Fisheries Management in the Gulf of Mexico:
Habitat as the Focus for a Successful Management Plan
Joseph Gamble and Justin Stuedemann: Conservation in the United States
Abstract: Marine fisheries have always been a vital natural resource for people
throughout the world. Fish populations are a renewable resource that have historically
been self-sustaining, without the need for human intervention. In recent years improved
technology and increased population have meant a vast increase in production from the
commercial fishing industry, as well as an increase in the development of coastal habitats
that are essential to the survival of many marine species. Human “Management” of
marine resources has become necessary to combat the effects of development. Legal
limits to the size and quantity of fish taken from the oceans have historically been viewed
as the primary tool for managing fisheries. In the modern era, these methods, while
necessary, are simply not enough. Habitat destruction is now a great force in the
reduction of fish populations’ quantity and quality. A new focus on habitat is necessary if
fisheries are to be successfully managed. Unfortunately, current laws and jurisdictional
boundaries do not allow for effective habitat management.
Introduction
Throughout history, the marine resources of the world have been a major source
of economic stimulus. People depend on their environment, the natural system
surrounding them, to provide basic necessities. Natural resources have become a key part
of our modern economic system. Some natural resources are non-renewable and cannot
be replenished at rates anywhere near those at which they are used. Renewable
resources, on the other hand, can be utilized indefinitely, provided they are harvested in a
sustainable manner. The coast of the Gulf of Mexico holds a vast amount of natural
resources. Among them is a booming marine fishery. The gulf has a high species
diversity allowing a variety of fish to be targeted. The most sought after include the Red
Snapper, the Gulf Shrimp, and the Blue Crab. Many people are unaware of the immense
productivity of the Gulf Coast’s fishing industry. In the year 2000, 1.8 billion pounds of
fish and shellfish, worth $991.3 million were caught in the Gulf’s waters. This compares
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to one billion pounds of fish caught in the pacific region. In the same year, the Gulf
region led the nation in the production of both shrimp and oysters. 288 million pounds of
shrimp and 20.7 million pounds of oyster meat were produced in 2000. It has been said
that an acre of estuary in the Gulf is more productive for food than an acre of farmland in
Iowa (One Gulf…One Community 2002). These populations are all occurring naturally,
and humans need only harvest the resources to utilize them.
The natural state of the gulf is now in constant competition with development. In
this case, development can be thought of as an anthropogenic process that changes
natural environments to better suit human wants and needs. Like many other parts of the
country, the Gulf Coast has experienced rapid growth in recent years. The Gulf Coast
states experienced a 14.5 percent population increase in the 1990’s (One Gulf…One
Community 2002). This growth will continue to be a great concern as it has been
estimated that as much as half of America’s population will live near the coast by the
year 2010. There has also been a massive increase in recreational use of America’s
beaches. Nearly 100 million people travel to coastal areas every year for vacations or
other recreational reasons (Hill 1999). Human migration and increased vacationing have
resulted in the rapid building of condominiums, highways, and commercial enterprises
along the gulf coast. This is especially true in those states that posses very limited
shoreline.
Developers remove wetlands and natural plants to make room for buildings,
parking lots, roads, exotic landscapes, and even golf courses. Wetlands and native plants
are often natural buffers that filter pollutants out of the watershed. In addition to
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removing natural groundcover, developers cover much of the immediate coastal area with
impervious surfaces that further obstruct surface water percolation through the soil. Also,
the increase in automobile emissions can affect air quality, which further affects water
quality (Pew Oceans Commission 2003). Coastal development tends to create increased
pollution while hindering the areas natural ability to absorb it. Fish populations are
dwindling because, among other reasons, their habitats are being destroyed by the effects
of coastal development.
Over the course of history, state and federal governments have taken measures to
manage populations in an attempt to save our nations invaluable marine ecosystems.
However, habitat destruction has remained, in many ways, unaddressed. Without
effectively managing habitat, populations of species cannot successfully be restored or
sustained. We have a strong network of government and non-government agencies that
have the potential to successfully fight the negative effects of habitat destruction.
However, new legal framework for action must be put into place to allow them to work
together to solve the problems. A new focus on habitat issues is needed in order to save
fisheries in the Gulf of Mexico and around the world.
Groups Involved
The first federal agency involved in natural resources was the United States
Commission on Fish and Fisheries, created in 1871. Well over one hundred years ago,
fish populations were noticeably falling. President Ulysses S. Grant saw the need for
resource conservation and signed a bill creating the so called “Fish Commission” on
February 9, 1871. This gave him the power to appoint a commissioner. This person’s
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job would be to study, "the decrease of the food fishes of the seacoasts and lakes of the
United States, and to suggest remedial measures (National Oceanographic and
Atmospheric Administration 2003)." Over the years, the Fish Commission has had
several name changes. The most recent came in 1970. The commission was renamed the
National Marine Fisheries Service and was placed under the newly organized National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) (National Oceanographic and
Atmospheric Administration 2003). Their mission is to “Rebuild and maintain
sustainable fisheries… promote the recovery of protected species…” and, “protect and
maintain the health of coastal marine habitats.” Today, the NMFS plays an important
role in the research of marine resources and advises other governmental organizations on
proper management decisions.
The late sixties and seventies brought about a new culture of environmentalism
and resource conservatism. Up until 1976, American waters were open to fishing from
both domestic and foreign vessels. There was still little structure for fishing regulations
and environmental protection. Enormous pressure was put on the gulf’s natural
ecosystem by overfishing, habitat destruction, and other such unregulated activities (Gulf
Restoration Network 2002). Awareness of the depletion of fish populations became
common among the commercial and recreational fishing community, as well as the
general public. In 1976, congress passed the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation
and Management Act. Currently known as the Sustainable Fisheries Act, this law took
great measures to arrange a system to better regulate our nation’s valuable marine
resources. Perhaps most notable is the creation of a 200 mile zone of federally controlled
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waters that extends out
from shore. This is known
as the “Exclusive Economic
Zone.” Today, only
American and licensed
foreign vessels have fishing
rights in this area. Waters
three miles or closer to
Figure 1. Display of Exclusive Economic Zone. (Source: NOAA 1999.)
shore are subject to State laws. Florida and Texas control nine miles of water, due to
Spanish laws from colonial times (Lukens 2003). Boundaries between adjacent states’
ocean waters are somewhat dynamic in nature. Tidal cycles and ever changing coast
lines make it difficult to identify precise boundaries in state controlled water.
Traditionally, they have been accessible only through paper maps held by NOAA. There
has been very little dispute over state borders in the ocean in the past. Consequently,
offshore state boundaries are somewhat loosely defined. Today, modern GIS technology
is allowing NOAA to produce digital representations of coasts and political boundaries.
This data will be precise and readily available to state governments and the public, as it is
completed (National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration 2003).
Beyond the three or nine mile border, federal regulations apply. The Sustainably
Fisheries Act also lays out the ground work for regional councils of fisheries
management and their operating procedure. The nation is divided into eight regions, each
with a council in charge of enforcing federal regulations (National Marine Fisheries
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Service 2003). After the signing of the Magnuson Act, the National Marine Fisheries
Service had a change of focus and was given a more research oriented mission (National
Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration 2003).
The Gulf of Mexico Fisheries Management Council is in charge of regulating the
Exclusive Economic Zone of the Gulf of Mexico. Twenty-one representatives sit on the
Gulf Council, seventeen of which have voting power. The director of the southeast
region of the National Marine Fisheries Service is one of the voting members of the
council. Five seats are occupied by the directors of each states agency for marine
resource management. For example, the director of the Texas Parks and Wildlife
Department is a voting member. The remaining eleven voting members are nominated
by state governors and appointed by the Secretary of Commerce. There are also
representatives from the Department of State, the United States Coast Guard, the United
States Fish and Wildlife Service and the Gulf States Marine Fisheries Commission.
However, these four members do not have the power to vote (Gulf of Mexico Fishery
Management Council 2003).
While the federal government controls the Exclusive Economic Zone, state
governments are in charge of managing the waters that are closer to the coast. The
Sustainable Fisheries Act gives state governments control of waters within three miles of
shore in Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama, and within nine miles of shore in Texas
and Florida (Gulf Restoration Network 2002). The immediate coastal area is of particular
importance because it includes bays and wetlands. These require special protection
because of their importance to the ecology of the Gulf as a whole. These five Gulf States
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have developed a compact to pool some of their resources and help each other make
sound management decisions. The Gulf States Marine Fisheries Commission was created
in 1949 and is funded by the states, with the help of some federal grants (Gulf State
Marine Fisheries Commission 2003). By having this cooperative effort, the states can
work with each other on mutually beneficial activities such as habitat protection and fish
stocking. After all, fish stocked into Alabama’s inland waters will no doubt spread to
Mississippi and Western Florida. The five states have a system that allows each to
contribute an amount that is proportional to their territory bordering the Gulf of Mexico.
For example, Texas puts about five times as much money into the commission’s budget
as Mississippi does (Gulf State Marine Fisheries Commission 2003). This cooperative
effort has proven to be a proactive measure in the management of the fishery.
Non-governmental organizations also take a roll in fisheries management.
Groups such as the Gulf Restoration Network keep citizens informed on issues related to
the degradation of the Gulf of Mexico. They make information available through their
newsletters and their web site. “The GRN's vision is that the Gulf of Mexico will
continue to be a natural, economic, and recreational resource that is central to the culture
and heritage of five states and four nations (Ocean Conservancy 2003).” The group
attends meetings of the Gulf Council and the Gulf States Marine Fisheries Commission to
voice the opinions of their members to the boards. They also play a role in organizing
group activities for individuals to participate in. The GRN takes credit for a number of
advances in environmental policy. For example, they helped persuade Louisiana’s
governor’s office to advocate an amendment to Louisiana’s State constitution that would
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make restoration of the gulf coast a strong priority for the state. Many other such groups
exist, including The Ocean Conservancy (Ocean Conservancy 2003) and Oceana,
formerly the American Oceans Campaign (Oceana 2003). These are both larger groups
that include offshoots focusing on local issues to the Gulf Coast.
When discussing stakeholders in marine fisheries, it is important to keep in mind
that many people’s livelihoods depend on the ability to successfully fish their local
waters. The commercial fishing business has developed, from a local economic activity,
to a global industry controlled by vast transnational corporations. It is important not to
demonize the fishermen who depend on the fisheries for their livelihoods (Jimir 2000).
Global corporations will buy fish products from the lowest bidder. Our resource
managers must give the fishing industry the tools it needs to competitive with other
markets. With proper regulations, commercial fishing can be done in a sustainable
fashion. Unfortunately, practices such as regulating the size and quantity of fish caught
cannot solve every related problem. Economic factors aside, commercial fishing could
be banned throughout the world and we would still have major problems with our
fisheries.
Habitat Concerns
One of the largest problems concerning the development of the Gulf Coast is the
destruction of habitat. Increased boat traffic and fishing have created some problems in
this area. Grassy bottoms, coral reefs, and habitat of all kinds are damaged by boat props,
anchors, and fishing equipment. In some cases equipment is even lost or abandoned
(Gulf State Marine Fisheries Commission 2003). The fishing gear then remains on the
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Joseph Gamble and Justin Stuedemann
ocean floor disturbing its ecology. An example of the effects of abandoned fishing gear
can best be examined through the Gulf Coast’s problems with “derelict crab traps
(Mobile Bay National Estuary Program 2003).” These mesh wire traps are used
throughout the area’s shallow bays to catch the valuable Blue Crab. Bait is placed inside
the trap. The mesh construction allows crabs to sense the bait and enter the trap through
a small opening. Once a crab is in the trap, exiting is far more difficult.
The problem is that the traps are easily lost and left on the floor of the bay. It has
been estimated that as many half of all traps end up getting lost or abandoned (Gulf State
Marine Fisheries Commission 2003). This could be attributed to their relatively small
replacement cost. The traps are notorious for catching non-target species and when the
traps are abandoned, both the crabs and bycatch have a very difficult time escaping
(Mobile Bay National Estuary Program 2003). The traps remain in the bay, disturbing
the natural habitat and ecosystem. They can be damaging to boats, and frustrating to
sport anglers who accidentally hook into them.
While boat traffic and fishing practices are responsible for some habitat
destruction, human population increases have a much more disturbing effect. Outdated
sewers, irresponsible agricultural projects, increased paved surfaces, and industrial
practices cause pollutants of all types to enter coastal waterways every time it rains (Hill
1999). These pollutants affect the water quality of the Gulf of Mexico whether they enter
the watershed right on the beach, or hundreds of miles North in the corn fields of Iowa
(Rabalais 2002). Water quality issues and the destruction of habitat must be examined if
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fisheries are to be successfully managed. Marine animals are under great pressure to
carry out the activities they need to survive.
Migratory species and intricate food webs make seemingly local habitat issues
impact the oceans ecology as a whole, regardless of political boundaries. For this reason,
habitat destruction affects the interests of both state and federal management
organizations. Many fish require both shallow and deep waters for different stages of
their life. It has been estimated that seventy five percent of species sought out by
commercial and recreational fishing depend on coastal ecosystems to survive, and that
inland habitat destruction costs the commercial fishing industry $27 billion per year in
lost production (Lee 1997).
A classic example of a species
that requires both types of habitat is the
Red Drum. This fish is known for its
high food value. The Red Drum has
Figure 2. Diagram of Red Drum. (Source:
Virginia Institute of Marine Science.)
been found in many places from the
Atlantic coast of Massachusetts to the Southern most part of Florida, as well as the Gulf
Coast from Florida to Tuxpan, Mexico. This fish spends the first three years of its life in
inland bays and in the ocean, close to shore. In other words, its first three years are spent
in state managed waters. In this stage of its life, it can grow as long as twenty-four inches
and weigh six to eight pounds. After it reaches three years of age, it migrates to the deep
waters of the ocean for the remainder of its life. Some infrequent trips back towards the
shore have been documented, but for the most part, older Red Drum live in federally
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Joseph Gamble and Justin Stuedemann
controlled waters. Red Drum has been known to reach
weights as high as 83 pounds in ocean waters (Texas Parks
and Wildlife 2003). Unfortunately, as coastal habitat quality
is lost, fish like this will have a very difficult time reaching
maturity. The population living in the deep gulf waters will
therefore be adversely affected. Even fish that never live
near shore are indirectly dependant on coastal habitat for
their required food sources.
In most cases, the shallow inland waters are under the responsibility of state
governments. The deeper waters of
the Exclusive Economic Zone are the concern of the
Figure 3. Photograph of trophy sized Red
Drum. (Source: Carolina Department of
Environment and Natural Resources 2003.)
Gulf Council, as they are often more than three miles offshore (Gulf State Marine
Fisheries Commission 2003). This is where the problem of habitat management comes
in. Because of the overlap of certain species and habitats, a cooperative effort is needed
to effectively manage and protect ocean habitat and its inhabitants. Unfortunately, there
is not a clear legal path established to allow for real programs that view the ecosystem as
a whole, rather than a divided map of political boundaries.
Before recent years, habitat was not a large focus of fisheries management. More
energy was put into the obvious answer of limiting catches and sizes of fish. Today,
however, everyone involved with the management of our marine ecosystems agrees that
habitat destruction is one of the main causes for concern. Unfortunately, there are many
obstacles in the way of efficiently protecting habitat. Because it was not heavily
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addressed in the past, there used to be nothing in the laws concerning habitat
management as a part of fisheries management. This problem was addressed in the
changes that were made to the Magnuson-Stevens Act in 1996. A provision was added
that made it possible for “Essential Fish Habitats” to be identified by the federal regional
fisheries councils. Once this list of species and their habitats was compiled, it could be
added to the council’s fisheries management plan as an Essential Fish Habitat
Amendment. This amendment would allow regional councils to do more in terms of
habitat management and restoration. It also has some policy that allows federal councils
to work with state governments. In cases where species managed by federal councils rely
on habitats that fall into areas controlled by state governments, a cooperative effort
between state governments and federal councils would be allowed (Gulf State Marine
Fisheries Commission 2003).
In 1997, The Gulf States Marine Fisheries Commission and the Gulf of Mexico
Fisheries Management Council made an agreement to participate in a joint habitat effort.
Their first order of business was to construct an Essential Fish Habitat (EFH)
Amendment for the Gulf Council’s fisheries management plan. The Essential Fish
Habitats Amendment identifies the EFH for species managed by the Gulf Council. The
amendment includes a list of species and their respective habitats. Once the federal plan
is updated with these habitats, they can do some work with state and multi-state agencies
to solve problems with habitats in state controlled waters (Gulf State Marine Fisheries
Commission 2003). This looks like a step in the right direction; however, the EFH
Amendment does not include an explanation of how these essential habitats are to be
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Joseph Gamble and Justin Stuedemann
protected. Nevertheless, identifying what habitats are important is definitely the first step
of the process.
Once the EFH Amendment was put into place, the members of the joint habitat
effort needed a way to navigate through the hundreds of written sources on habitat issues
to get a better understanding of what research is still needed. They decided to put
together an annotated bibliography of fishing impacts of habitat. The bibliography
currently has 570 articles from many different sources. The research comes from
scientific and unscientific sources, including governmental studies, academic theses, and
articles from a variety of journals. Although issues such as over-fishing and bycatch
have a negative effect on fisheries, articles on these subjects are not included in the
bibliography (Gulf State Marine Fisheries Commission 2003). The joint habitat effort
plans to focus purely on habitat issues, and not on other problems affecting the fisheries.
Once the bibliography project is finished, the Gulf Council, and the Gulf States Marine
Fisheries Commission will basically be at a standstill. The individual states are still in
charge of managing the coastal areas and the Gulf Council will be in charge of the federal
EEZ.
Solutions
All parties involved have a roll that can be taken to stop the destruction of critical habitat
that is plaguing the Gulf Coast. Better laws are required if we are to manage marine
fisheries in a modern fashion. Local governments must be more cautious about the types
of economic development packages that are proposed to them. The current system
requires that developers go through an approval process before they can begin their
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projects. Unfortunately, government officials are shortsighted and approve almost
everything that appears in front of them (Lukens, 2003). As they should be, state
governments are very concerned with
economic development. The fact they are
missing, though, is that the current rates of
development along the coasts will diminish
the quality of life of its residents, not to
mention the people who rely on fishing as a
source of income.
States must create a system to limit
Figure 4. Photograph of modern condominium
development. (Source: Eden Condominiums 2003.)
wanton development and better regulate the growth that does occur. There must be a
program to monitor the environmental impacts of a development project before, during,
and after it is deployed. If the cost of such a program is a concern, states should require
the developer to pay for it. This type of system is fair and it may work to slow the
excessive building that is occurring. These methods of “thinking globally and acting
locally” can only work if the people living and working on the Gulf Coast wish them to.
It is extremely important that the public becomes educated on the problem of habitat
destruction. This issue must be made a priority, and people must use their votes
accordingly. Elected officials can do a great deal to increase the focus on habitat
management.
The jurisdictional problems in the gulf could prove to be more difficult to solve.
The 1996 amendments to the Sustainable Fisheries Act are a good start. At the very least,
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Joseph Gamble and Justin Stuedemann
they recognize the overlap of territory and the problems associated with it. However,
much more work is needed to make this an effective law. Federal and state governments
want to work together, they simply do not have the tools required to do so. Our
lawmakers need to give them the foundation they require. Existing habitats must be
protected and habitats that have already been destroyed must be restored. The only
feasible way to change federal laws is to make elected representatives know that their
jobs are dependant on it. Non-profit organizations and the commercial fishing industry
must take a stance on this issue, educate the public, and make their priorities clear to
elected officials. Fisheries management must include much more than simple length
limits and closed seasons. A focus on habitat is essential if our fisheries are to remain
productive.
Conclusion
Over-fishing can no longer be the primary concern in fisheries management.
Habitat destruction has become a serious concern for those involved in marine
conservation. A system of management that deals with both harvest limits and habitat
protection is now necessary if fisheries are to remain productive. Because of the
migratory nature of many marine species, individual fish may utilize habitats controlled
by multiple agencies, with differing jurisdictions, during certain parts of their lives. The
natural movement of these species can create legal roadblocks for agencies wishing to
sustain or improve the quality of their populations by protecting their habitat. Steps have
been taken to allow federal and state management agencies to collaborate on habitat
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projects; however, current laws are still too limiting to allow for cooperative efforts to
succeed. Further legal changes are required if the bureaucracy is to effectively manage
marine resources in inter-jurisdictional areas.
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Works Cited
Gulf of Mexico Fishery Management Council. Unknown. Accessed 10 November 2003.
Home Page. [Internet, WWW], Address: http://www.fishhabitat.net/
Gulf Restoration Network. Unknown. Accessed 10 November 2003. Home Page.
[Internet, WWW], Address:
http://www.gulfrestorationnetwork.org/fisheries/management.htm
Gulf State Marine Fisheries Commission. 28 May 2003. Accessed 10 November 2003.
Home Page. [Internet, WWW], Address: http://www.gsmfc.org/
Hill, Nathan. June 1999. “Our Beleaguered Beaches.” The Environmental Magazine: 16.
Jamir, Dr, Toms Vergel C. October 2000. “The Perfect Storm and Beyond.”
Tradewinds.
Lee, Mercédès and Carl Safina. 1997. “A Storm is Brewing Over Our Oceans.” Zoogoer,
26(2).
Lukens, Ronald. 8 December 2003. Assistant Director, Gulf State Marine Fisheries
Council, telephone interview.
Mobile Bay National Estuary Program. Unknown. Accessed 7 December 2003. Home
Page. [Internet, WWW], Address: http://www.mobilebaynep.com
National Marine Fisheries Service. Unknown. Accessed 10 November 2003. Sustainable
Fisheries Act. [Internet, WWW], Address: http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/sfa/
National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration. Unknown. Accessed 10
November 2003. Home Page. [Internet, WWW], Address: http://www.noaa.gov
Ocean Conservancy. Unknown. Accessed 10 November 2003. Home Page. [Internet,
WWW], Address: http://www.oceanconservancy.org/dynamic/home/home.htm
Oceana. Unknown. Accessed 7 December 2003. Home Page. [Internet, WWW], Address:
http://www.oceana.org
One Gulf… One Community. 25 April 2002. Accessed 10 November 2003. The Gulf of
Mexico, A Valuable Resource. [Internet, WWW], Address:
http://www.onegulf.org/gomfacts.html.
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Pew Oceans Commission. 2003. America’s Living Oceans- Charting a Course for Sea
Change. Arlington, VA: Pew Oceans Commission.
Rabalais, Nancy N., Donald Scavia, and Eugene R. Turner. 2002. “Beyond Science into
Policy: Gulf of Mexico Hypoxia and the Mississippi River.” Bioscience. 52 (2):
129-143.
Texas Parks and Wildlife. Unknown. Accessed 7 December 2003. The Red Drum in
Texas. [Internet, WWW], Address:
http://www.tpwd.state.tx.us/fish/specinfo/reddrum/reddrum.html
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