbreviated guide useful for art history students, I have
assembled a few notes here that I hope will prove useful.
I first assembled this information in typescript form in 1989 and circulated it to students who wanted some
guidelines. In 1993, I issued the same material as a brochure. When that was exhausted, I decided in May
1996 not to reprint the brochure, but rather to put the information up on the Web. (That's a pretty good
indication of the way that changes in technology have affected teaching in the past six years, at least in my
courses.) I have to say that niceties of tabs and indents seem to elude me with this program that I am using,
so on occasion the guidelines will suggest a format that I am not following here. We are all learning, still...
Your thoughts on this compilation would be welcomed. Please send them to:
Geoffrey Simmins
Art Department, University of Calgary
2500 University Drive NW
Calgary, AB, Canada T2N 1N4
(403) 220-6085 (phone)
(403) 289-7333 (fax)
simmins@acs.ucalgary.ca (e-mail)
http://www.ucalgary.ca/~simmins/index.html
Structure of an Art History Paper
A typical art history paper will be double-spaced, with one-inch margins on all sides of the pages. There is
no Table of Contents. The first page is indented three inches from the top. Number your pages (starting
with page 2) on the top right of the page. Following the text reference notes are appended. These are
headed "Reference Notes," or simply "Notes." Following the final page of notes the bibliography is listed
(its format is discussed below). Pagination continues through the body of the text, notes, and bibliography.
Types of Topics
Most art history papers fall into the following categories:
1. Iconographic (concerns the nature of the subject matter)
2. Formal (concerns the way in which the subjects are treated)
3. Documents (what evidence have we?)
4. New Views (what evidence -- especially from other areas, such as social history -- have we overlooked?)
5. Cross-Disciplinary (how can methodologies from different disciplines -- i.e., linguistics, feminism,
anthropology, literary theory, etc. -- inform art history?)
6. State of the question concerning a specific problem or issue; synthesis of several points of view.
Typical undergraduate papers topics most often fall into the sixth category: syntheses of written
information which discuss a specific issue in art history. Your goal is to weigh different opinions, and to
come up with a reasoned synthesis of them. Note that this does not mean that you have to be entirely
original; originality, for this sort of exercise, consists of your ability to synthesize, weigh opinions, analyze,
and then offer a reasoned discussion in which the merits and weaknesses of the various points of view are
considered. Note that while most of the examples cited here are most relevant to painting, the general
principles apply also to architecture and sculpture topics.
Content
Two interrelated skills are necessary in order to write an effective essay: the ability to simplify complex
materials; and the recognition that your reader needs clear and comprehensible directions. To paraphrase
the somewhat brutal KISS acronym: Keep it simple and signposted. To put it another way: you only have
ten or twelve pages to make your point. Since it is obviously impossible to include everything you know
about any topic, your reader will judge you on your ability to take intelligent shortcuts. The reader will also
judge you on whether your transitions from one idea to another are clear enough to follow.
The Importance of your Introduction
First impressions count. You need to establish a strong, clear introduction. In it, you will need to convince
your reader that what you have to say has merit and direction. Your first paragraph should clearly state the
goals of your essay. For example, if you were talking about Vincent's Impressionist period, you could start
off by writing something like this:
Although Vincent van Gogh's St. Remy and Auvers periods, and even his early years in
Brabant, have attracted a good deal of scholarly attention, his years in Paris are often
overlooked. And yet it was at this time that he developed a new approach to colour and
light -- skills that allowed him to paint the south of France in a new way. In this paper, I
will consider exactly what it was that Vincent derived from the Impressionist painters,
and show how these skills were expressed in certain of his paintings of the Arles period.
Doing this will provide us with a better awareness of the crucially important years just
before Vincent achieved his greatest strength as a painter.
You have identified a gap in our knowledge; you have suggested how large the gap is (Vincent's Paris
period); you have suggested the benefits that can be derived from looking more closely at this period. Not a
bad start.
At this point you have two options: you can either turn to consider the sources you drew upon in preparing
your paper, or you can add a paragraph that limits the scope of your focus. You could quite easily do both.
Observe: For this essay I have principally relied on the letters from Vincent to Theo (or, alternatively, I
have relied on the information contained in the recent exhibition at xxx or yyy). You then write something
like this: I propose to limit my discussion to paintings produced during the first three months or his Arles
period, for this is when the lessons of the Impressionists were strongest.
Observe too that at this point you still call all the shots: your readers will follow you, so long as what you
say makes some sense. But you must indicate the direction that you plan to take. If you don't, you risk
losing your readers. They won't follow you up the garden path without a reason for doing so.
The Body of your Essay
With a clear introduction in place, you can do whatever you want in the body of your text: you can return to
a chronology, you can start a formal analysis, or you can further define the issues or complexities of your
particular topic. (That is the beauty of starting off with a statement of your goals -- for the rest of your
essay you have relative freedom.)
Transitions
Use the signpost principle: let your reader know what is coming. Use of rhetorical questions is effective:
"And what, then, did Vincent learn from the Impressionists?" This may seem a bit too forced for those of us
brought up in a casual (that is, non-rhetorical) culture, but the clearer your transitions, the more effective
your paper.
Conclusion
If your essay has been constructed well, there will be no need to deliver an elaborate conclusion. At most,
you might want to reiterate the ways in which your exposition has cast light on your subject. But don't go
on and on, and don't just repeat the information contained in your introduction. Above all, remember that
the conclusion is not the place to introduce new ideas.
Degree of Detail
If you present material or names that are unfamiliar, you will need to define these unobtrusively as they
come up. A parenthetical insertion will usually do: "Pere Tanguy, the Parisian art-materials supplier who
kept Vincent supplied in colours in exchange for paintings"; or, "Josephin Peladan, the so-called Sar, the
flamboyant Parisian impresario responsible for mounting the exhibitions of the Rose + Croix between 1892
and 1897, which were an important off-shoot of Symbolism" -- and so on. In other words, although you
might feel tempted to assume that every name or term will be familiar to the instructor, you should
nonetheless be sure to explain any unusual terminology as soon as you introduce it.
Illustrations
When you refer in your text to a specific painting, work of sculpture, or a building, this is given in Italics,
or else underlined (Courbet's Stonebreakers was met with widespread hostility; Garnier's Opera House is a
major example of Second Empire architecture). Illustrations are grouped at the end of the paper. They are
preceded by a page (headed "Illustrations," or "Figures"), which lists each figure consecutively -- Figure
one, etc. -- and which includes the precise source for each one. Sample:
Figure one. G.A. Reid. Study for Decorative Panel "Music." 1900. Art Gallery of Ontario. Illustrated in Art
Gallery of Ontario: The Canadian Collection , p. 387. (Note that the bibliographic citation is incomplete,
because you give the precise and full reference in your bibliography.)
Do not use the figure numbers from the publication that provided the source of your illustration. Cut out
your photocopies and remount them. (In the case of certain projects, numbered slides -- still referred to as
"figure one," etc. -- are fine.)
Another useful general rule: do not include any illustration that is not referred to specifically in your text.
Such illustrations are a waste. And only include factual information in your captions -- save your editorial
comments for your text.
Documentation: Why you Do It, and How
The point of documenting your statements is so that another researcher can, if he or she wishes, follow your
footsteps without having to start from scratch. Accordingly, your reference notes will be complete and
detailed. A separate bibliography will be appended.
Proper Use of Quotations
Make quotes work for you, but don't expect them to substitute for your own analysis. As a rule of thumb,
don't quote strictly factual information -- paraphrase it and refer to your source by means of a footnote.
When should you use direct quotes? Aim to use quotes in such a way that really says something in a
memorable way. It's generally better to avoid lengthy quotes, even of your best sources -- and especially if
the quote merely contains factual information. Quotes such as the following are a sure sign of a neophyte
writer: "Michelangelo...who was a Florentine born in 1475..." (followed by a reference to an encyclopedia,
or to a standard text such as Frederick Hartt's), and are therefore to be avoided. Paraphrase, or, better still,
read a passage from one of your authorities, and summarize in your own words what its point was. This is
the sign of a mature writer -- someone who uses sources to support an argument, and not just as a mask to
hide a lack of original thought. In this way, any direct quotes provide a counterfoil to what is the main
argument -- yours.
Another point concerning use of quotations: they must be introduced by a transitional sentence, such as: As
Dennis Reid remarks, in A Concise History of Canadian Painting (etc)... Then give your quote: Indent it
five spaces both sides if of more than two lines. Don't add quotation marks if it is blocked off. Provide your
reference note at the end of the quote.
Having introduced a quote, you should generally comment on it. Don't just insert it and expect its meaning
to be self-explanatory. Say something about it: As this comment shows, there is still much to be learned
about French Canadian art of the pre-Conquest period," or something. You can agree with your quote,
disagree with it -- but take some critical stance.
Avoid peppering your sentences with notes. Group them together at the end of a sentence. Several
publications can be referred to in one note.
Footnotes or end notes: It really makes no difference. End notes are probably easier. List them following
the final page of text but before the bibliography. Continue paginating sequentially (that is, if your final
page of text is p. 11, your first page of notes will be p. 12). Do not enter into discursive arguments in your
reference notes. If a point is important enough to make, do so in your text.
What is Plagiarism and How can I Avoid It?
Plagiarism is a serious academic offense; failure to acknowledge your sources adequately is grounds for a
failing grade on your paper. Note too that plagiarism not only occurs when you fail to acknowledge directly
quoted materials; it also can result when you paraphrase your sources, thus taking over original ideas
without acknowledgement.
This does not mean that you have to footnote every sentence. For instance, there is a clear difference
between information in the public domain, purely statistical information, and original ideas. Many students
worry that if they paraphrase statistical information, they will be guilty of plagiarism. Provided that they
refer to their source for this information, this is considered fair use of their sources. Where do you draw the
line? Any information that is in the public realm -- Shakespeare is the most-performed playwright in the
English language --does not have to be footnoted. You do not have to footnote this statement either:
"Michelangelo, who possessed one of the most diverse and original minds of the sixteenth century, excelled
in literature, painting, sculpture and architecture." That is a given. But if you read an article that connects a
particular Michelangelo work with (for example) neo-Platonist thought, then you need a footnote.
Differences in Format between Notes and Bibliography
The most notable differences: information in notes is given in natural (that is, not reverse) order, and the
different elements are separated by commas. In a bibliographic entry, the author's name is given in reverse
order, and the elements are separated by periods. Reference notes indent the first line (any subsequent ones
are flush left); bibliographies place the first line flush left and indent any subsequent ones. Note the
brackets around the publishing information in the reference notes; there are no brackets in the bibliographic
entry.
Examples:
1. A book
a) Reference note:
Christina Cameron and Jean Trudel, The Drawings of James Cockburn: A Visit through Quebec's Past
(Toronto: Gage Publishing, 1976), p. [or, if plural, pp.] 25.
b) Bibliography:
Cameron, Christina, and Jean Trudel. [note natural order for second name]. The Drawings of James
Cockburn: A Visit through Quebec's Past. Toronto: Gage Publishing, 1976. [do not include page numbers]
2. A journal article
Title of article in quotes. Journal title in Italics, or else underlined. Volume, no., and pp. necessary.
a) Reference note:
Ghislain Clermont, "Morrice et la critique," Revue de l'UniversitÈ de Moncton, 15, nos. 2-3 (avrildÈcembre 1982): 35-48.
b) Bibliography:
Clermont, Ghislain. "Morrice la critique." Revue de l'UnivesitÈ de Moncton, 15. nos. 2-3 (avril-dÈcembre
1982): 35-48.
Note periods dividing elements.
Note that full pagination is required for journal articles.
3. An exhibition catalogue
Catalogues have become one of the most important sources for art-historical literature, but references to
them have not been standardized. References to these catalogues is made even more difficult by the
tendency of many institutions to issue the catalogues (in collaboration with major art-book printers, such as
Abrams) as monographs. Here is one reasonable format:
Title. Name of author(s). (City of Institution holding the exhibition: name of institution, dates).
In practice, this can be modified somewhat; for instance, in the following example, the author's name
(because it is well-known) comes first:
Dennis Reid, Collector's Canada: Selections from a Toronto Private Collection (Catalogue of an exhibition
held at Toronto: Art Gallery of Ontario, 14 May - 10 July 1988).
The title page shows several other institutions where the exhibition was seen; you only have to list the first
one.
But some variation on format is possible.
For example:
Here is how one recent book listed an important exhibition on Impressionism:
Los Angeles County Museum of Art; Art Institute of Chicago; Paris, Grand Palais, (Richard Brettell, Scott
Schaeffer, et al.). A Day in the Country. 1984-85.
Note that in this instance the exhibition is listed by institution; the authors' names follow; and the title and
date comes last. I would only have listed the first institution, and I probably would have included the
precise dates for the exhibition. Whatever format you decide upon, just remember to be consistent.
4. Oral interviews, vertical files, etc.
Detailed information is available on formats for these sources of information. Be sensible, and be complete.
Ibid. anyone?
When, or if, should you employ Ibid.? Most of the older style guides suggest that Ibid. (short for ibidem, or
"in the same place") should be employed when you cite the same book twice. The second citation gets an
Ibid. But most of the recent guides suggest that you might be better to employ a shortened version of the
author's name, and a shortened version of the title of the book, for example, Rosenblum and Janson,
Nineteenth-Century Art, and then indicate the page. It's not really a crucial issue; most instructors will
accept either approach. I do.
Editorial Miscellany
There are many details to watch out for as a writer--too many! I offer the following pot-pourri of editorial
suggestions in order to highlight some of the problems I have consistently encountered in ten years of
marking papers.
1. Establishing a natural, effective tone
In a way, it's unfair even to mention such a goal when you're just starting out in your essay-writing career,
given that this is something even professionals struggle with. Still--an natural tone is the source of effective
writing, and so it's appropriate to think about it even when starting out as a writer. How formal should you
be? What tone should you aim for? And how can you sustain that tone over the course of an essay?
Although not everyone would agree with me, I think you should aim to achieve a fairly natural tone, one
that does not differ markedly from oral expression. I maintain that you should be able to take any section of
your essay and give it to an intelligent friend (or imaginary sister/brother-in-North-Bay, if you will), and
your reader will understand you. (Having an imaginary reader, by the way, is not a bad exercise at all.)
One of the best techniques I've developed is to read over doubtful passages aloud--and to read them
carefully, as if they mattered. Often you will find that you are using muddy, I-don't-care writing. If you
respect the people and subjects that you are studying, you owe it to them to be as articulate as possible.
Each of the following points, some of them major, some of them minor, will help you achieve this goal of
achieving a natural effective tone for the essay. When in doubt, read really good writers. One of my
favorites these days is Salman Rushdie--particularly his journalism. He's able to convey a personal point of
view with all the seeming effortlessness of a ballet dancer (a good analogy because dance involves a similar
combination of sweat and paradoxically effortless grace).
2. Active vs. passive voice
This is a key point that will affect the outcome of your essay markedly. Most experienced writers try to
employ active voice consistently. How do you recognize it? Compare these passive and active sentences:
The girl was eaten by the lion (passive voice); The lion ate the girl (active). The passive voice, aside from
being wordier, is vague, and seems, somehow, much less specific. And yet many writers prefer it: The
painting was painted by Milne in 1913. Compare: Milne painted White House in 1913. Try to look over
your writing to see if you are employing passive voice too frequently. (The characteristic sign of the
passive voice is the preposition "by".)
3. Editorial voice
This is a different point: it refers to the person speaking. (One wishes to state, I wish to state, we wish to
state.) Older style guides suggest the impersonal "one," and this is still used widely. But by all means use
"I" if you feel more comfortable with it. Avoid the royal "we", however; it is often seen as pretentious.
Even worse is "the present writer," or variations on it. I use "I" exclusively. But once you have opted for
one voice, you must be consistent (not "I think that what one can state is...").
4. Punctuation
Many papers suffer from incorrect punctuation. I strongly recommend that you review the use of the
following: the colon; the semi-colon; the internal dash -- a very useful friend -- the comma -- and even the
terminal dash. (This sentence gives you many examples.) The semi-colon, in particular, is often misused. It
is not an uncommon element of punctuation; it is an essential one. Use it properly.
This review of punctuation will have to be undertaken by yourselves. Did you note the passive voice and
wordy construction here? It should have read: "You will have to undertake this yourselves."
Here's where reading aloud comes in handy: it's hard to punctuate your work incorrectly, read it aloud, and
have it make much sense. Where you stumble, there you should stop. And correct.
5. Editing
In this best-of-all-possible worlds, don't be satisfied with your first draft. Reread your work. Strive for
concision; strive for memorable, precise word-choices. Try to look over your writing and see what can be
eliminated. Try to avoid always falling back on the same half a dozen verbs: to be, to have, to do, to get.
Remember that dull writing is like using a dull knife on a beautiful fish: you risk turning its firm flesh into
a mushy pile. Look over carefully your topic sentences and your transitions from one section to another.
Watch out, too, for trendiness--using (often incorrectly) words such as plethora, penultimate, and whateverthis-month's-flavor-favorite is from the media. Just because you hear a word used does not mean that is
correct. Use your dictionary, and read good writers. But don't look for unusual words simply for the sake of
what is termed elegant variation.
6. Sickly, unnecessary (or effusive) modifiers
Really a sub-section of editing. Be careful with modifiers: they are often unnecessary. Look for words such
as very, quite, much, and so on, and experiment: eliminate them, and see whether you can live without
them.
Read over your writing; cull the weak modifiers. Avoid contradictory (but commonly used) phrases such as
"almost unique." That is like "almost pregnant."
Effusive modifiers (brilliant, wonderful, marvellous) are equally to be avoided. They are often used by
neophyte writers instead of analysis. Praise is not analysis. The undesired side-effect is to put the reader on
his or her guard, thus reducing your credibility.
Look out as well for unnecessary preambles: Try to avoid writing weak prefatory phrases:
--it is my opinion that;
--the fact that;
--the opinion of the present writer is that.
It will be undertaken by the present writer to establish that which we know of Manet's attitudes... and so on.
(This last one is a prizewinner of sorts: wordy, passive sentence construction, and a mixed editorial voice!)
7. Split infinitives
Some people think this is a grammatical rule on its way out, and I agree to a large extent. Still, some writers
are fierce in their condemnation of infinitive splitters. So you should at least be aware of what the rules are
when you break them. How do you know when you've committed this sin, and how can you avoid it?
In English, an infinitive is the form of verb combined with the preposition "to": to be, to have, etc. In other
European languages the infinitive is often represented by the structure of the verb: Ítre, avoir; haben, sein,
etc. A split infinitive occurs when you insert a modifier between the preposition and the verb: to
meaningfully consider; to fully discuss; to skilfully paint, and so on. Most good writers ignore the split
infinitive rule when they feel like it, but they are also aware of how to avoid it--by placing the modifier
either before the preposition, or at the end of the clause.
8. Syntax
This refers to the structure of a sentence -- to the placement of subject, predicate, and modifiers. The main
point to watch out for at this stage of your writing careers is not to make your sentences overly compex.
Vigorous, expository sentences, with clear verbs and subjects, and an active voice, are a good goal to keep
in mind. That does not mean you should try to write like Ernest Hemmingway. Short sentences are
effective. But so can long ones be; they allow you to develop the flow of an argument in a way that a short
one cannot.
9. Paragraph structure
Paragraphs are supposed to be a unit of thought. When beginning writers satify themselves with first-draft
material, paragraphs often have too many different ideas in them. When editing, you might consider
looking over your material with several different-colored markers. Mark all the biographical material in one
color, the critical material in another, and so on. You might be surprised by the results. And don't overlook
another obvious aid to your writing: using a detailed outline.
10. Transitions
Help your reader. Indicate the path you are going to take. Use a transitional sentence at the end of a
paragraph.
11. Gender
You don't want to offend your reader by inadvertent slights, which is what many readers now experience
when insensitive writers persist in considering that "his", and variations on it, are universal. (The student
will present himself at the final exam; the historian gave his lecture.) Many people now find such sentences
offensive -- and, given the changes that have taken place in the workplace, inaccurate. Although wordy, it
is now generally preferable to use a construction such as: his or her opinion. Pluralizing the noun is usually
a good way to avoid the issue: Architects have to show sensitivity to the built environment. This is their
main task.
Gods are now often referred to in neutral terms -- the Creator, etc. -- rather than by the formerly accepted
Him, His voice, etc.
There are also those who now try to avoid traditional female personifications -- The Bluenose, she's a pretty
ship. So be careful with these.
12. Use of hyphens in compound modifiers
OK, this is pedantic. Still--the rules here are simple, and are worth learning. When you combine two
adjectives before a noun (a well-defined structure) then a hyphen comes between. This is also the case for
three-part compound modifiers: a yet-to-be announced policy. Exception: When the first modifier is an
adverb: a fully developed proposal.
13. "Emphasis" quotes
Don't use quotes just to call attention to a colloquial expression. (This is a "nifty" painting.) This is
unnecessary; and readers find it a sure sign of an inexperienced writer.
14. Confusion between it's (a contraction) and its (possessive).
If you want to say, for instance, its frame (referring to a painting), this is obviously a possessive, and does
not require an apostrophe. It's (it is) self-evident. Some people like its', which does not exist.
15. Latinisms: E.g., et al., and i.e.
These are all Latin abbreviations: e.g., for exemplum gratis (for example); et al. for et alia (among others -used for joint authors); and i.e., for id est (that is). Note that el al. has one period, while i.e. and e.g. require
two periods (not ie, eg). Ibid., if you're going to use it, requires a period--because it's an abbreviation for
ibidem.
26. Wit, humour, puns, clichÈs; colloquial and informal language
Wit leavens leaden writing. A well-chosen word or phrase can bring a smile to the face of your jaded
reader. So avoid hackneyed expressions. Remember though that a little wit goes a long way when writing
scholarly papers. If you are given to forming felicitous phrases, by all means do so. Let your guiding
principle be this: if the wit or pun interferes with the exposition of your argument (i.e., if it is obtrusive)
then cut it.
Informal language is generally to be avoided, although certainly not always. For instance, while you should
not adopt an overly formal tone, neither should you use slang without carefully considering it. Your best
teacher here will be the work of good authors.
For further reading, I recommend the following: William Zinsser, On Writing Well ; Jacques Barzun,
Simple & Direct; and (still! after more than sixty years): Strunk & White, The Elements of Style.
Learning to write well is like any other skill: it requires time, and practice. Don't be
discouraged if your first attempts don't match your aspirations. Should they?
Revised 25 June 1996
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