Sycan River Synoptic Measurements
From
Sycan Marsh to the Sprague River
Prepared for
Klamath Alternative Dispute Resolution
Participants
Prepared by
Jonathan L. La Marche
KADR Hydrologist
Oregon Department of Water Resources
South Central Region
Bend, Oregon
October 2, 2000
SUMMARY
Synoptic measurements along the Sycan River and its tributaries below Sycan Marsh were made on
August 22 and 23, 2000. Consumptive use derived from these measurements gives a crude estimate of
4-5 cfs consumed in the Sycan Valley (above the gauge) on the measurement date. However, due to
the presence of seeps along the river and groundwater irrigation there is a great deal of uncertainty
associated with this estimate. For comparison, the average August consumptive use estimate derived
for the area above the Sycan gauge in the Upper Klamath Basin Distribution (UKBD) model is 8 cfs.
The synoptic measurements also indicated two main groundwater discharge areas below Sycan
Marsh—the canyon around Torrent Springs and the Sycan Valley. Groundwater flow from these two
locations contributed roughly 95% of the flow of the Sycan River measured at the gauge near Beatty.
The FLIR data set appears to show several springs in the Sycan River from Sycan Marsh to the canyon
containing Torrent Springs. However, this reach of the river had zero discharge on the measurement
date, indicating that the seeps and springs in the area were of insufficient quantity to support
streamflow in this reach.
All surface tributaries were dry except for Blue Creek and Snake Creek, which contributed less than 1
cfs of the flow measured at the gauge. Circumstantial evidence, such as vegetation in the channel, poor
channel definition, and lack of gravels and sands in the streambeds, indicates that all other tributaries
are ephemeral. The probable reason is the high permeability of the basalts underlying the catchments
and evapotranspiration from meadows and marshes.
OBJECTIVE
The objective of this study was to investigate gains and losses in the Sycan River between the Sycan
Marsh and the confluence with the Sprague River during the low flow season (late summer). The study
was conducted to gain a better understanding of the basin’s hydrology, specifically the location and
quantity of both surface and groundwater gains to the river as well as consumptive use during the late
summer. This information is useful to both groundwater and surface water modeling efforts in the
Sycan basin. In addition, the latter information is useful as a check for consumptive use calculations
used in the distribution model for the Klamath Alternative Dispute resolution process.
BACKGROUND
The Sycan River originates from creeks draining the western slopes of Winter Ridge in the northeastern
portion of Klamath Basin in Oregon. From its origin in a meadow between Slide Mountain and Bald
Butte (at approximately 7500 feet m.s.l) the river flows northwest through several mountain meadows
then enters a steep canyon, as it picks up several tributaries before flowing into the 25,000 acre Sycan
Marsh at an elevation of roughly 5000 feet. In the marsh, tributaries draining the eastern slopes of
Yamsey Mountain and Booth Ridge join the waters from the Sycan River and additional creeks and
springs from Winter and Brattain Ridge (Figure 1). At the southern end of the marsh, the Sycan River
exits, taking whatever surface and groundwater inflows not evaporated, stored in the soil matrix of the
marsh, or percolated to groundwater. From the marsh, the river flows west and southwest gaining
inflows from Merritt Creek, Torrent Springs, and several un-named tributaries before reaching Teddy
Powers Meadows. Downstream of the meadow, the river enters the rugged, steep, and highly fractured
basalt of Coyote Bucket Canyon. Blue Creek and several small springs are the only tributaries to the
river before the canyon opens into the Sycan River Valley. In the valley, the Sycan meanders in a
broad flat flood plain, gaining flow from springs and seeps along the river. Numerous irrigation
diversions as well as irrigation from groundwater pumping contribute and consume water from the
river. Brown Springs and Snake Creek are the last major named tributaries to contribute to the Sycan
before it joins the Sprague near Beatty.
The hydrology of the basin can be described as a snowmelt driven system with peak flows occurring
during the spring freshet (March-May). Monthly mean flows at the gauge near Beatty indicate spring
runoff flows are significant while summer and early fall baseflows are not (Figure 2). This may
indicate that tributaries to the Sycan River are ephemeral contributing flow only during snowmelt or
precipitation events, with baseflows being a minor contributor to streamflow. The low baseflows may
be related to a significant portion of the basin precipitation entering a regional groundwater system that
bypasses the stream network. It may also be related to evapotranspiration (ET) from Sycan Marsh,
which would reduce the water available for baseflows. Conversely, water stored in the soil matrix of
the marsh may offset summer ET losses or even boost summer baseflows. Whatever the reason, be it
marsh evapotranspiration, a limited groundwater supply to sustain summer streamflow, or both, the net
results are low baseflows during the summer.
Yamsey
Mountain
Ñ
Long
Creek
N
Sycan
Marsh
Brattain Ridge
Booth Ridge
Winter
Ridge
Torrent
Springs
Fuego
Mountain
Ñ
Merritt
Creek
Teddy Powers
Meadows
Sycan
River
Blue
Creek
Black Hills
Legend
Snake
Creek
Sycan
Valley
Basin Boundary
Streams
4
0
4
8 Miles
Figure 1: Sycan Basin
Marsh
The Sycan sub-basin's average annual precipitation/runoff ratio is 0.16 indicating that for every inch of
precipitation that falls in the sub-basin only 0.16 inch appears as streamflow at the basin outlet (at the
gauge). Or alternatively, 84% of water leaves the sub-basin as evapotranspiration and deep
groundwater flow. For comparison, the precipitation/runoff ratios of the upper Williamson (above
Rocky Ford) and the upper Sprague (above Beatty), the two sub-basins closest to the Sycan (in the
Klamath drainage), are 0.20 and 0.35, respectively.
Monthly Mean Flows for Sycan Gauge (#11499100)
450
400
Discharge (cfs)
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct
Figure 2: Mean Monthly Discharge for Sycan River near Beatty
Like the rest of the Klamath basin, the hydrology of the Sycan basin is dictated by the interaction of
climate, vegetation and geology. The climate of the basin can be described as semi-arid with warm dry
summers and wet cold winters. Precipitation increases with elevation with the highest amounts
occurring along Winter Ridge and Yamsey Mountain during the winter as snowfall. The mean annual
precipitation for the basin is 25.2 inches, while the mean annual temperature is 42.3 °F. Figure 3
shows the basin wide mean monthly precipitation and the temperature variation throughout the year.
Vegetation within the basin is a mixture of wetlands, coniferous forest, meadows, and sagebrush, as
well as pasture and barren ground. Ponderosa and Lodgepole Pines are present throughout the basin
especially in the upper elevations. Elsewhere in the basin, expanses of sage, barren rock and sparse
conifer forest dominate (e.g., Knot Table Land, Squaw Flat, Sycan Plain, and the area east of Sycan
Marsh). In contrast, Sycan Marsh is a mixture of open water and tules at its topographic low,
progressing to wet meadows to dry meadows to sagebrush as elevation increases to the edge of the
marsh. In the riparian corridor of the river and its tributaries, numerous meadows (e.g., Teddy Powers,
Blue Creek, and Coredella Flat) are present as well as Ponderosa and Lodgepole Pine. Pastureland
predominates in the Sycan River Valley and in some areas within Sycan Marsh. A coarse resolution
vegetation map from the GAP analysis is provided in Figure 4.
Sycan Sub-Basin Monthly Mean Temperature
Sycan Sub-Basin Monthly Mean Precipitation
0.5
Aug
Jun
Apr
Feb
Dec
Oct
0.0
Aug
1.0
Jun
1.5
Apr
2.0
Feb
2.5
Dec
3.0
Temperature (F)
Precipitation (in)
3.5
65
60
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Oct
4.0
Figure 3: Sycan Sub-Basin Mean Monthly Precipitation and Temperature 1961-1990
(from PRISM data set, Daly 1994)
The geology of the Sycan sub-basin is detailed in a geological map of Oregon by Walker and MacLeod,
1991. The Sycan portion of the map is reproduced in Figure 5. The hydrologic properties of the
geologic units can be generalized to a certain extent. Young basalts (Quaternary) tend to be fractured
and are therefore permeable with good transmissivity. These formations generally make excellent
aquifers. The permeability of basalts normally decreases with age, as fractures fill with sediments.
Thus Tertiary basalts (Tb) tend to be less permeable than Quaternary basalts (Qb), although both would
be more permeable than tight sedimentary formations (e.g., chalk rock). Higher silica volcanic rocks
such as rhyolites and dactites tend to be less fractured and less permeable than basalts. Sedimentary
rocks can be very impermeable especially if they contain high amounts of clay or diatomaceous
material (e.g., chalk) such as those associated with lacustrine (i.e., lake) deposits. Alluvial deposits
tend to be highly permeable if they contain coarse material such as sands and gravels. With increasing
silt and clays content the permeability and transmissivity of these deposits decrease.
The geological map of the Sycan basin shows that the highlands east and northeast of Sycan Marsh
drain a large basalt unit (Tb) with expanses of volcanic vent deposits (QTvm). The area west of the
marsh drains a mostly olivine basaltic unit (Tob) interspersed with a mixture of rhyolitic/dacitic plugs
(Tvs), and silicic ash-flow tuffs (Tat) directly northwest of the Marsh. Sycan marsh itself consists of
lacustrine and fluvial sedimentary rocks (Qs- unconsolidated to semi-consolidated clays, sands, silts,
and gravels). The drainage from Sycan Marsh to Teddy Powers Meadows is on an olivine basalt unit.
Progressing west of Teddy Powers Meadows towards Fuego Mountain is a thin basaltic unit (QTb),
followed by olivine basalt (Tob), before reaching older (Tertiary) volcanic vent rocks (Tvm) near the
mountain. From Teddy Powers Meadows to Coyote Bucket Canyon the geologic unit west of the
Sycan consists mostly of the thin basaltic unit (QTb) that caps a thicker sequence of low permeability
Tuffaceous sedimentary rock (Ts) of the Yonna formation. The eastern drainage in the same reach
consists of olivine basalts (Tob) and pyroclastic rocks (Tps). Lower in the basin, the Snake Creek
Yamsey
Mountain Ñ
Long
Creek
N
Sycan
Marsh
Brattain Ridge
Booth Ridge
Winter
Ridge
Torrent
Springs
Fuego
Mountain
Ñ
Merritt
Creek
Teddy Powers
Meadows
Sycan
River
Blue
Creek
Legend
Black Hills
Basin Boundary
Streams
Snake
Creek
Sycan
Valley
4
Marsh
0
4
8 Miles
Conifer Forest
Sagebrush Steppe
Grass-Shrub-Sapling or Regenerating Forest
Meadows/Wetlands/Marshes
Agriculture
Figure 4: Coarse Resolution Vegetation Map of Sycan Basin (derived from GAP Analysis)
Yamsey
Mountain
N
Sycan
Marsh
Booth Ridge
Winter
Ridge
Fuego
Mountain
Legend
Basin Boundary
Streams
QTb
QTp
QTvm
Qal
Qs
Tat
Tb
Tob
Tp
Tps
Trh
Ts
Tvm
Tvs
Black Hills
5
0
5
10 Miles
Marsh
Figure 5: General Geologic Map of Sycan Basin (from Walker and MacLeod, 1991)
drainage begins near the Black Hills, an area of low permeability rhyolitic, and dacitic plugs (Tvs).
The drainage towards the middle of the creek consists of Tuffaceous sedimentary rocks (Ts) and basalt.
The bottom of the drainage and the Sycan river valley consists of fluvial sedimentary rocks (Qs) of
clays, silts, sand, and gravels.
The surface geology described above is just part of the equation to understanding the hydrogeology and
therefore surface hydrology of the basin. The location of faults as well as the underlying geologic
formations also influences regional, intermediate and local groundwater flow paths, and therefore flows
in the Sycan River. A detailed study of the hydrogeology of the basin has not been made. However, a
general assessment of the groundwater system was made in a 1970 study of the Klamath Basin (State
Water Resources Board, 1971). This study postulated that in the Sycan basin, Sycan Marsh and the
Sycan/Sprague River valley act as groundwater discharge areas, while Yamsay Mountain, Winter Rim,
and similar elevated areas possessing permeable soil/geology and receiving large amounts of
precipitation acted as groundwater recharge areas.
The presence of Sycan Marsh complicates the surface hydrology by obscuring surface flow paths,
reducing peak flows and potentially augmenting low flows further downstream. The last effect is
theoretically accomplished by storage of a portion of the spring flows in the soil matrix, which then
travels through the local groundwater system during the summer to be discharged back to the Sycan
River at an unknown location downstream. Marshes also tend to have high evapotranspiration (ET)
rates, which, under certain specific vegetation conditions, can exceed evaporation rates from a free
water surface (Norman et. al, 1983). All of these conditions, (high ET rates, large groundwater inputs,
and considerable bank storage capacity) complicate the hydrology of a stream network containing a
marsh
APPROACH
Measured streamflow on a single date and the derived gains and usage may not represent seasonal
averages. However they may be used to evaluate location of groundwater and surface water gains, and
as a general check on consumptive use estimates. The period of interest to evaluate gains and usage is
during the irrigation season when potential conflicts can occur between instream and diversion
rights/claims. However, the irrigation season also makes the derivation of accretions (especially
groundwater) more difficult due to diversions and return flows.
On August 21 and 22, 2000, discharge measurements were made using either rectangular weirs or by
current meter at various locations on the Sycan River between Sycan Marsh and the mouth, and for all
tributaries. The measurement sites are shown in Figure 6. Measurements generally were rated as good
for either method, with an estimated error of ± 5%. Several measurements of flow from artesian wells
and springs in the Sycan Valley were poor to fair due to complexities with the measurement locations.
Surface accretions were calculated by summing the measured tributary inflows. Groundwater
accretions (or losses) were calculated by subtracting the inflows to a reach from discharge at the bottom
of the reach.
Measurement locations are grouped into regions in Figure 6. In theory, the difference between
measured flows into and out of the Sycan Valley (Region 5) indicates consumption use in the valley.
The measurement one-mile below the gauge gives an additional consumptive use value for the area
S
#
S
#
Region 1
S
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0.0
S
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$
0.0 $
$ 0.0
S
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0.0
0.0
$
$
0.0
$
$
$
0.0
0.0
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0.0
$
0.0
$
0.0
$
11.5
$0.0
$$
0.0
$
0.0
$10.2
S
#
Region 2
$ 9.1
S
#
Region 3
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Region 4
0.7
10.3 $
0.0$
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$
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S S
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10.8
$
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0.0
0.0 $
$$
12.5
$
0.0
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#
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Region 5
0.2 $1.5
$$
']
1.0 $3.2
$ 1.4
$
???
S
#
$
0.1
·S
#
4.0
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$
19.2
$
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17.2
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$ Measurement Location
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Sp rin g Measureme nt
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· Gau ge Lo ca tion
Sycan Synoptic Measurements (8/22/00-8/23/00)
between the gauge and the measurement site. Likewise measurements above and below Teddy Powers
Meadows (Region 3) indicate consumptive use in the meadows. All other measurements suggest the
location and amount of surface water and groundwater gains for each region, as there is no known
irrigation in these areas.
RESULTS
The measurements were taken on August 22 and 23, 2000. On both dates, the weather was sunny and
warm. Cumulus clouds formed in the late afternoon/evening of both days, but no precipitation occurred.
The measurement sites and corresponding discharges are shown in Figure 6. All of the tributaries above
Blue Creek were dry, including Merritt Creek, the tributary with the largest drainage (54 sq. miles) for
the study area. The Sycan River was dry between Sycan Marsh and the canyon containing Torrent
Springs (Region 1). However, pools of water were present between the dry portions of the riverbed in
this reach (Figure 7). Below Torrent Springs at Sycan Ford, the river was flowing at 10.2 cfs. The
Oregon Department of Environmental Quality's FLIR (Forward Looking Infrared) data set for stream
temperature shows seeps and springs as cold water along the banks of the river (Figure 8). This data set
indicates seeps and springs into the river from about 0.5 miles above and .75 miles below Torrent
Springs, illustrating a groundwater discharge area. Further information on this stretch of the river can be
found in the USFS Wild and Scenic River report on the Sycan River. The USFS reported Torrent
Springs flows of 4 cfs.
Figure 7: Zero Discharge in the Sycan River about 1.25 miles above Torrent Springs.
Figure 8: Cool water from springs (fuschia) in contrast to warmer water of Sycan (blue/purple) at a
location upstream of Torrent Springs (from DEQ FLIR Data for Klamath Basin, 2000)
Below Sycan Ford the canyon widens as two unnamed tributaries join the Sycan (Region 2). Both of
these creeks were dry. The FLIR data set indicates no groundwater inflows into this region. Between
Regions 2 and 3 (Teddy Powers Meadows), the river enters another steep canyon where the FLIR data set
again shows the presence of several small springs and seeps. The groundwater gain from these springs
was roughly 1.3 cfs. Surface tributaries were dry in Regions 2 and 3. At the bottom of Teddy Powers
Meadows the discharge was 9.1 cfs, indicating a loss of 2.4 cfs in the meadows (Region 3). However,
this may be attributable to hyporheic flow in several dry channels paralleling the river. Between Teddy
Powers Meadows and Blue Creek Meadows (Region 4) the river gains 0.5 cfs in groundwater and 0.7 cfs
in surface water (from Blue Creek). In Region 4 itself, the river gains an additional 0.5 cfs from
groundwater. Between Region 4 and Sycan Valley (Region 5) several springs along the western edge of
the river contribute 1.7 cfs of flow.
There were 22.4 cfs of measured inflows into Sycan Valley from springs, tributaries, artesian wells, and
the Sycan River. One artesian well north of Snake Creek and east of the river could not be measured, but
visual estimates of the flow were on the order of 1-2 cfs. The estimated inflow to the valley was 23-24
cfs. Discharge at the gauge was 19.2 cfs, which indicates a consumptive use in the valley of 4-5 cfs, if
there were not dispersed seepage along the stream bank. The FLIR data set shows cooler water entering
the river through seeps at the top half of the region. However, it is not known if this is from irrigation
return flows. The presence of these seeps adds uncertainty to the estimate of consumptive use. What is
known is that the valley is a groundwater discharge zone with flows approximately equal to those out of
region 4. Approximately 1 mile downstream of the gauge the flow had dropped 2-cfs from diversions
between the gauge and the measurement.
DISCUSSION:
The measurements taken on August 22 and 23 show two main groundwater discharge areas to the Sycan
River below Sycan Marsh during the low-flow season. The first is in the Torrent Springs area (region 2).
Half of the flow measured at the Sycan gauge near Beatty originated in this stream reach, half a mile
above and three-quarters of a mile below Torrent Springs. The other discharge area occurs in the Sycan
Valley where the flow doubles from artesian wells and springs.
The FLIR data set and measurements showed several much smaller groundwater discharge areas in the
Canyon below Sycan Ford and Coyote Bucket Canyon. These regions may be intersecting smaller local
or intermediate groundwater systems. In addition, the FLIR data appears to show several small seeps
between the wooden and concrete bridges below Sycan Marsh (most upstream two measurement sites in
Figure 6). These seeps may be connected to water stored in the marshes' soil matrix. However, they
were not of sufficient quantity to sustain flows in the river, which calls into question the ability of the
marsh to augment summer low flows. Possibly the water stored in the marsh contributes to base flows
further downstream in the canyon containing Torrent Springs.
Precipitation in the study area should be sufficient to support surface flows into the river. However,
surface flows from tributaries between the marsh and the mouth of the river were non-existent except for
Blue and Snake Creeks. Furthermore these two creeks accounted for less than 1 cfs (approximately 5%)
of the flow at the gauge. The insignificance of surface flows may be the consequence of a dry summer
following an average precipitation year in the basin. More likely, these streams are dry most years. Their
channel geometries are indicative of ephemeral streams or perennial streams with very low flows.
Figures 9 and 10 show two unnamed tributaries (roughly 16 square miles each) near their confluence
with the Sycan. The estimated average annual precipitation for these catchments is about 25 inches (from
PRISM, Daly et. al. 1994). Assuming a run-off precipitation ratio of 0.2 to 0.3 (typical for the Klamath
basin's gauged tributaries), this would correspond to an average annual flow from about 6 to 9 cfs. Since
this is an annual average, the seasonal spring run-off and summer low flows would be above and below
this estimate, respectively. However, these channels do not show evidence of flows this large. As shown
in the figures, neither drainage has a defined streambed and both have large amounts of vegetation in the
channel and poor channel definition. This description is typical of tributaries in the study area. Some of
the other measurement sections were dry meadows (Figure 11), again with poorly defined channels.
Even Merritt Creek (Figure 12), the largest tributary in the study area, was overgrown with vegetation,
although cobbles were present in the streambed. This creek was the only tributary in the study area that
gave some indication of having high flows at times.
These low or non-existent flows are probably due in part to the low stream gradient, which results in
meadows and increased evapotranspiration losses. In addition, the basalts underlying the drainage area
are relatively young and are probably fractured and highly permeable. Snowmelt and precipitation
probably enter the regional groundwater system easily, except where underlying sedimentary formation
such as the "Yonna" formation exists (e.g., west and south of Teddy Powers Meadows). The tributaries
are likely perched above the water table and thus flow only during rapid snowmelt during the spring or
storm events. Thus groundwater is not available to support summer flows and the creeks dry up. An
exception to these ephemeral streams can be found higher in the basin, above Sycan Marsh, where
streams such as Long Creek and the Sycan River are sustained by higher elevation snows and soil
moisture storage. The low precipitation runoff ratios and small groundwater discharge flows in the
Sycan River indicates that, like its tributaries, the river, except for a couple of locations previously
mentioned, is perched above the groundwater table in the study area. Support for this is found in a study
by Newcomb and Hart (1954). This report indicated that the river is perched approximately 200 feet
above the water table below Teddy Powers Meadows, intersecting the water table in the Sycan Valley
several miles below Blue Creek.
Figure 9: Measurement section 25 represents typical vegetation in
stream bed of tributaries in study area.
Figure 10: Section 19 shows an example of a poorly defined channel and vegetation
in "streambed" typical of tributaries in the study area.
Figure 11: Measurement Section 13, Cordella Flat Meadows drainage.
Figure 12: Merritt Creek (dry) near confluence with Sycan River. Cobbles
as well as vegetation present in a well-defined channel.
The consumptive use calculation in the Sycan Valley derived from the stream measurements can only be
considered a crude estimate of the actual consumptive use. This is due to the presence of seeps in the
river, the difficulty in measuring spring and artesian well flows, the presence of groundwater irrigation
return flows, and the location of return flows in general. In addition, the measurement can only be
considered a snapshot of actual consumption. Still the calculated value of 4-5 cfs on August 22nd
compares reasonably well to the August average, evapotranspiration-based, consumptive use estimate of
8 cfs used in the Upper Klamath Basin Distribution model (UKBD) for the area above Sycan gauge. The
UKBD estimate does include consumption in Blue Creek and upper Snake Creek, which are not included
in the consumptive use derived from the measured data. Due to the difficulties mentioned above it would
be impractical to measure consumptive use over an irrigation season in the Sycan Valley.
CONCLUSION/RECOMMENDATIONS
Synoptic measurements along the Sycan River and its tributaries below Sycan Marsh on August 22 nd and
23rd, 2000 demonstrated two main groundwater discharge areas. The first is located around Torrent
Springs while the second is in the Sycan Valley. Groundwater flow into the river from these two
locations contributed roughly 95% of the flow of the Sycan River measured at the gauge near Beatty.
All surface tributaries, except for Blue Creek and Snake Creek where dry. These two creeks contributed
less than 1 cfs of the total flow measured at the gauge. Circumstantial evidence such as vegetation in the
channel, poor channel definition, and lack of gravel/sands in the streambeds indicates that the majority of
the remaining tributaries are ephemeral or have very low flows most of the year. The probable reason is
permeable basalt underlying the majority of the catchments, combine with evapotranspiration losses from
meadows which is the result of low stream gradients.
Consumptive use derived from measurements give a crude estimate of 4-5 cfs consumed in the Sycan
Valley (above the gauge) on the measurement date. Due to the presence of seeps along the river and
groundwater irrigation there is a great deal of uncertainty associated with this estimate. However, it
compares reasonably well with the average August evapotranspiration based estimate of 8 cfs used in the
UKBD model.
Future synoptic measurements should be made once every season to further examine the basins
hydrology. Measurements in the Sycan Valley are of limited value with respect to determining
consumptive use. However, these measurements are useful in evaluating the quantity and variability of
groundwater discharge in the valley.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Daly, C., R.P. Neilson, and D.L. Phillips, 1994. A statistical-topographic model for mapping
climatological precipitation over mountainous terrain, Journal of Applied Meteorology, 33, pp. 140-158.
Environmental Assessment & River Management Plan SYCAN Wild & Scenic River.
Bly Ranger District, Fremont National Forest & Chiloquin Ranger District,Winema National Forest.
November, 92.
Newcomb, R.C., and Hart, D.H., 1958. Preliminary report on the ground water resources of the Klamath
River Basin, Oregon: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report [unnumbered], 248 p.
Norman, R., Finger, L., Titus, D., Gearheart, R., 1993. Review of Wetland Evapotranspiration Literature,
Bureau of Reclamation contract report NO. 1-PG-30-12790:, Arcata, California, Humboldt State
University, Environmental Resources Engineering Department, 115p.
Oregon Water Resources Board, 1971. The Klamath Basin: Salem, Oregon Water Resources Board, 288
Walker, G.W., and N.S. MacLeod, 1991. Geologic Map of Oregon, United State Geological Survey.