Ethnography
Hudson
A How to Guide for the
Ethnographic Method
By
Carl Hudson
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Ethnography
Hudson
Table of Contents
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 3
A Brief History ........................................................................................................................... 4
Significance of Ethnographic Research ...................................................................................... 4
Methodology ................................................................................................................................... 4
Design Cycle ............................................................................................................................... 4
Procedure .................................................................................................................................... 4
Step 1: Preparation............................................................................................................ 5
Step 2: Conducting the Field Study .............................................................................. 5
Step 3: Analysis of the Data ............................................................................................ 6
Step 4: Reporting ............................................................................................................... 6
Potential Problems ...................................................................................................................... 7
Example: Taxi Cab – Dispatch System .......................................................................................... 8
Annotated Bibliography ................................................................................................................ 10
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Introduction
Ethnography is a method of research typically used in anthropology and sociology. This
document is a brief guide to conducting such a study. It is in no way complete. Perfecting the
methods could take years and vary enormously from one context to another. Because of its
origins in social science, ethnography is typically described in following ways:
 a method of observing human interactions in social settings and activities (Burke & Kirk,
2001)
 a holistic observation of people in their ‘cultural context’
 the study and systematic recording of human cultures; also : a descriptive work produced
from such research (Merriam-Webster Online).
Note that these definitions often relate ethnography to the study of culture. Culture can be
described as the way of life of a group of people. In the realms of anthropology and sociology,
cultures are usually analogous to ethnic groups. But, in the realm of Human-Computer
Interaction (HCI) and product design, groups of people can be as small as a cluster of employees
in a particular department. Thus there are two general forms of ethnography: the classic form
and the modern design form. More comparisons of these two forms of ethnography are
summarized in Table 1.
Table 1: Comparisons between two types of Ethnography
Roots of Classic Ethnography
Design Ethnography
 Describes cultures
 Describes domains
(Anthropology/Sociology)
 Uses local language
 Uses local language
 Subjective
 Objective
 Compares general principles of design
 Compares general principles of society  Intervention
 Non-interference
 Duration: Several Weeks/Months
 Duration: Several Years
(depends on task(s) studied)
Ethnography is always conducted in the local language of the people being observed. In
the classic form, this investigation involves learning the language of a particular culture
including slang phrases and words of expression. In the design form, this method involves
learning the terminology or jargon used in a particular workplace. Tighter time constraints also
exist in design and so ethnographic methods are usually more intervening to ‘speed-up’ the data
collection process. To meet deadlines, ethnographers can gather such information by stepping
away from pure observational field work and becoming actively involved with ‘learning the
ropes’. Research can be accomplished by asking prying questions, conducting interviews, and
performing tasks themselves. Often ethnographers will need to become more intrusive -sacrificing objectivity to achieve their goal(s). This trade-off is common in ethnography.
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A Brief History
Ethnography as we know it today was invented by Bronislaw Malinowski (Anderson,
1997; Malinowski, 1967; Kuper 1983). In 1915, Malinowski started a three year ethnographic
study of the natives of the Trobriand Islands off the coast of New Guinea in the southwest
pacific. During his three year visit, Malinowski documented three forms of data about the tribes
there:
 Synoptic Charts organizing massive amounts of information into an easier to understand
format
 Detailed descriptions of day to day lives and activities
 All stories, narratives, myths, etc.
Using this holistic approach to studying the social interactions of the islanders, Malinowski
discovered many interesting things such as their beliefs about kinships, magic, religion, and trade
practices. Malinowski fashioned the modern analytic component to ethnography. Without this
painstaking level of data collection and analysis, we would lose the ability to learn about
‘cultures’ from a unique inside perspective.
Significance of Ethnographic Research
With regards to design, ethnography is an ideal way to collect practical insider
knowledge and experience about a group of people. Because of the ‘hands-on’ nature, it can be
extremely useful for improving system design by revealing important aspects which may not
seem obvious to designers. Strict observation alone does not always tell the whole story.
Ethnographic approach allows one to look deeper at the behavior of people in certain group
dynamics. An experienced ethnographer will have the ability to analyze the data thoroughly;
allowing for the discovery of new relevant information.
Methodology
Design Cycle
Ethnography is used in a variety of stages in the design cycle. Typically, it is best
utilized in the conceptual or pre-design stage. It also holds useful in the iterative designing stage,
affording alterations to the blueprints along the way. Ethnographers can also pose as users in the
evaluation of the new design potentially saving money in the long term. In fact, the earlier
ethnography is implemented into the design cycle, the sooner problems can be identified, saving
the company money. Unfortunately, ethnography does not always get implemented soon enough
and time deadlines tend to constrict its effectiveness.
Procedure
The way in which one conducts an ethnographic study depends on a variety of factors. It
depends on time constraints imposed by the company or the design team. It depends on the size
of one’s research budget, the focus of the study, when it will be implemented in the design cycle,
instrumentation/materials at hand, the freedom/flexibility of the ethnographer, etc. Rose et al.
(1995) present four steps which provide a rough guideline as to how to conduct an ethnographic
study. These steps are in no way concrete.
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Step 1: Preparation
Before conducting a study, on must make several preparations to determine the feasibility
of the study and to ensure success. Firstly, determine the focus of the study. Ethnography by
nature involves the collection of vast amounts of data. Outlining the goals will help sort through
all the data later on. One should prepare questions which are of particular importance. Often
these questions can be guided by concerns the design team has; however limiting goals only to
the needs of the design team may be too narrow. Too fine a focus may abolish the chance of
discovering new findings. A balance in the amount of focus is needed.
Secondly, as an ethnographer one must begin to familiarize oneself with the organization
policies, procedures, and general work culture. By gaining an understanding of these aspects of
the work environment ahead of time, one will free up resources. Gathering details about day to
day events, the flow of work, and other relevant things already takes up valuable time when
conducting the study. Lightening the ethnographer’s plate is vital. On that note, it is also a good
idea to familiarize oneself with the current system(s) and its history.
Finally, one must find out how to gain access or permission from the proper authorities
within an organization to conduct the study. Often people who may prevent access are deemed
‘gate-keepers’ and those who may help lift these road blocks are your ‘sponsors’. One of the
greatest challenges is to convince sponsors that the research is worthwhile.
Step 2: Conducting the Field Study
While conducting the field study there are a number of things one needs to do to ensure it
runs smoothly. It is a good idea to establish a healthy rapport with managers and users. This
will launch an open dialogue that will encourage managers and employees to share their
knowledge. A good rapport will also foster effective interviews which may complement
recorded observations.
A good practice it to be highly meticulous. Record all kinds of subjective/objective and
quantitative/qualitative data. It may include observations, impressions, feelings, hunches,
emerging questions, etc. Data can be recorded in a variety of ways such as field notes, open
ended interviews and audio/video recordings. The key is to record every visit with detail and to
record it immediately to ensure its accuracy. Finally, be sure to follow any leads that emerge
from any visits. Leads provide an opportunity to discover innovative ideas about system design
and justify the whole purpose for using ethnography.
Nielsen (2002) provides some useful tips when conducting a field study. Some of these
points are summarized below.
Table 2: Dos and Don’ts for conducting a Field Study
Don’t
Do
 Ask simple Yes/No questions
 Ask open-ended questions
 Ask leading questions
 Phrase questions properly to avoid bias
 Use unfamiliar jargon
 Speak their language
 Lead/guide the ‘user’
 Let user notice things on his/her own
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Step 3: Analysis of the Data
Unlike other scientific methods, ethnography does not require collecting all the data
before analysis. In fact, it is better to continually interpret the data as it is being conducted.
Compile the collected data into numerical, textual, and multimedia databases as soon as possible.
This helps to simplify, clarify, and refine the massive amounts of data: bringing emerging
patterns to the surface. Refinement forces the ethnographer to continually redevelop ideas about
the design. Organization also makes it easier to report any updates to the design team. Having
quantifiable data and compiled statistics available help to solidify arguments to designers and
engineers.
Step 4: Reporting
When writing or presenting any findings be sure to consider the multiple audiences and
their particular goals. Managers, users, designers, and engineers all have different ideas of what
to take away from the study. Once more, they also speak different ‘languages’. Be sure to use
appropriate examples for each audience.
Frequent reporting is highly recommended. The sooner findings are presented to the rest
of the design team; the sooner it can be incorporated into design. Furthermore, once a prototype
is developed, an ethnographer can act as a “substitute user in a ‘user-centered’ systems design
process” (Bently et al., 1992). Even short debriefing meetings can ensure the relevant
discoveries from the ethnographic method are communicated effectively.
When writing an ethnographic report, Randall (1996) suggests the following format to
present the findings of the study in a succinct manner.
 Purpose Statement
o Outline the focus and goals of the study. Generally, the purpose of the study is to
describe/analyze work activities, identify problems in work routines/practices,
suggest solutions, identify current weaknesses in study and suggest new research
directions.
 Executive Summary
o A quick synopsis of key items mentioned in statement.
o Brevity is the key. Some audience members will only read the summary and not
the main body version.
 Main Body
o A full account of findings, arguments, conclusions, and recommendations.
 Future Research
o Identify current limitations to the study and justify why more research is required.
 Debriefing
o Drive home ideas, arguments, problems & solutions.
o Justify conclusions and prove that ethnography was worth the time & money.
 Appendix
o Include concrete examples and data charts to support your arguments.
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Potential Problems
Randall (1996) suggests that a huge problem may arise in the communication between
ethnographers and the system designers. A dichotomy exists between these two groups due to
the nature of each of their work. Ethnographers analyze data, try to be impartial and nonjudgmental and usually have lengthy timeframes to complete their work. Software engineers are
the exact opposite. They synthesize data and must be judgmental due to the frequent deadlines
they have. Randall (1996) suggests this dichotomy can be bridged by an iterative approach to
ethnography where frequent communication between the two is a foundation for understanding.
There are other problems one must deal with when conducting such a study. The rest of
the issues are outlined as advantages and disadvantages in Table 3. Many of which have been
discussed previously. Often these characteristics can be seen as tradeoffs between each other.
Table 3: Advantages & Disadvantages to Ethnography
Advantage
Disadvantage
 Provides relevant ‘real-world’ data
 Context too specific, not generalizable
to other organizations or systems.
 Provides in-depth understanding of
people in an organization.
 ‘Going native’ – develops a bias for
analysis and interpretation.
 Identifies assumptions that maybe
taken for granted by system designers
 Multiple Roles
 Can be economical (if you ‘do it
 Must negotiate access (see
yourself’).
gatekeepers/sponsors in Step 1:
Preparation)
 Time & Money (hiring, training,
managing, conducting, analyzing data,
etc.)
 Data is messy and often unstructured.
Too much data, not enough time to tell
a complete story.
 How do you assess significance? (Did
we learn something new, valuable?)
In closing, ethnography can prove to be very useful to the design process. Its
effectiveness is of course dependant upon the freedom given to the ethnographer. Tight
restriction such as deadlines, small budgets, or an unequal position on the design team may
compromise effectiveness. In fact, if these restrictions are too tight, a different methodological
study may be more effective. One of the constant struggles with this method of study is that it
requires continual justification. Managers, designers and engineers do not always see the benefit
of such a study until the near end.
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Example: Taxi Cab – Dispatch System
The example I will illustrate here pertains to the taxi driver industry. The design team
wishes to implement a new computerized cab-dispatch system. The software company has hired
ethnographers to determine what problems exist with the current system. Specifically - what
problems arise when using the device while driving?
Step 1: Preparation






Familiarize yourself with the
o Radio codes
o Cab driver procedures
o Questionnaires
o User demographics
o Users’ feelings towards current system. Easy to use? Easy to learn?
Focus of the study.
o What problems arise when using the dispatch system and driving?
Who are the Gatekeepers? Sponsors?
o Unions?
How much time do you have?
Resources available?
o Money? Cabs?
How will we record data?
o Video camera(s) in cab? On what?
o Ethnographer as cab driver? Make field notes between customers?
Step 2: Study




Establish rapport with drivers and dispatchers
o Small talk
o Assure them that their performance/job is not at stake. We are looking at
problems with the dispatch system and how to improve it.
Emerging Issues (Leads):
o How does the interface perform at different times of day? Rush-hour, Day/Night?
o What features should be added/subtracted from current system? Weather, traffic
reports?
o What info given by the dispatch system is most important? Least important?
o What are other tasks the driver is doing? (Workflow ≠ Flow-of-Work)
 Talking to friends/family on cell phone.
 Listening to radio
 Are they distractive?
Record everything.
o Daily Flow-of-Work (not workflow)
Ask exploratory/probing questions
o How long is a regular shift?
o How often do you take breaks?
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Step 3: Analysis






Look for emerging patterns in the data
Create data charts. Compare Day vs. Night interactions with the device. Frequency of
use at different times of day (i.e. rush-hour).
Glare/ Contrast issues?
Vision Acuity? Color perception?
Clutter Issues – should the new system have a new head up display?
Group Dynamics – how does the actions of one driver affect another? Dispatch?
Step 4: Reporting


Report findings frequently with designers
Speak their language.
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Annotated Bibliography
Anderson, B. (1997). Work, Ethnography and System Design. The Encyclopedia of
Microcomputers, 20, 159-183. Marcel Dekker, NY.
This article is a great overall guide to the history and methodology. If you need more
information, this text provides an excellent overview and guidelines for implementation.
Bentley, R., Hughes, J.A., Randall, D., Rodden, T., Sawyer, P., Shapiro, D. and
Summerville, I. (1992) Ethnographically-informed systems design for air traffic
control. CSCW ’92 Proceedings, November, 123-129.
This is an excellent example of ethnography used for system design in Air Traffic Control. Here
ethnography reveals unique group dynamics which ensure planes arrive safely and on time.
With the current system, individuals could make on-the-fly corrections to incoming air traffic.
The new computerized system interface needed to provide this same functionality.
Burke, J. & Kirk, A. (2001). Ethnographic Methods. Retrieved September 29, 2004, from
University of Maryland, CHARM: Choosing Human-Computer Interaction (HCI)
Appropriate Research Methods Website: http://www.otal.umd.edu/hcirm/ethno.html
Excellent source of information as to how to conduct an ethnographic study. Site also contains
links to various other types of research methods relevant to HCI.
Kuper, A. (1983). Anthropology and Anthropologists. Routledge, London.
This text is a classic reference to ethnographic study.
Malinowski, B. (1967). Argonauts of the Western Pacific. Routledge & Kegan Paul, London.
The author is the godfather for ethnography. This is the original example of the classic
ethnographic methodology. Little information here pertains to system design, but is an excellent
source about the history of ethnography.
Merriam-Webster Online. Retrieved September 29, 2004, from http://www.m-w.com/
It’s a dictionary website. Great way to look up words.
Myers, M. (1999). Investigating Information Systems with Ethnographic Research.
Communications for AIS, 2(23).
Excellent reference. Basically another guide with points about benefits/limitations to
ethnographic research and various styles to writing a report.
Nielsen. J. (2002). Field Studies Done Right: Fast and Observational. Retrieved September
29, 2004 from http://www.useit.com
Fantastic website for HCI and usability information. The site is written in easy to understand
terms and is an asset to anyone interested in human factors/HCI.
Randall, D. (1996). Ethnography and Systems Development: Bounding the Intersection.
Tutorial notes presented at CSCW'96.
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This document bridges the gap between classical ethnography and modern design ethnography.
Another excellent how to guide with plenty of details about relevant issues one must confront to
achieve success.
Rose, A., Plaisant, C., and Shneiderman, B. (1995). Using Ethnographic Methods In User
Interface Re-engineering. Proceedings of the ACM 1995 conference for Designing
Interactive Systems: processes, practices, methods, and techniques. New York, NY:
ACM Press, 1995, pp. 115-122.
This document is an excellent source of information regarding the procedure involved in
ethnography. It provides an in-depth guide to ethnographic methodology.
Rouncefield, M., J.A. Hughes, T. Rodden, S. Viller. Working with 'constant interruption':
CSCW and the Small Office. Proceedings of the ACM 1994 Conference on Computer
Supported Cooperative Work. New York, NY: ACM Press, 1994, pp. 275-286.
A great source of information. The document outlines the important difference between
workflow and the flow of work. It provides concrete examples of data collected in an
ethnographic study, how to analyze it and how to succinctly convey findings.
Salvador, T. & Mateas, M. (1997). Design Ethnography: Designing for Someone Else.
An excellent source about ethnography. Authors go into great detail about the variations in the
ethnographic methods. Further information is given about the role the ethnographer has
regarding intervention, participation, objectivity/subjectivity, etc.
Smith,, R. & Davis, S. (1997). The Psychologist as Detective: An introduction to Conducting
Research in Psychology (pp. 398-399). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Generally a good source to understand general research methods. Little information about
ethnography.
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