Action Research Resources
Writing a Research Report
This short guide is written to help you approach the writing of a research report and our
best advice is to start thinking about this as soon as you can and planning it into your
work/life schedule.
The guidelines provide a general introduction to planning and writing a report but it is
suggested that you read about writing research reports/dissertations before starting – see
bibliography and our resources guide on this site.
We hope that you enjoy the experience of carrying out research and remember that your
mentor/tutor is there to support you through the process. It might also help you to join a
research action set of others writing their reports.
GETTING STARTED
TOPIC, CHOICE AND STRUCTURE
A good research report should demonstrate:
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an understanding of underpinning themes critically evaluated gained from
extensive, relevant reading of relevant literature on previous research.
the ability to collect data and evidence systematically and justify your choices
the ability to interpret, analyse and evaluate data and evidence
an ability to present data and evidence accurately and appropriately
critical thinking – raise and discuss issues, not just present findings
an ability to report effectively
an ability to reflect on learning
It is useful to discuss the following with your mentor/tutor at the first meeting on your
research report.
PRACTICAL POINTS:
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Agree a target submission date
Word limit
Intermediate dates
Presentation format
Available support
House style
ACTION PLAN
1. Decide on a possible focus and discuss with mentor/tutor.
2. Draw up a schedule: include completion dates for different stages
3. Decide on literature to be reviewed
4. Investigate research methodology
5. Set up project and collect data
6. Sort/study data
7. Analyse/interpret data
8. Draw conclusions
9. Make recommendations
10. Evaluate and write personal reflections
TIMESCALES
These will vary depending on the type of research report you are doing and the available
time within any given contract or semester.
Ideally the following is an idea of timescales you might need to ensure that you give
sufficient time and attention to each part of the process.
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2 months: Reading, making notes, planning, setting up systems, writing introduction
2 months: Writing literature review
1 month: Refining/writing up research methods
1 month: Collecting/recording data
1 month: Analysing data
1 month: Writing conclusions and compiling bibliography and appendices
1 month Proofreading, correcting, binding
CHOOSING THE SUBJECT
General guidance
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Choose something that interests you but without any pre-conceived ideas of what
you are likely to find out. This could/should (depending on brief) be an area that
would be useful to the organisation. If this involves your organisation, discuss
terms of reference with them to ensure they agree the research is appropriate and
whether the research can be published.
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Consider feasibility such as
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"Life" of topic
Likely result/usefulness
Timescales
Literature available
Ethical/moral considerations
Anticipated problems
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STUCK FOR IDEAS?
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Jot down possible areas of interest.
Draw up a shortlist of topics.
Check in library how much has been written about a topic.
Use internet to check for research journals/articles written on similar topics.
Compare/contrast a couple of articles on a topic.
Discuss with others in the organisation or in your research action set.
NARROW DOWN THE TOPIC:
Process of refining and clarifying:
1. Identify broad area of study
2. Refine to aspect of particular interest
3. Decide purpose (to develop theory, monitor practice, evaluate, increase
understanding, practical outcomes?)
4. Ask basic initial questions to narrow down to specific area (who, what, where, when,
why, how?)
5. Refine questions to define precise focus.
6. Draft title - use positive terms in title to reflect purpose (e.g. evaluate, examine,
measure, survey, assess)
An example of how to do this is taken from Barnes, R. (2004) as follows:
 Broad area of study: Unemployment
 Particular interest: Youth unemployment
 Initial questions:
o Who do I mean by youth?
o Which young people in particular am I interested in?
o What is the context?
o What aspects of unemployment am I concerned about and why?
 Specific area: Unemployment among 16 to 25 year olds in Nowheresville.
 Purpose: To find out how many young people are unemployed and how this
affects them and their community. To suggest ways of improving things.
 Precise focus: The effects of unemployment on16-25 year olds in
Nowheresville and on the local community.
Meet with your mentor/tutor and take a few possible titles for discussion.
REPORT STRUCTURE
When writing your report, you need to think about your reader and present it in a way that is easy
to follow. Use of headings, paragraph numbers, tables, charts and diagrams all help to take your
reader on a clearly signposted journey.
We suggest you use the following headings to structure your report:
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Title page - title of report, your name, organisation, date of submission, name of tutor.
Acknowledgements - optional
Contents page - chapters, appendices, tables, figures, illustrations
Executive Summary – This is a summary and outline of main findings including
context, purpose, objectives, methods, main results, conclusions and
recommendations for the reader to get a feel for whether the rest of the report is of
sufficient interest to warrant spending time reading it!
Introduction – including background, organisational context and circumstances
leading to the investigation, the terms of reference, aims and objectives.
Literature review – a critical analysis of the most significant contributions to the
literature, the theories, concepts, issues and research reports that have shaped your
research questions and the approach you have chosen. Put your own work into
context. Move from general background/standard theoretical works to more precise,
recent work relevant to your topic. Cover a range of positions – not just those you
agree with. Show how existing theories/research findings clarify your work.
Research methodology – Evidence of systematic data collection and clear
presentation of findings. This includes a justification for the choice of methods chosen
to investigate your topic, the procedures used, any ethical issues, strengths and
weaknesses of the approach, issues of validity and reliability. Explain approach taken
and why particular methods and techniques were used. Describe procedures, size of
samples, methods of selection, choice of variables and controls, any tests of
measurement, etc. Mention deficiencies in methods. Clear presentation of the findings
using charts, graphs etc. where appropriate.
Analysis and interpretation of Findings – Comprehensive analysis and interpretation
of findings in a holistic and integrated manner. Construct a logical, consistent
argument based on the findings which analyses the information in the light of your
research objectives and the literature reviewed.
Conclusions – Summarise main points and state any conclusions which can be
drawn. These must be based on evidence and indicate how firm the conclusion is.
Conclusions links the analysis of your findings with your recommendations
Recommendations – these are a natural follow-on from your conclusions and are
actions for the future. They should be realistic, timely and cost-effective and supported
by an action plan.
Evaluation/personal reflections – this is where you can tell your reader what you
have learned from the whole process of your research. Include comments from the
organisation where appropriate.
Bibliography/Webliography – this is your list of sources used. You must reference
properly and fully to avoid plagiarism whether intentional or not.
Please ensure that any quotations are acknowledged
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We use the Harvard system of referencing, so do speak to your
mentor/tutor if you aren’t sure whether you are following the conventions
correctly.
Appendices – Typical items to go in this section could be copies of any
questionnaires, interview schedules etc. Please do not use this section as a ‘dumping
ground’ for including all the information you want to put in the report but would go over
the word limit in doing so! It can be very irritating for the reader to have to flip back and
forth to follow your discussion. The report should stand alone – without the appendices!
LITERATURE REVIEW
WHY READ?
Having decided on a topic it is essential to start reading to find out what is already known
about that subject. A key feature of any project is to demonstrate an awareness of how it
fits into the wider context of theory and practice and this will be shown through the
literature review. This is good practice for any project you undertake.
The theoretical models which are identified will run as a theme through the report. They
will have a number of benefits as you progress through the report including:
Getting ideas for your project
Once you have identified a topic, by reading around it you can see how other people have
tackled similar investigations. You can also get a feel for the sort of views that are relevant
to your topic, particularly views that might not be expressed in an everyday work or
managerial environment. In this way you can generate fresher or more interesting ideas
and you should be able to clarify your initial thoughts about the way forward with your
project. It is important to read literature which both confirms and disconfirms your ideas so
that you can generate a balanced viewpoint.
Developing a framework for analysis
When you have gathered your data, later in the project, you will have to analyse and
interpret it. In order to do this effectively you will need to know what the key issues and
concepts are and how they relate to each other. These key issues and concepts will come
from a critical analysis of the literature you have read.
Collecting secondary data
Reading around the subject might also reveal relevant examples of other organisations in
a similar position or numerical data that is useful for comparison with your data or for
benchmarking purposes.
Start reading as soon as you have an idea for your report.
As you read note different ideas down and critically evaluate them against your own
organisation and ideas/models from other literature.
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Start your bibliography using the Harvard referencing system and note books or journals in
it as you read them.
Draft ideas and send to/make notes for your mentor/tutor for discussion. This is really
useful as it gives an opportunity to share your reading and evaluation with your
mentor/tutor and explore the relevance of the literature to your topic.
WHAT TO READ?
If you are part of an academic establishment then you will undoubtedly have access to a
large library and online journals and these make a good starting point for your literary
research. However, practitioners in the workplace might not have this luxury and it is
suggested that around 6 books plus academic journals and other sources are used so
here are a few hints and tips:
A useful start, where you are a member, are the professional bodies websites. They
usually have books on the subject in their library, fact sheets and articles which might be
relevant. The fact sheets and articles often also have bibliographies. This will give you an
idea of some of the books and journals which deal with your topic.
Once you have some titles of books, it is useful to find reviews so that you can get an idea
of how useful they will be to your particular area of research. Useful sites for this are
online book companies like Amazon which give book reviews. Also check whether your
company subscribes to any online book companies like books 24 which offer an online
subscription service for management books.
Having decided on 5/6 books that look interesting you could ask your public library to get
these for you – most libraries offer a service where they will get almost any book in print
for you in 2-3 weeks. It might be worth buying one or two key texts.
Books are an excellent way of getting background reading on a topic and finding out the
established views. However research into different aspects is ongoing and it is important
to have up to date academic research to show that you are aware of the latest thinking.
This does need to be credible, valid and reliable and therefore it is suggested you only use
reliable sources. When using general web searches ensure that they are from credible
sources such as universities (they have ac in their url eg www.leeds.ac.uk).
Tip: As you read note down useful quotes and start bibliography – this way you won’t
forget which books you’ve read and where the quotes came from! Doing the bibliography
as you go along also seems less daunting.
EVALUATING AND ANALYSING THE LITERATURE
Being critical does not necessarily mean being negative, but it does involve you in
responding to what you have read in a way that examines the reading objectively. There
are a number of ways of doing this:
Include work that supports your ideas but also consider approaches that oppose
them.
Make explicit the values and theories that underpin what you are reading about and
then consider how well they link together
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Discuss what you are reading in the light of existing critiques of the theories and
concepts
Relate different readings with each other – look for similarities but also for
contradictions or tensions between the opinions and approaches of different authors
Support your arguments and judgements about the value of different approaches
with reasoned explanations.
How to approach the literature review
Start at a general level and outline the main contextual features of the topic you are
researching.
Provide a brief overview of key ideas that are relevant to the topic.
Summarise, compare and contrast the work of key writers in the field
Narrow down to highlight the work most relevant to your research
Highlight any areas where your research will provide fresh insights.
Points to remember!
Include theories that are relevant to your investigation
Demonstrate that you are up to date in your knowledge of the topic.
Write a critical assessment of previously published work on the topic. This involves
identifying its strengths and weaknesses as well as any areas that may have been left
out or handled in a biased way.
You must show adequate references to substantial and appropriate research-oriented
journals within your literature review.
Harvard Referencing
As you find your sources get into the habit of using a referencing system. The most common
system is the Harvard and looks like this:
ANDERSON, V. (2004) ‘Research Methods in Human Resource Management’, London,
CIPD.
PEOPLE MANAGEMENT (2000) ‘Managers fail to blow whistle on fraud’ 28 December.
PURCELL, K. and ELIAS, P. (2003) ‘On higher ground’, People Management, 29 May.
BELL, J. (1993) 2nd. edn. ‘Doing Your Research Project’, Buckingham, OUP
LESTER STAN http://www.devmts.demon.co.uk
LESTER STAN (1997) Learning for the 21st Century,
LESTER STAN (1996) Beyond Knowledge and Competence,
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RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The term methodology means an ‘analysis of and rationale for the particular method or
methods used’ (Jankowicz (2000) pp 212-13) and an explanation and justification of the
methods you have chosen to use for your research is required for the MRR.
This justification includes the choice of methods chosen to investigate your topic, the
procedures used, any ethical issues, strengths and weaknesses of the approach, issues of
validity and reliability. You will also need to explain the approach taken and why particular
methods and techniques were used, describe procedures, size of samples, methods of
selection, choice of variables and controls, any tests of measurement, etc. and mention
any deficiencies in methods.
When planning to collect your data your starting point is to think about the following (taken
from Valerie Anderson):
What are my research questions?
Specifically – what information do I need
to answer my research questions?
How or where can I get the information I need?
Secondary data
Published sources
Primary data
Unpublished sources
eg company documents
How will I identify and access
potential sources of secondary
Information?
Qualitative data
Quantitative data
What is the research population?
What would form a representative
sample of the research population?
How will I record the data I obtain?
How reliable and valid will my data be?
Once you have decided on the questions/objectives of your research then you can plan
the methods that will give you the information you need. Some basic research methods
with their advantages, disadvantages and challenges are given below – see
www.managementhelp.org/research/overview.htm.
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Overview of Basic Methods to Collect Information
Written by Carter McNamara, PhD | Applies to nonprofits and for-profits unless noted
The following table provides an overview of the basic methods to collect data.
Method
Overall Purpose
Advantages
Challenges
questionnaires,
surveys,
checklists
when need to quickly and/or
easily get lots of information
from people in a non
threatening way
-can complete anonymously
-inexpensive to administer
-easy to compare and analyze
-administer to many people
-can get lots of data
-many sample questionnaires
already exist
-might not get careful feedback
-wording can bias client's
responses
-are impersonal
-in surveys, may need sampling
expert
- doesn't get full story
interviews
when want to fully understand
someone's impressions or
experiences, or learn more
about their answers to
questionnaires
-get full range and depth of
information
-develops relationship with client
-can be flexible with client
documentation
review
when want impression of how
program operates without
interrupting the program; is
from review of applications,
finances, memos, minutes, etc.
-get comprehensive and historical
information
-doesn't interrupt program or
client's routine in program
-information already exists
-few biases about information
observation
to gather accurate information
about how a program actually
operates, particularly about
processes
-can be difficult to interpret seen
behaviors
-view operations of a program as -can be complex to categorize
they are actually occurring
observations
-can adapt to events as they occur -can influence behaviors of
program participants
-can be expensive
focus groups
explore a topic in depth
through group discussion, e.g.,
about reactions to an
experience or suggestion,
understanding common
complaints, etc.; useful in
evaluation and marketing
case studies
to fully understand or depict
client's experiences in a
program, and conduct
comprehensive examination
through cross comparison of
cases
-can take much time
-can be hard to analyze and
compare
-can be costly
-interviewer can bias client's
responses
-often takes much time
-info may be incomplete
-need to be quite clear about
what looking for
-not flexible means to get data;
data restricted to what already
exists
-quickly and reliably get common -can be hard to analyze
impressions
-can be efficient way to get much
range and depth of information in
short time
- can convey key information
about programs
responses
-need good facilitator for safety
and closure
-difficult to schedule 6-8 people
together
-fully depicts client's experience -usually quite time consuming to
in program input, process and
results
-powerful means to portray
program to outsiders
collect, organize and describe
-represents depth of information,
rather than breadth
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As you investigate these questions note the reasons for your choice and also the reasons
for not choosing different methods and write these up.
Tip: You will need to justify your decision so write up the advantages and disadvantages of
different research methods, why you decided on the method you chose and why you didn’t
chose the other possible methods.
When thinking about the type of data you want to collect you will also need to ensure you
have both quantitative and qualitative data.
Quantitative data is objective
o concerned with observable, objective, measurable facts, physical
characteristics and the outside world
o hypothesis indicated at beginning of research then tested through
experiment involves measurement and comparison of data at
beginning and end of period
o large samples involved
o results presented as %s and in graphs
o researcher remote from group
Qualitative data is subjective
o
o
o
o
o
often concerned with social aspects of lives of groups and individuals
concerned with immeasurable features - meanings and experience
data used to generate new hypothesis or theory
concerned with explanation and interpretation
involves techniques such as case study, informal discussion, self
discovery
o smaller samples involved
o results analysed and reported
o researcher more involved with group
Getting and Analysing the data
You now have a clear plan of what data you need to find the answers to your research objectives
and how you are going to get it. The next stage is to carry this out.
Tip: When using research that isn’t face to face remember to explain why you are asking
for the information and to thank people for their contribution. It is also useful to note that
the return on mailings is not very high so where possible consider other methods.
Once the data starts to come in, there are a number of things to consider:
Have you got enough information to work with? If not, why do you think that is?
Are the results reasonably representative of the planned sample?
How do the results link back to your aims and objectives? What does the information
prove?
How do they link to the things you have read in your literature review? Do they support or
contradict what you have read?
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PRESENTING THE DATA
When you have collected all the data, you need to be able to analyse it. To do this the
data needs to be presented in a manageable way.
There are many ways of presenting data and it is suggested that you think about how you
will do this before deciding on the most appropriate research methods to choose and this
will form part of the rationale for your choice.
When presenting quantitative data it is helpful to use graphs, charts and diagrams to make
it easier to analyse.
When presenting qualitative data, summarise the comments where possible into x number
of people commented that ………….
Tip: Can you present the information in charts, diagrams and tables for ease of analysis
and presentation?
ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
Explore key themes – what answers does it give to the research question? What was
surprising about the information, were there any ‘unplanned’ issues!
Discuss your interpretation of the findings and link it back to your terms of reference, the
project objectives and the literature review.
When analysing the data some useful guidelines are:
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It is not enough just to present findings
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Need to show how findings support your argument
o what light do they shed on the topic?
o what significance do they have for the topic?
o what weight can be given to them?
o how do they relate to other views?
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Need to interpret, analyse, criticise
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Look for similarities, groupings, patterns, items of particular significance
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Need to raise/discuss issues
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What is fact and what is opinion?
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Any weaknesses, errors, omissions? Other explanations possible?
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Do not claim more for the results than they provide – are they reliable and valid?
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Do not attempt generalisations based on insufficient data
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COMING TO CONCLUSIONS
Make notes about the results, paying particular attention to the things you are concluding from
them. When you write up your report, it is extremely important that you are able to justify your
conclusions by drawing on the things you have read, the benchmarking you have carried out and
your research questions.
The main things to be aware of in drawing your conclusions are as follows:
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There must be an audit trail from your conclusions to their origin. The reader should be
able to trace your conclusions to your line of thought/argument/discussion.
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Conclusions should be firmly based on the evidence you present. If you cannot
substantiate any claims you want to make, leave them out
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If your results are inconclusive, don’t worry! This is all part of the investigation. You
should acknowledge the inconclusiveness and note the issues involved, e.g., flawed
method(s), poor number of responses, ambiguities in the data, how the results compare
to ‘best practice’.
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Your conclusions should act as the business case that clearly signposts your
recommendations
MAKING RECOMMENDATIONS
These should come naturally from your conclusions and therefore be linked to your results,
analysis and discussion.
You should state your recommendations in ‘action’ terms and include where you can,
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who is responsible,
cost/benefits,
feasibility,
priorities and timescales,
likely outcomes/impact on the organisation (threats? opportunities?)
You may want to consider using a tabular format for this section of your report.
RECOMMENDATION
WHO IS
RESPONSIBLE
RESOURCES
REQUIRED
COST/BENEFIT
OUTCOMES/
SUCCESS
MEASURES/
THREATS/
OPPORTUNITIES
TIMESCALES
PRIORITY
FEASIBILITY
RATING
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PERSONAL EVALUATION/REFLECTION
It is important that you reflect on what you have learned during your research and that you express
this.
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What worked and why?
What didn’t – and why?
What would you do differently and why?
The answers may lie in the choice of subject, the research methods chosen, the literature
available, organisational issues, timing ……………….
There are a host of different things that may have arisen during your study so,
ASSESSMENT OF THE RESEARCH REPORT
The process for assessment of research reports will vary depending on their focus, for
instance whether it is part of your teacher training qualification, whether it is a report for an
organisation or a funded project by LSIS.
Within the teacher training qualification, it is usual to have:
Development stage
During this stage you will get formative feedback from your Advisor
Assessment stage
Your report will be formally marked against the criteria
Internal Moderation
The tutors will meet to share their comments and grades given,
External Moderation
Samples of research reports will be externally moderated to ensure fair and reliable
assessment across all centres.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
ANDERSON, V. (2004) ‘Research Methods in Human Resource Management’, London,
CIPD
BARNES, R. (2004) 3rd Edn. ‘Successful Study for Degrees’, Routledge
BELL, J. (2005) 4th edn. ‘Doing Your Research Project: A Guide for First-Time
Researchers in Education, Health and Social Science’, Buckingham, Open University
Press
BLAXTER, L., HUGHES, C and TIGHT, M. (2006) 3rd edn ‘How to Research’
Buckingham, Open University Press
ORNA, E and STEVENS, G. (1995) ‘Managing Information for Research’, Buckingham,
Open University Press
CRYER, P. (2006) 3rd Edn. ‘The Research Student’s Guide to Success’, Buckingham,
Open University Press
SWETNAM, D. (2000) 3rd Edn. ‘Writing Your Dissertation: The Bestselling Guide to
Planning, Preparing and Presenting First-Class Work’ Publisher: Oxford, How To Books
Ltd
WEBLIOGRAPHY
McNamara, C. Free Management Library: Overview of basic methods to collect information
Available from world wide web: www.managementhelp.org/research/overview.htm.
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