Biology 210 Exam 4 Study Guide (Chapters 15-17)
Chapter 15
INTRODUCTION
1. Provide an overview of the three basic functions of the sensory, motor,
and integrative systems of the nervous system.
SENSATION
2. Define and compare sensation and perception.
Sensory Modalies
3. Define sensory modality, give examples, and indicate the unique
relationship to impulses transmitted along specific pathways.
The Process of a Sensation
4. Generally examine the four requisite events for a stimulus to become a
sensation.
Sensory Receptors
Types of Sensory Receptors
5. Describe the types of receptors in terms of association with general or
special systems, location, and stimulus type.
Adaptation in Sensory Receptors
6. State what is meant by adaptation of receptors and provide examples
of slow and rapidly adapting receptors.
SOMATIC SENSATIONS
7. Note the general location and nature of somatic receptors.
8. Identify the cutaneous sensation modalities.
Tactile Sensations
9. Identify the tactile sensations, how they are detected, and the
receptors involved.
10. Describe the touch receptors and how they respond to a stimulus.
11. Define and compare the sensations of pressure and vibration.
12. Define and compare the sensations of itch and tickle.
Thermal Sensations
13. Identify the thermal sensations, their receptors, and the receptor
locations.
Pain Sensations
14. Describe the function of pain.
15. Identify the pain receptors, their location, and what stimulates them.
Types of Pain
16. Distinguish between fast and slow pain and among superficial somatic,
deep somatic, and visceral pain.
Localization of Pain
17. Discuss the localization of pain, including referred pain and phantom
limb pain.
18. Describe how analgesic drugs provide relief from pain.
Proprioceptive Sensations
19. Identify the types of proprioception and indicate their neural pathways,
areas of CNS processing, and function.
Muscle Spindles
20. Describe the architecture and reflexive operation of the muscle spindle
apparatus with their neural links to the CNS and skeletal muscle.
Tendon Organs
21. Describe the architecture and reflexive operation of the tendon organs
with their neural links to the CNS and skeletal muscle.
Joint Kinesthetic Receptors
22. Discuss the location, nature, and purpose of joint kinesthetic receptors.
MOTOR CORTEX MAPS IN THE CEREBRAL CORTEX
23. Examine the samatic sensory and somatic motor maps in the cerebral
cortex.
24. Demonstrate the relationship of the proportion of sensory
representation on the cortical surface with receptor density on the body
surface.
25. Describe the relationship between the number of motor units going to
an area of the body and the amount of surface area of the primary
motor cortex that controls that body part
SOMATIC SENSORY PATHWAYS
26. Discuss the general neuronal components of the somatic sensory
pathways from receptors to cerebral cortex.
Posterior Column-Medial Lemniscus Pathway to the Cortex
27. Discuss the neuronal components and functions of the posterior
column-medial lemniscus pathway.
Anterolateral Pathways to the Cortex
28. Discuss the neuronal components and functions of the anterolateral
pathway.
Somatic Sensory Pathways to the Cerebellum
29. Describe the neural paths that lead from receptors to the cerebellum
and how they are structurally different from the spinothalamic tracts.
30. Discuss how Treponema pallidum impacts the operation of the
spinocerebellar tract.
SOMATIC MOTOR PATHWAYS
31. List the neural circuits termed the somatic motor pathways.
Organization of Upper Motor Neuron Pathways
32. Differentiate between direct motor pathways and indirect motor
pathways.
33. Describe the difference in paralysis symptoms with damage to upper
versus lower motor neurons.
Direct Motor Pathways
34. Illustrate the neural pathway segments of three major representations
of the descending pyramidal-corticospinal tract and indicate their
distinctive functions.
35. Describe the effects of ALS on the motor pathway neruons.
Indirect Pathways
36. List the central nervous system components that are involved with
processing of motor information of the extrapyramidal pathways and
the tracts of the spinal cord where they connect.
Modulation of Movement by the Basal Ganglia
37. Explain how the basal ganglia are involved in motor responses.
38. Examine the effects of Parkinson disease and Huntington disease on
the basal ganglia.
Modulation of Movement by the Cerebellum
39. Discuss the four principle operations of the cerebellum in the
coordination of conscious and subconscious skilled muscle
movements.
40. Describe ataxia and intention tremors as symptoms of damage to the
cerebellum.
INTEGRATIVE FUNCTIONS OF THE CEREBRUM
41. List the major integrative functions of the cerebrum.
Wakefulness and Sleep
42. Describe the role of the hypothalamus in the wakefulness and sleep
cycle.
The Role of the Reticular Activating System in Awakening
43. Describe the role of the reticular activating system in arousal and
consciousness.
Sleep
44. Discuss the characteristics of rapid eye movement (REM) sleep and
the difference compared to the stages of non-REM sleep.
Learning and Memory
45. Show how learning and memory are related and the areas of the brain
that are though to be involved.
46. Examine the theoretical mechanisms of short-term and long-term
memory.
DISORDERS: HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCES
47. Discuss spinal cord injury and Parkinson disease in terms of cause,
symptoms, and prognosis.
MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY
48. Define the medical terminology associated with the sensory, motor,
and integrative systems.
Chapter 16
INTRODUCTION
1. Briefly describe the receptors for the special senses.
OLFACTION: SENSE OF SMELL
2. Discuss the interconnection of the senses of smell and taste.
Anatomy of Olfactory Receptors
3. Discuss the anatomic relation of cells in the olfactory mucosa and
describe the cellular parts with respect to function.
Physiology of Olfaction
4. Describe the sequence of events in which a molecule that comes in
contact with mucus of the epithelium initiates an action potential.
Odor Thresholds and Adaptation
5. Explain the result of olfactory nerve adaptation on sensory nerve
output and how it is useful in discriminative sensory sensitivity.
Olfactory Pathway
6. Describe the neural links from the bipolar olfactory receptor to their
destinations in specific functional areas of the brain.
7. Define hyposmia and state its causes.
GUSTATION: SENSE OF TASTE
8. Discuss the general similarities and differences in operation of the
gustatory and olfactory systems, then relate how they work together.
Anatomy of Taste buds and Papillae
9. Describe the organization and functional parts of the cells within the
various taste buds, indicating the differing cellular duties and etiological
transformations.
Physiology of Gustation
10. Describe the means by which the binding of a dissolved molecule in
saliva generates a postsynaptic potential in the primary sensory
neuron.
11. Describe how the gustatory system discriminates among hundreds of
different tastes with only four types of taste receptors.
Taste Thresholds and Adaptation
12. Discuss how the taste threshold changes with adaptation.
Gustatory Pathway
13. Indicate which cranial nerves conduct taste impulses from separate
regions of the tongue to specific areas of the brain.
14. Describe tase aversion and correlate this phenomenon to survival.
VISION
Accessory Structures of the Eye
Eyelids
15. Describe the structures of the eyelids and their functions.
Eyelashes and Eyebrows
16. Describe the eyelashes and eyebrows and their functions.
Lacrimal Apparatus
17. Describe the structures of the lacrimal apparatus and their functions.
Extrinsic Eye Muscles
18. Identify the extrinsic eye muscles and their functions.
Anatomy of the Eyeball
Fibrous Tunic
19. Describe the tissue configurations and related jobs of the components
of the fibrous tunic.
20. Discuss why there are relatively few medical problems with
transplantation of a cornea compared with other body tissues.
Vascular Tunic
21. Describe the structural constituents of the three regions of the vascular
tunic, while emphasizing how these allow performance of their distinct
duties.
Retina
22. Describe the major features and layers of the nervous tunic.
23. Discuss the positions of extensions and soma of two types of photo-
receptor cells and three varieties of retinal neurons that compose the
numerous layers within the retina.
24. Discuss the general purpose of the different retinal cells.
Lens
25. Describe the structure and function of the lens.
Interior of the Eyeball
26. Describe the materials that occupy the cavities and chambers of the
inner eye, and state how the materials support the operation of the
eye.
27. Discuss age related macular disease and examine its effects on vision.
Image Formation
28. Discuss how components of the eyeball mimic the parts of a camera to
perform the three basic processes in properly focusing light on the
retina.
Refraction of Light Rays
29. Discuss how the bending of light as it passes through the differing
densities of transparent materials of the eye is used to direct the rays
from objects of varying distance to focus on the retina.
Accommodation and the Near Point of Vision
30. Demonstrate how the iris, lens, and extrinsic eye muscles operate in
order to converge the light from a near object onto the retina.
31. Examine the effect on image formation when there are abnormal
changes in the structure of the cornea and lens.
32. Discuss age related changes in elasticity and their effects on
accomodation as seen in presbyopia.
Refraction Abnormalities
33. List and discuss the refraction abnormalities.
Constriction of the Pupil
34. Outline the components of the iris control mechanism, and their
operation and purpose in altering the diameter of the pupil.
Convergence
35. Illustrate how and why the relative forward angle of the eyes varies as
an object of interest changes distance.
Physiology of Vision
Photoreceptors and Photopigments
36. Describe the definitive structures and operations of rod and cone
photoreceptors as well as the location and differences between
photopigments.
37. List the steps of the configuration changes that occur to the
photopigments upon absorption of a photon.
Light and Dark Adaptation
38. Indicate how the timing of photopigment regeneration leads to different
capacities in rods and cones to adapt to changes in light intensity.
Release of Neurotransmitters by Photoreceptors
39. Discuss the sequence of interactions between photopigments,
enzymes, sodium channels, photoreceptor membrane potential,
glutamate release, and changes in the membrane potential of
connected bipolar cells.
Visual Pathway
40. Mention that the signal produced by the photoreceptors is
progressively integrated as it moves through the circuits leading to the
brain.
Processing of Visual Input in the Retina
41. Discuss how the type of circuit connections of rods and cones to other
retinal neurons dictates differences in light sensitivity and clarity of the
image invoked by the two types of photoreceptors.
Brain Pathway and Visual Fields
42. Diagram the relationship that results in stereoscopic vision from light
originating from specific visual fields with the area of the retina that
receives it and the alternate pathways of the associated neurons.
HEARING AND EQUILIBRIUM
Anatomy of the Ear
External (Outer) Ear
43. Describe the tissue structures and functions of the auricle and auditory
canal.
Middle Ear
44. Discuss the anatomy, operations, and functions of middle ear
structures from the tempanic membrane to the oval window.
45. Explain why the ossicles amplify the force of vibrations by a factor of
thirty from the eardrum to the stapes.
46. State some functional responsibilities of internal auditory tube.
Internal (Inner) Ear
47. Illustrate how the bony and membranous labyrinths fit together to form
the modules of the semicircular canals, vestibule, and cochlear
apparatus.
48. Examine the specialized structures of the sensory mechanisms of the
semicircular canals, vestibule, and cochlear apparatus.
Nature of Sound Waves
49. Establish the physical relations of sound wave length to frequency and
pitch, and amplitude to loudness measured in decibels.
50. Describe how loud sounds damage hair cells.
Physiology of Hearing
51. Discuss the principal structures and events that transform differing
sound vibration frequencies into impulses traveling along separate
cochlear neurons, which are involved with the physiology of hearing.
Auditory Pathway
52. Describe the components of the auditory pathway.
53. Discuss how cochlear implants can be used for people with deafness
due to injury to hair cells.
Physiology of Equilibrium
54. Distinguish between the two kinds of equilibrium.
Otolithic Organs: Saccule and Utricle
55. Describe the cellular and extracellular constituents of the maculae, and
the relative spacial position of these otoliths organs with the saccule
and utricle.
56. Discuss how the otoliths work with the cilia of the macular hair cells to
indicate relative orientation to gravity and direction of acceleration.
Semicircular Ducts
57. Describe how the fluid of the semicircular canals temporarily moves
against the cupula of the ampula to incite impulses that indicate three
dimensions of rotational movement.
Equilibrium Pathways
58. Define the distribution of the cochlear and vestibular components of
cranial nerve VI to the nuclei for vision and head orientation, and to the
cerebellum for integration with information on movement control.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE EYES AND EARS
Eyes
59. Describe the embryological development of the eyes.
Ears
60. Describe the embryological development of the ears.
DISORDERS: HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCES
61. Describe the causes and symptoms of cataracts, glaucoma, deafness,
Menier’s disease, and otitis media.
MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY
62. Define medical terminology associated with sense organs.
Chapter 17
INTRODUCTION
1. Survey the general way in which the autonomic nervous system
operates to regulate the activities of smooth muscle, cardiac muscle,
and glands to maintain homeostasis.
COMPARISON OF SOMATIC AND AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEMS
2. Compare the structural and functional differences between the somatic
and autonomic nervous systems.
ANATOMY OF AUTONOMIC PATHWAYS
3. Distinguish between the pre- and postganglionic neurons.
Preganglionic Neurons
4. Specify the different origins and destination ganglia for the sympathetic
(thoracolumbar) and parasympathetic (craniosacral) preganglionic
neurons.
Autonomic Ganglia
5. Describe the differing locations of the ganglia of the sympathetic and
parasympathetic systems.
Autonomic Plexuses
6. Discuss the location and composition of the autonomic plexuses.
Postganglionic Neurons
7. Compare the differing ratio of pre- to postganglionic neurons of the
sympathetic and parasympathetic systems, as well as their distinctive
distribution to organs.
Structure of the Sympathetic Division
8. Illustrate and define the structures of rami, ganglia, and plexuses along
the path of sympathetic nerves from the CNS to their respective
effectors.
9. Describe the cause and symptoms of Horner’s syndrome.
Structure of the Parasympathetic Division
10. Illustrate and define the structures of cranial nerves and ganglia along
the path of parasympathetic nerves from the CNS to their respective
effectors.
ANS NEUROTRANSMITTERS AND RECEPTORS
11. Identify the chemical nature of the autonomic neurotransmitter
receptors and their location.
Cholinergic Neurons and Receptors
12. Identify the cholinergic neurons, receptors, and neurotransmitters.
13. Describe the effects of acetylcholine as a cholinergic neuron
neurotransmitter.
Adrenergic Neurons and Receptors
14. Identify the adrenergic neurons, receptors, and neurotransmitters.
15. Describe the effects of norepinephrine as an adrenergic neuron
neurotransmitter.
Receptor Agonists and Antagonists
16. Identify certain cholinergic and adrenergic agonists and antagonists
and their actions.
PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF THE ANS
17. Emphasize that most organs receive innervation from both ANS
divisions that have opposing and balancing effects, which depend on
the neurotransmitter released and the particular receptor on the organ.
18. Indicate which organs are innervated solely by the sympathetic or
parasympathetic ANS divisions.
Sympathetic Responses
19. Discuss the primary purpose of the sympathetic division and the
general body functions it directs.
20. Describe Raynaud’s disease and describe its symptoms.
Parasympathetic Response
21. Discuss the primary purpose of the parasympathetic division and the
general body functions it directs.
INTEGRATION AND CONTROL OF AUTONOMIC FUNCTIONS
Autonomic Reflexes
22. Describe the ANS and CNS components involved in a visceral
autonomic reflex.
Autonomic Control by Higher Centers
23. Explain the relationship of the hypothalamus, brain stem nuclei, limbic
system, and cerebrum to the autonomic nervous system.
24. Define autonomic dysreflexia and describe its effects.
FOCUS ON HOMEOSTASIS: THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
25. Examine the role of the nervous system in maintaining homeostasis