SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY, DREAMS
AND THE QUESTION OF CONSCIOUSNESS:
A JUNGIAN PERSPECTIVE
Running Head: Social Psychology, Dreams and Consciousness
David Johnston
Social Psychology, Dreams and Consciousness
2
ABSTRACT
In this paper I discuss Erich Fromm’s social psychology and his dream theory,
with a critical perspective informed by C. G. Jung. Inasmuch as social
psychology assumes that consciousness is determined by social and historical
conditioning, I take Fromm as representative. In contrast to this position, Jung’s
approach is grounded on the fact that consciousness itself is primordial and
involved in all modes of being. With this view, the unconscious and dreams are
taken as intelligent and purposive, as well as consisting of effective force for
personality transformation. Whereas Jung seeks counsel from the inherent
wisdom in the dream and the unconscious, Fromm looks for insight that is
interpreted through the lens of humanistic values and reason. Although Fromm’s
approach to psychology may have relevance for many people, it ultimately falls
short as it does not encourage the full expression of consciousness-life.
Social Psychology, Dreams and Consciousness
3
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY,
DREAMS AND THE QUESTION OF CONSCIOUSNESS:
A JUNGIAN PERSPECTIVE
Introduction
Consciousness is primarily a social product, a result of the cultural pattern and
the reality frame in which one lives.
Inasmuch as we are unaware of the
impinging social forces, we swim in a sea of socially conditioned consciousness,
a mass person with relatively little individual awareness. The task of psychology,
therefore, is to bring awareness to bear on analysands' restricted, onedimensional reality, while steering them towards a broader perspective and richer
lives, one suitable to their unique disposition. Amongst others, this view is held
by Erich Fromm (1969) who, in addition to Freud, was directly influenced by Karl
Marx, and Charles Poncé (1988) who believes that he finds some ground for this
view in the writings of C. G. Jung.
Indeed, Jung (as reported in Poncé, 1988) writes that individuation involves
gradually discarding "participation in publicly determined roles and behaviour"
and liberation from external imposed conditions. He observes that self-fulfillment
comes from living according to one’s uniqueness and inner law of being.
Although these comments do lend support to the position taken by either Fromm
or Poncé, there is a fundamental difference in Jung’s standpoint. Whereas, our
two proponents of social psychology argue that consciousness is essentially
determined by social and cultural reality, Jung, (as reported in Jacobi & Hull,
Social Psychology, Dreams and Consciousness
4
1974) observes that consciousness itself is primordial, a "pre-condition of being
(pp. 36-37)."
Although Fromm (1941) and Poncé (1990) allow for the possibility of a limited
freedom from the social pattern, in their view the cultural reality bears a heavy
imprint. Indeed, Poncé understands the archetypes to be nothing but tenacious
socially designed habits and not, as Jung (as reported in Poncé, 1990) observes,
the instincts’ self-perception where instincts are defined as "typical modes of
action (p. 37)." Freedom for Jung is essentially a function of relatedness to the
Self, one’s innermost reality and wholeness, which includes social reality but is
not conditioned by it. For Jung, with individuation, the persona, one’s social role
and the way of presenting oneself to the world, becomes secondary. Moreover
conscious individuation in Jung’s (as reported in Jacobi & Hull, 1941) view,
involves a transformation of the archetypes themselves, suggesting the extreme
possibility of a life directly determined by influences from the Self, one
increasingly free.
After this rather lengthy preamble, I will now declare that my intentions are to
examine the dream theory of Erich Fromm from a critical perspective informed by
C. G. Jung.
Although there are idiosyncrasies in Fromm’s approach to
psychology that differ from those of other social psychologists, I take him as
representative.
My assumption is that they all have a similar bias in the
Social Psychology, Dreams and Consciousness
5
importance they lay on the impact of social conditioning on the individual psyche.
I choose Fromm mainly because he has a well articulated dream theory.
On the Nature of Consciousness
Before I present it, however, I will examine both the nature of consciousness and
experiential reality.
As I suggested above, some observers hold that
consciousness is a function of the social pattern. There seems to be some truth
in this position, especially for the relatively unconscious mass person.
In
opposition to this view is the one held by many spiritual adepts; that there is a
desirable state of pure consciousness which exists prior to either space-time
categories or their negation (Merrill-Wolff, 1973).
Sri Aurobindo (1970, p. 88), however, contends that consciousness is a "selfaware force of existence," that permeates all levels of being and becoming. He
appeals to the ancient Hindu conception of chit or consciousness, which creates
through shakti, through energy or force. Consciousness, in this view, comes with
creative force and intrinsic action of will. In this light, Jung (as reported in Jacobi
and Hull, 1974, p. 275) writes that "consciousness determines Weltanschauung."
He goes on to say that one changes oneself by means of the picture one
"fashions of the world."
Consciousness, accordingly, implies "intelligence,
purposefulness [and] self-knowledge (Sri Aurobindo, 1970, p. 88)."
Social Psychology, Dreams and Consciousness
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There is, today, considerable evidence that this is, indeed, the case. Animals
exhibit an uncanny instinctual intelligence, while nature in general shows an
extraordinary hidden purposefulness that ecological concerns have now brought
to light. Moreover findings in contemporary psychology indicate that there is
potentially consciousness at various levels of being.
Jung (as reported in
Andrew Samuels, 1985), argues that there are four functions of consciousness:
thinking, feeling, intuition and sensation, and two attitudes, extroversion and
introversion that can potentially be increasingly differentiated.
Rossi, (1985)
observes that awareness exists in various modalities: sensory, perceptual,
emotional, cognitive and behavioral. A split brain experiment indicates that, in a
phenomenon called blind-sight, subjects can perform operations such as fairly
accurately reach for an object without any consciousness of visual sensation or
awareness, suggesting hidden intelligence (Carlson, 1988). The spiritual director
of the Sri Aurobindo Ashram, the Mother, observes that her yoga took her to the
remarkable stage of becoming conscious of the actual functioning of the body
cells (Satprem, 1982).
Consciousness, therefore, is all-pervasive whether we are aware of it or not and
comes with the creative force of will. Furthermore, our awareness can expand.
Although Jung was an empiricist and did not indulge in metaphysical
speculations regarding psychology, such a view is harmonious with his
understanding of the psyche and the nature of the unconscious.
He often
speaks of the wisdom of the unconscious and refers to it as an autonomous
Social Psychology, Dreams and Consciousness
7
psychic entity which "sees correctly even when conscious reason is blind and
impotent (as reported in Jacobi & Hull, 1974, p. 27)."
In support of his
experience of the unconscious, he refers to alchemical images such as the
multiple scintillae or fishes' eyes, which are archetypal centers of partial
consciousness (as reported in Edinger, 1984). Archetypes, however are not
merely centers of intelligence, they are purposive "great decisive forces" that
bring about real events (as reported in Jacobi & Hull, 1974, p. 39). They are
psychoid, that is to say, they include and transcend both spirit and matter.
As such dreams, which represent one common way of experiencing the
unconscious, come with both consciousness and force of transformation. They
come, argues Rossi, 1985, with new dimensions of awareness and potential
emotional and behavioral change that are geared towards establishing a new
identity. He also observes that effective transformation takes place by way of an
interaction between the dreamer and the unconscious. As Jung (as reported in
Edinger, 1984) observes, both consciousness and the unconscious mutually
affect each other. Rossi (1985) supports his observations by his "Dream-Protein
Hypothesis" based on findings that dreaming involves a modification of the
protein structures in the brain, implying a bio-chemical aspect to personality
transformation.
From the perspective of the conscious personality, Jung (as reported in Edinger,
1984) defines consciousness as "the relation of psychic contents to the ego, in
Social Psychology, Dreams and Consciousness
8
so far as this relationship is perceived by the ego. In addition, consciousness is
the function or activity which maintains the relation of psychic contents to the ego
(p. 36)." Perhaps, as an aside, it is important to note here that what Jung refers
to as the ego is similar to the Hindu purusha and its field of awareness as
prakriti. Expanded consciousness comes by way of the unconscious becoming
more conscious to the reflective ego. As Rossi and Suzuki observe, by turning
inwards, there is growing awareness of consciousness, of "consciousness
becoming acquainted with itself (Suzuki, as reported in Rossi, 1985, p. 116)."
Furthermore with increasing dimensions of awareness, as Rossi suggests, there
is an augmented possibility for self-reflection, as "each side can now regard the
other (Rossi, 1985, p. 154)."
Etymology gives further insight into the nature of ego consciousness, which
means, according to (Edinger, 1984, p. 36), "knowing with" or "seeing with" an
"other."
He suggests that knowing involves conscious discrimination, the
experience and discernment of the opposites. Ego consciousness also includes
"being known," with the ego having the experience of being a "known object (p.
41)." This suggests a higher center of consciousness in the unconscious, the
Upanishad’s "he that is awake to those who sleep … the self-force of the Divine
Being deep hidden by its own conscious modes of working (Sri Aurobindo, 1970,
p. 80)."
Edinger further argues that "knowing with" implies relatedness, the
principle of Eros. Ego consciousness, therefore, potentially consists of a union
of Logos, that is to say, discernment and meaning, and Eros or relationship,
Social Psychology, Dreams and Consciousness
9
better said, the intelligent inter-weavings of nature, while being subordinated to a
higher Self.
Intelligence, purpose, meaning and dynamic creative energy permeate the
universe at both a macro and micro level. The aim of psychology, therefore,
should be to assist people in expanding their awareness in order to realize new
mental, behavioral and emotional possibilities, new ways of becoming. "Man’s
task," notes Jung (as reported in Edinger, 1984), "is … to becomes conscious of
the contents that press upward from the unconscious" -- to fulfill "his destiny" by
creating "more and more consciousness (p. 57)." In such a view, the aspiration
for pure consciousness or consciousness without an object however spiritually
uplifting is, in itself, a limited goal.
Consciousness and the Image
Throughout Jung's writings there is considerable emphasis on the image as
being the "source" of both consciousness and life.
Indeed he highly values
authentic fantasy and notes how images can be used in various ways.
Regarding the image given birth to by the soul, Jung (as reported in Jacobi and
Hull, 1974, p. 44, 45) writes: "the first possibility of making use of them is artistic
…, a second is philosophical speculation; a third is quasi-religious leading to
heresy and the founding of sects; and a fourth way of employing the dynamis of
these images is to squander it in every form of licentiousness. In another context
he writes: "fantasy is not a sickness but a natural and vital activity, which helps
Social Psychology, Dreams and Consciousness
10
the seed of psychic development to grow (p. 200)." In fact, Jung developed a
form of meditation he called Active Imagination based on the ability to dialogue
with the unconscious by way of accessing the inner image.
At this point I will only emphasize the fact it is important to distinguish between
true fantasy and inauthentic fantasy based on hidden desires. Moreover, what is
truly important is not the surface image in itself but the meaning involved in it.
There is also a need to distinguish between collective images imposed from
without, even when they come with a considerable amount of power like
commercial advertisements, and images that truly speak to the soul, either
generated from within or through great art forms, including some movies.
Marshal McLuhan (as reported in Nelson, 1987, p. 153), the media guru, warns
that the contemporary person, "the electronic man … (has) lost … his physical
body and his private identity."
He has," he says, "an image, but no body."
Although McLuhan is particularly referring to the image imposed through the
popular media, especially television, the important point is that many if not most
people today are not in touch with their body and instinctual nature. Therapy can
help people replace imposed images and conditioning by internally generated
ones. However, the implications of the fact that people are out of touch with their
instincts but in touch with images is that even internally generated images can be
split off from the instincts, at least at the beginning of therapy. For this reason it
is always important to bring feeling evaluation to the image in question along with
Social Psychology, Dreams and Consciousness
11
a sense of reality. It normally takes a long time and a considerable amount of
introspection before the ego can relate to the image together with its instinctual
dynamis. At any rate, that is my own experience.
As von Franz, (1990, p. 343) observes, "The imagery is not the important thing.
The meaning, the message is …
." She also notes that dreams always relate
us back to our innermost center, the Self. Whitmont (1990, p. 12) argues that
fantasy and imagination are means to "psychic well being" and not ends in
themselves. Furthermore, he argues that only through symbolic living in the here
and now can one say there is conscious living. Although consciousness in life
involves awareness of symbolic imagery behind events, as it were, there is in
addition the need to realize meaning and to be concerned about its effective
application in life.
Such a psychological position calls for insight, eventual cognitive restructuring
and effective ethical judgment, in addition to staying with the image. Behind and
involved in the image itself is intelligent and purposive creative energy.
Moreover, there are images and images, some more or less collective, and some
more or less laden with consciousness-force. So far, psychology does a poor
job in acknowledging these differences and taking them into account.
Social Psychology, Dreams and Consciousness
12
Fromm's Social Psychology and Dream Theory
With this background, I now present a brief overview on Fromm’s social
psychology and then his dream theory, which I critically examine.
The
psychologist, according to Fromm, should be primarily concerned with
humankind’s tendency to escape from positive freedom and directing people
towards what he refers to as the productive orientation (Fromm, 1941). A person
so oriented is independent and spontaneously engaged with the world
particularly through reason, that is active loving and penetrating thought.
In
order to arrive at such a state of mind, it is necessary to disengage oneself from
a relationship to irrational authority. Fromm interprets the Oedipus myth in this
light, arguing that it is primarily a symbol of a son tied to the matriarchal world,
who overthrows the father, the representative of the patriarchal order and
irrational authority.
Fromm, (1980) believes that humankind is ultimately motivated by great
passions such as love, hate, ambition and truth and not instincts such as sex
and hunger, which he sees a being relatively trivial. Due to social and historical
conditioning, he argues, people are relatively unconscious of these passions and
instead are governed by the prevailing social pattern.
Although cultural
conditioning is class specific it is, he believes, today generally defined by the
marketing structure which encourages a labile ego and exaggerated outerdirectedness.
Social Psychology, Dreams and Consciousness
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Fromm (1957, 1980) considers the conscious and unconscious to be the mind
engaged in two different states of existence.
He puts more importance and
value on the waking state over and against dreams and the sleeping state. In
Fromm’s view consciousness, which is largely formed by the prevailing social
character, is principally concerned with survival and, ideally, actively engaged in
external reality as delimited by space-time categories.
The unconscious, in
contrast, represents the experience of non-activity and is related to via dreams
and elaborated by way of free association.
Sleep, he believes, suspends
relationship to the external world, giving freedom to expressions of the self in
both its lower and higher aspects, that is to say, in symbols that both encourage
and discourage freedom and productive living.
Fromm's Dream Theory with a Jungian Critique
The dream therefore, according to Fromm, expresses all that is the highest and
lowest in human nature, including wish fulfillment, anxiety, life sustaining and life
destroying passions, as well as deep insight into oneself, others and creative
problems with which one is engaged. These considerations regarding the dream
seem to be in basic agreement with Jung's position. There is, nonetheless, a
difference in perspective based on the fact that, from a Jungian stance, Fromm
overvalues the active conscious personality vis a vis the unconscious.
Whereas Jung (as reported in Jacobi and Hull, 1974) highly values the waking
ego and the need to consciously deliberate and conscientiously fulfill daily tasks,
Social Psychology, Dreams and Consciousness
14
he has at least equal if not ultimately more regard for the unconscious and the
wisdom inherent in the autonomous psyche.
Indeed, the intensity of some
dream experiences suggests that Jung is closer to the truth in putting such a
high value on the unconscious than Fromm is in his relative devaluation of it. In
support of Jung's position, Michael Jouvet (as reported in Rossi, 1985) indicates
that there is, in fact, equal or greater cerebral activity during dreaming or (REM
sleep) than during the most intense waking experiences.
Along with Jung, Fromm observes that dreams normally relate to recent
significant events often of the previous day and reflect the mood of the dreamer.
They represent unconscious feelings, thoughts, insights and wishes or fears that
are sufficiently important for the dreamer to become aware of them.
Unlike
Jung, Fromm (1957) insists that they are always the dreamer’s own feelings and
thoughts and do not come from a source transcending the individual. Here,
Fromm is being consistent with his own metapsychology which places ultimate
value on reason and the need to relate thoughts and feelings to an actively
thinking, feeling and loving ego.
Jung (as reported in Jacobi & Hull, 1974),
meanwhile, argues that the unconscious is essentially of an objective nature and
contains ego-transcending archetypes, which are the source of feelings, ideas,
images, sensations the dynamic, instinctual nature and even the physical being
itself.
Social Psychology, Dreams and Consciousness
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Although Fromm (1957) does not accept the full significance of the archetype
and symbolic reality in Jung’s terms, he shares with the latter the view that
dreams speak a symbolic language which, at it deepest level, is universal. In
addition, he agrees with Freud in assuming that there is a dream censor and
manifest and latent dream content, although he interprets these concepts much
more broadly. In many cases, he observes, the censorship simply consists of
the dream’s symbolic language which needs decoding.
However, he argues that the prevailing social pattern also affects dreams by way
of a censoring process. Indeed, he contends that the censor has more of a
social character than Freud assumes and that the latter’s censor is simply
related to the superego of his time.
In any event, the effect of the socially
patterned censor, in Fromm’s opinion, is that dreams become biased toward
being reasonable, as defined by the prevailing culture, apparently even when the
social pattern is defective. The therapist’s task accordingly, he believes, is to
delve behind the manifest content to the underlying latent content, with the help
of free association.
Fortunately, there are a few examples of the way Fromm interprets dreams in his
book The Forgotten Language. A close examination suggests that although
Fromm does not interpret dreams in the direction of a given culture's idea of
reasonableness, in addition to decoding symbols, he finds latent meaning in a
way that fits his own Weltanschauung.
That is to say, his interpretations
Social Psychology, Dreams and Consciousness
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encourage the dreamer away from irrational authority towards reason grounded
on humanistic assumptions.
At least that is the case in one on interesting example of a dream that he
interprets (Fromm 1957) (appendix I).
Fromm interprets the dream as
expressing the fact that the dreamer is in search of "humanistic religion" with
emphasis on "strength and goodness" and "the realization of one's human
powers (p.105)." It is particularly instructive as Jung interprets the same dream
from his perspective. His point of view differs essentially because he accepts the
dream as is, as an objective piece of nature, arguing that there is no such thing
as a latent and manifest content (Jung, as reported in Jacobi & Hull, 1974). The
message resides in the dream exactly as it is presented which, in Jung’s opinion,
"shows the inner truth and reality… as it really is (p. 57)." The dream is, he says,
"a spontaneous self portrayal, in symbolic form, of the actual situation in the
unconscious (p. 57)." Interestingly enough, such a view finds support from the
psychiatrists Jouvet, Hobson and McCauley’s (as reported in Rossi, 1985) neuropsychological research into the pontine areas of the brain stem.
In their
activation-synthesis theory, they conclude that the dream’s manifest content is
expressed transparently to the dreamer.
Given his understanding of the nature of the dream, Jung (as reported in Jacobi
& Hull, 1974) warns against interpreting dreams with any preconceived notion
whatsoever.
Instead, the therapist is enjoined to have the widest possible
Social Psychology, Dreams and Consciousness
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culture and openness to the wisdom of the unconscious. Accordingly, Jung (as
reported in Fromm, 1957) interprets the same dream as Fromm with the advice
that the dreamer needs to assimilate something of a pagan joie de vivre into his
conscious Weltanschauung and not that he is in search of humanistic religion as
Fromm proposes. Such an interpretation accepts the dream as it is, as a piece
of objective nature. Furthermore, it is an interpretation based on a transcendent
teleology, which has complete faith in the meaningfulness of the symbol and its
effective power of realization. As Kirsch (1990) writes, Fromm sees the dream
as providing considerable insight for more productive living, but he lacks the
fundamental faith in the wisdom of the autonomous psyche as is reflected in
Jung’s approach.
Despite these reflections, the questions raised by Fromm on how the study of
dreams can lead one towards freedom from the impositions of social patterns
needs to be directly addressed. By accepting the dream as is, is there a chance
of remaining locked into the prevailing pattern, essentially without freedom as
Fromm argues? Belief in the intelligence and purposefulness of the unconscious
suggests that the answer is ultimately no. However, it also suggests that the
timing and nature of the liberation gained is an individual matter not to be forced
by any preconceptions.
As an illustration of how this might work in practice, I now give an example of a
dream a forty-five year old man who was concerned about having to teach
Social Psychology, Dreams and Consciousness
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courses in marketing, which, by the nature of the subject matter, tested his
ethical standards. In the dream his marketing professor during his MBA studies
was again teaching a course he was taking.
To his surprise, the dreamer
learned that his old instructor was now teaching psychology. In actual reality the
dreamer soon began to appreciate that although he was teaching marketing and
related courses, at the same time, he was learning a great deal about the
psychological nature of the culture he lives in. Gradually, however, his life took
another direction and it is now being reorganized in a somewhat more
unconventional way.
It is as if full involvement along with a gradual detachment from the workings of
nature brings knowledge. The secret wisdom in nature is such that by accepting
where one is, along with inward seeking and self-reflection, nature reveals
something of her hidden intelligence. One gains relative inner freedom as the
knots of karma unravel on their own accord.
The unconscious and its
messenger, dreams, have their own unfathomable ways, allowing them to live,
and to live consciously, encourage mysterious unfolding of life. Doing so with
conscious attention brings an expansion of consciousness and increased
awareness of the workings of consciousness-force in her creative meanderings
(exhibit 1).
Erich Fromm brings considerable insight to bear in his social psychology both on
the nature of the cultural forces in society and on the value of a humanistic
Social Psychology, Dreams and Consciousness
perspective, which I have long appreciated.
19
Humanistic reason, along with
insight from the unconscious, may well fit the psychological needs of many
people. Ultimately, however, such an approach falls short, as reason no longer
suffices.
Whereas, individuation to be conscious requires intensive inward
seeking, individuation to be full allows for the purposeful intelligence of nature.
Conclusion
In this paper I presented the perspective of social psychology as represented by
Erich Fromm, along with is dream theory.
I assessed his theory from a
perspective informed by the psychology of C. G. Jung. In particular, I considered
the nature of consciousness and the goal of increasing awareness while
examining the therapeutic value of social psychology and Fromm’s dream
theory.
I conclude that although one gains considerable insight both on the
nature of culture and one’s personal psychology, such an approach does not
encourage individuation in its fullest. Only a psychology that endorses both the
need for increased conscious awareness and the creative purposefulness of
nature allows for conscious individuation, that is to say freedom that comes
through participation with the unfolding of the Self over time.
Social Psychology, Dreams and Consciousness
20
APPENDIX I
There are many houses, which have a theatrical character, a sort of stage
scenery. Somebody mentions the name of Bernard Shaw. It is also mentioned
that the play, which is to follow refers to a remote future. One of the houses is
distinguished by a signboard with the following inscription:
This is the universal Catholic Church.
It is the Church of the Lord.
All those who feel themselves to be
Instruments of the Lord may enter.
And below in smaller letters:
The church is founded by Jesus and Paul - it is
as if a firm boasted of its old standing. I say to
my friend, "Let us go in and have a look." He
replies, "I do not see why many people should
be together in order to have religious feelings."
But I say, "You are a Protestant, so you will
never understand it."
There is a woman
nodding approval. I now become aware of a bill
posted on the wall of the church. It reads as
follows:
Soldiers!
When you feel that you are under the power of
the Lord, avoid talking directly to him. The Lord
is not accessible to words.
We also
recommend urgently that you should not
indulge in discussions about the attributes of
the Lord among yourselves.
It would be
fruitless, as anything of value and importance is
ineffable.
Signed: Pope . . . (the name, however,
is not decipherable)
We now enter the church.
The interior resembles a mosque rather than a
church, as a matter of fact it is particularly like the Hagia Sophia. There are no
Social Psychology, Dreams and Consciousness
21
chairs, which produces a wonderful effect of space. There are also no images.
There are only framed sentences on the walls (like those in the Hagia Sophia).
One of these sentences reads, "Do not flatter your benefactor."
The same
woman who nodded approval to me before begins to weep and says, "I think that
it is perfectly all right," but she vanishes.
At first I am right in front of a pillar which obliterates the view; then I change my
position and I see a crowd of people in front of me. I do not belong to them, and
I am standing alone.
But I see them clearly, I also see their faces.
They
pronounce the following words; "we confess that we are under the power of the
Lord. The Kingdom of Heaven is within ourselves." They repeat this thrice in a
most solemn way. Then the organ plays a fugue by Bach and a choir sings.
Sometime it is music alone, sometimes the following words are repeated:
"Everything else is paper," which means that it does not produce a living
impression.
When the music is finished the second part of the ceremony begins, as it is the
custom at students’ meetings where the dealing with serious affairs is followed
by the gay part of the gathering. These are serene and mature human beings.
One walks to and fro, others talk together, they welcome each other, and wine
from the Episcopal seminary and other drinks are served. In the form of a toast
one wishes the church a favorable development, and a radio amplifier plays a
ragtime melody with the refrain: "Charles is now also in the game." It is as if the
Social Psychology, Dreams and Consciousness
22
pleasure concerning some new member of the society were to be expressed by
that performance. A priest explains to me: "These somewhat futile amusements
are officially acknowledged and admitted. We must adapt a little to American
methods. If you have to deal with the big crowds, as we have, it is inevitable.
We differ, however, on principle from the American churches in that we cherish
an emphatically anti-ascetic tendency." Whereupon I woke up with a feeling of
great relief (as reported in Fromm, 1957, pp. 97-100).
Social Psychology, Dreams and Consciousness
EXHIBIT 1
Consciousness-Life
23
Social Psychology, Dreams and Consciousness
24
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