Identifying Appropriate Headings
Once you have organized your outline to support the key points in your argument (thesis), you
are ready to set up the heading structure for your paper. The revised outline we have been
working with is reproduced in Column 1. Column 2 provides a suggested heading structure for
the paper. The potential headings are in red.
Outline
Introduction
Common assumptions of psychoanalytic
theorists
Focus on the intrapsychic
Role of the unconscious
Importance of early childhood
development
Psychic determinism
The inevitability of inner conflict
The divergence: Jung’s evolution of
Freudian philosophical perspectives
Two views of psychoanalysis: Similarities and
differences
Assessment of problems
Symptoms versus underlying issues
Personality structures and types
The goals of psychotherapy
Enhancing the ego
Individual versus collective
unconscious
Self actualization
Role of the client
Role of the psychoanalyst
Summary of key differences
Facilitating change: Further divergence
between Freud and Jung
Resolving conflicts
Defense mechanism
Free association
Dream analysis
Interpretation
Transference
Counter-transference
How these differences affect the
experience of the client
Similar challenges for evaluation
Internal consistency
Verifiability
Comprehensiveness
Who comes out on top?
Contributions to advancement of
psychotherapy
Conclusion
Writing & APA Lesson 3 Commentary 4 p. 1
Heading Structure
Introduction
Common assumptions of psychoanalytic theorists
Five important areas of convergence
Focus on the intrapsychic
Role of the unconscious
Importance of early childhood development
Psychic determinism
The inevitability of inner conflict
The divergence: Jung’s evolution of Freudian
philosophical perspectives
Two views of psychoanalysis: Similarities and
differences
Assessment of problems
Symptoms versus underlying issues
Personality structures and types
The goals of psychotherapy
Enhancing the ego
Individual versus collective unconscious
Self actualization
Client/psychoanalyst roles
Role of the client
Role of the psychoanalyst
Summary of key differences
Facilitating change: Further divergence between
Freud and Jung
Similar strategies applied in different ways
Resolving conflicts
Defense mechanism
Free association
Dream analysis
Interpretation
Transference
Counter-transference
How these differences affect the experience of
the client
Similar challenges for evaluation
Tests of a good theory
Internal consistency
Verifiability
Comprehensiveness
Who comes out on top?
Contributions to advancement of psychotherapy
Conclusion
You may look at the heading structure above and wonder why I have selected certain parts of
the outline to become headings rather than others. You will also notice that I have added a
couple of headings to group together a number of the key points in the outline. Here are some
basic decision rules to follow.
1. Topics of similar importance or breadth should be at the same heading level.
2. If you want to create sub-headings within a section, there should be a minimum of two subheadings (two sub-sections) under each main heading.
3. Do not simply create a heading for every key point in your outline. Several related key points
may be clustered under a single heading, especially if each key point is presented in a
single paragraph.
4. If certain points of the outline logically group together in a sub-section, you should create a
heading to introduce them.
See the notes below so that you understand how I have made my decisions. Remember that
only the information in red will form part of the heading structure. I’ve number my headings to
make the structure even more clear.
Your introduction does not need a heading. The first page of your
paper will just start with the title of the paper (see Lesson 7).
Introduction
A. Common assumptions of psychoanalytic theorists The key points in this section provide 5
examples of common assumptions. I could
1. Five important areas of convergence
use a heading for each one, but I’ve
Focus on the intrapsychic
grouped them together instead.
Role of the unconscious
Importance of early childhood development The last key point really is a summary of this
The four
section so I’ve set is apart with a new
Psychic determinism
main
heading.
The inevitability of inner conflict
groups
of key
2. The divergence: Jung’s evolution of Freudian philosophical perspectives
points in B. Two views of psychoanalysis: Similarities and differences
my
1. Assessment of problems
outline
Symptoms versus underlying issues
make a
This section of the outline already had several
Personality structures and types
logical
key points grouped together under
2.
The
goals
of
psychotherapy
set of
“Assessment…” and “The goals…”. It then
Enhancing
the
ego
primary
Individual versus collective unconscious seemed logical to group the client and
headings
psychoanalyst roles together to make that subSelf actualization
for the
section of similar breadth as the first two. The
3. Client/psychoanalyst roles
paper,
points within each sub-section don’t need
listed A,
Role of the client
headings and adding them in might just make the
B, C,
Role of the psychoanalyst
paper cluttered and difficult to read.
and D.
4. Summary of key differences
C. Facilitating change: Further divergence between Freud and Jung
1. Similar strategies applied in different ways
Resolving conflicts
As in Section A, I could have chosen to create
Defense mechanism
headings for each of these key points, but instead I’m
Free association
grouping them together under a new heading. The
Dream analysis
second heading then summarizes this section.
Interpretation
Writing & APA Lesson 3 Commentary 4 p. 2
Transference
Counter-transference
2. How these differences affect the experience of the client
D. Similar challenges for evaluation
I group together a number of key points in this
1. Tests of a good theory
section as well, paying attention to any breaks
Internal consistency
in the flow that might require a new heading.
Verifiability
“Who comes out on top?” starts a summary
Comprehensiveness
section, so I set up a new heading here. I could
2. Who comes out on top?
have also made a heading for “Contribution
Contributions to advancement of psychotherapy to…,” but decide to include it under the
E. Conclusion
summary.
Like most of the writing tips provided in lessons 2 and 3, there is no right answer for selecting
your headings. You must choose a structure that you think will make the flow of your argument
most clear to your readers. You may also want to return to the assignment criteria to ensure that
your heading structure makes the link to the assessment criteria clear.
Once you have finalized the structure of your headings, write them out without the key points
and refine the wording. You will notice that I have reworked the headings a bit so that the
wording is similar and the structure is parallel at each level. Adding colour allows you to see
each level clearly.
A. Common assumptions of psychoanalytic theorists
1. Five important areas of convergence
2. Some divergence: Jung’s evolution of Freudian philosophical perspectives
B. Similarities and differences in views of the psychoanalysis process
1. Assessment of problems
2. Goals of psychotherapy
3. Roles of the client and the psychoanalyst
4. Further divergence: Summary of key differences in approach to psychoanalysis
C. Further divergence in strategies for facilitating change
1. Similar strategies applied in different ways
2. Substantive divergence: How differences in application affect the experience of the client
D. Similar challenges for evaluation
1. Tests of a good theory
2. Who comes out on top?
E. Conclusion
Remember that there is no right way of wording your headings; however, there are more and
less effective ways.
Writing & APA Lesson 3 Commentary 4 p. 3