Clinical Examination of Camels in Relation to Some Disease Conditions
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Clinical Examination of Camels in Relation to Some Disease Conditions
Why do we keep animals?
We always benefit from the animals we keep
We keep animals to provide us with:
 Meat
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Milk
Eggs
Wool and hair for clothing, ropes and tents
Hides and skin for leather
 Bones, hooves and horn for a variety of uses.
 Some animals are used for transport,
 Plugging and work.
What animals are kept in your community?
If you want to be a good Primary Animal Health Care Worker (PAHCW) it is
very important for you to know what animals are kept by the people in your
community. You must know your community very well and discover who keeps
animals and what type of animals they keep. You must work with all of the
community's livestock.
What are the animals used for?
What does your community keep its animals for? Are the animals kept for
meat or for work? Do they provide you with milk? What other things do you get from
the livestock you keep?
If you keep animals for meat do you kill the young or the old animal for meat? Does
your community keep some animals only for work or for meat, to give milk, or for
other reasons? Try to find out as much as you can about the use of animals in your
community.
Professor Doctor/ Taha A. Fouda
King Faisal University
Clinical Examination of Camels in Relation to Some Disease Conditions
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How good are your animals?
Are your animals providing you with enough milk or meat? Are your livestock
better than those of neighbouring communities or regions? How do your animals
differ from those in neighbouring communities?
Communities in neighbouring regions can keep different types of animals. For
example cows in one region can produce more milk or give better meat than those in
another region. You should consider your livestock and compare them to those of
your neighbouring communities. Talk to people from other communities or to other
Primary Animal Health Care Workers.
You may already know of some health problems in your community's
livestock. If you talk to others in the community you may find out about other animal
health problems. There may be particular problems related to certain breeds or types
and not others. Some of the health problems you may discover are:
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Animals die suddenly.
Young animals are born sick or dead.
Leg and foot problems.
Skin troubles.
 Animals do not increase in weight.
 Livestock suffer from worms, ticks or lice.
 The udders of milk animals become swollen and blood is found in the
milk.
Animals and the environment
 The environment is whet you find around you. The plants, water, soil and
climate are all part of your environment.
 There is a limit to the number of animals which we can keep in any area.
 If we ignore these facts we can have management and health problems in
our livestock and damage to the local environment.
Different breeds (types) of animal
Throughout the world man keeps animals which are suited to the local
environment. Feed, water and climate are the main factors which determine what
animals are in any one region. As a result of this we find a large variety of animal
breeds throughout the world.
Professor Doctor/ Taha A. Fouda
King Faisal University
Clinical Examination of Camels in Relation to Some Disease Conditions
3
The number of animals kept in the community
We should not keep animals which are old or barren as they will eat the feed
that could be better used for young animals.
You should consider the number of animals kept in your community. Is enough feed
and water available for them all year? Discuss with your community elders and
leaders any problems you may discover in the numbers of animals and the available
feed and water. Controlling and planning livestock numbers and the availability of
good feed and water is basic to primary animal health care.
Problems of overstocking (too many animals)
If we do not keep the numbers of livestock in relation to available feed and water
then:
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Animals lose weight, become sick and disease spreads.
Animals do not breed well and death of young occurs.
Overgrazing and loss of pasture, bushes and trees occur.
Loss of vegetation will result in erosion of soil and loss of good land.
Professor Doctor/ Taha A. Fouda
King Faisal University
Clinical Examination of Camels in Relation to Some Disease Conditions
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Veterinary Clinical Diagnosis
Veterinary clinical diagnosis is defined as the science which dealing with
clinical or practical methods of examination of the patient animal.
Symptoms
Symptoms could be defined as any evidence that indicates the presence of the disease.
They may be classified into:
1. Subjective symptoms: are those perceptible to the patient only, and not
available to the clinician.
2. Objective symptoms are those obvious to the senses of eye observation for
anyone.
3. Clinical signs = (Clinical findings) are those objective symptoms that are
appreciated only by the clinician.
Diagnosis
It is the art of determining internal changes of the body by the aid of externally
visible or otherwise appreciable changes in the animal condition or some of its
organs; it also includes the recognition and name of the disease.
The first step in dealing with any disease is the establishment of a diagnosis, because
the nature of the treatment, control measures and prophylaxis, all depend on
diagnosis. Also an incomplete examination may lead to incorrect diagnosis and failure
of treatment and prognosis.
Prognosis
It means expressing an opinion to the probable duration and outcome of the disease.
Physical examination and making diagnosis
Clinical examination of an animal has three main aspects, and inadequate examination
of anyone may lead to incorrect diagnosis. These aspects are;
I) The patient animal under examination,
II) The environment in which the animal lives, and
III) The history
Professor Doctor/ Taha A. Fouda
King Faisal University
5
Clinical Examination of Camels in Relation to Some Disease Conditions
Some clinical aspects of physical examination
I) Signalment of the patient or patient data:
Species: species also helps the clinician to narrow or to limit the diagnostic
possibilities. This is true because of species specificity for the disease.
Breeds: Certain breeds have hereditary predisposition to certain diseases;
therefore, just knowing the breed brings to mind of the clinician the possible
causes for animal's problem.
Age (Ageing by teeth): Age may predispose it to some age specific diseases
with different frequencies. Accordingly, young animals are more likely to
present with illness caused by infectious organisms, toxins and parasites
mainly because of ill-developed immune system, whereas older animals
present most often with diseases caused by degenerative processes or
neoplasia, nutritional deficiencies diseases
Ageing camels by the teeth
The camel has 22 milk teeth and 32 permanent teeth. It is different
to other ruminants in having two front teeth in the upper jaw.
Camels also have a pair of canine (dog teeth) in both the upper and
lower jaws which are used to crush woody plants for food.
The first pair of permanent cheek teeth are separate from the other teeth and
are dark in color.
A) The milk teeth of the camel
The camel has 22 milk teeth arranged as:
Upper jaw one front tooth on each side
2
one canine (dog) tooth on each side
2
three cheek teeth on each side
6
Lower jaw three front teeth on each side
6
one canine (dog) tooth on each side
2
two cheek teeth on each side
4
Professor Doctor/ Taha A. Fouda
King Faisal University
6
Clinical Examination of Camels in Relation to Some Disease Conditions
Ageing camels from the milk teeth
(1) New born:
There are no ………………………………..
teeth.
(2) One month:
Upper jaw: 2 cheek teeth on each side
Lower jaw: one cheek tooth on each side 2 front teeth
(3) Three
months:
(4) Six months:
Upper jaw: 1 canine, 3 cheek teeth on each side
Lower jaw: 3 front teeth, 1 canine, 2 cheek teeth on
each side
Upper jaw: 1 front, 1 canine, 3 cheek teeth on each side
Lower jaw: 3 front, 1 canine, 2 cheek teeth on each side
B) The permanent teeth
There are 34 permanent teeth. These are larger than the milk teeth and are
arranged as follows:
Upper jaw
Lower jaw
one front tooth on each side
2
one canine on each side
2
six cheek teeth on each side
12
three front teeth on each side
6
one canine on each side
2
five cheek teeth on each side
10
Ageing camels after 1 year of age
1 year
2.5 years
3 years
Upper jaw:
4 cheek teeth on each side
Lower jaw:
3 cheek teeth on each side
Upper jaw:
4 to 5 cheek teeth on each side
Lower jaw:
3 to 4 cheek teeth on each side
Upper jaw:
5 cheek teeth on each side
Lower jaw:
4 cheek teeth on each side
Professor Doctor/ Taha A. Fouda
King Faisal University
Clinical Examination of Camels in Relation to Some Disease Conditions
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4.5 years
First permanent front teeth are showing
5 years
Milk cheek teeth replaced by permanent teeth, 2 replaced on
each side of upper jaw, 1 on each side of lower jaw.
5.5 years
2 more permanent front teeth on lower jaw
6 years
7 years
Upper jaw:
6 cheek teeth on each side
Lower jaw:
5 cheek teeth on each side
Upper jaw:
1 front tooth and permanent canine through
on each side
Lower jaw:
permanent canine through
Full set of permanent teeth
First cheek teeth on both jaws are black
The canines appear at 6 years of age and by the age of 7 are very large.
These teeth in the upper jaw can be 4 centimeters long. The lower ones
may be cut off by some camel owners. Camels can live to around 40
years of age but from 15 years of age they will have difficulty with hard
feedstuffs as the front teeth wear and begin to spread.
Sex: is of great clinical importance that helps the veterinarian to specify the
problem more easily and quickly. This is true because of sex-related disease
and the physical parameters that vary in males than in females. Also it is
important to know the sex of the patient to avoid drugs that may affect on
pregnancy or that causing abortion.
II) General Inspection of the patient
Physical condition
It is usually easy to assess the bodily condition of an animal by simple inspection. It is
unsatisfactory in longhaired animals. Assessment of bodily condition could be
performed by:
1) Inspection.
2) Running the hands over the ribs, spine, pelvis and shoulder.
3) Palpation of the root of the tail.
Accordingly, the physical condition of an animal may be one of the following;
Normal, thin or lean, emaciated or cachexic, or obese.
Professor Doctor/ Taha A. Fouda
King Faisal University
Clinical Examination of Camels in Relation to Some Disease Conditions
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4) Normal animal
5) Thin or lean animal
6) Emaciated or cachexic animal
7) Obesity
Behavior or general demeanor
The behavior of the animal is a reflection of its health condition. It means the
general appearance of the patient from the sensory and motor aspects, manifested by
normal or abnormal responses to the external stimuli.
It requires good experience and accurate observation to determine or to judge if the
animal responds in normal or abnormal way to any stimulus.
Posture
Abnormal posture is not necessarily indicative of a disease, but when
associated with other signs it may indicate the site and severity of the disease. Here is
a list of some clinical cases with abnormal posture:
Gait
Movements of the limbs can be assessed by observation and expressed in
terms of rate, range, force and direction, hence, gait abnormalities may occur in one or
more of these terms.
It should be remembered, however, that the origin of a locomotor disturbances
may lie outside the nervous or musculoskeletal systems such as in laminitis (which
could missed due to intoxication by bacterial toxins following disturbances of
alimentary tract, or related to local infections as metritis, retention of placenta,
mammary gland edema and mastitis).
Defecation
The act of defecation should be assessed because of its importance in
suspecting some related problems. Abnormal defecation will be discussed in details in
the part dealing with examination of digestive system; however, it may involve the
followings:
 Difficult defecation with signs of abdominal pain and straining as in
constipation and rectal paralysis.
 Painful defecation indicates abdominal pain and laceration of muco-cutaneous
junction.
 Involuntary diarrhea indicates paralysis of anal sphincter, enteritis.
Professor Doctor/ Taha A. Fouda
King Faisal University
Clinical Examination of Camels in Relation to Some Disease Conditions
9
Urination
The act of urination must be observed by the clinician as possible as he can, or the
owner be questioned about it. However, abnormal urination may be:
 Difficult micturation as in cases of partial obstruction of the urinary
passages.
 Painful micturation associated with frequent micturation as in cystitis and
urethritis, or
 Incontinence with constant dribbling of urine in equines indicates partial
obstruction of urethra or paralysis of its sphincter.
Skin appearance
Skin abnormalities can usually be seen at a distance. Such abnormalities include
changes of hair or wool, changes of the skin surface, or changes of the associated
structures. The followings are examples of skin abnormalities which could be noted
by inspection:
 Loss of lustering as in many debilitating diseases and skin disorders.
 Excessive greasy as in seborrheic dermatitis.
 Abnormalities of the coat.
III) Examination of different body systems
A) Examination and evaluation of the physical parameters including rectal
temperatures, respiratory rates, pulse and heart rates, visible mucous
membranes and superficially-situated lymph nodes.
B) Examination of different body systems and organs.
Professor Doctor/ Taha A. Fouda
King Faisal University
Clinical Examination of Camels in Relation to Some Disease Conditions
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The normal resting respiratory rates (breath/minute) for adult
and young animals.
The normal values of body temperatures for adult and young
animals (Degrees Celsius)
Professor Doctor/ Taha A. Fouda
King Faisal University
Clinical Examination of Camels in Relation to Some Disease Conditions
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The normal values of pulse rates (heart beats/minute)in adult and
young animals.
Camel
45
40-50
The animal body
Organs and systems of the body
 The body is made up of many, many millions of cells which you can not
see unless you use a microscope. Special cells come together to make an
organ.
 An organ is a complex structure within the body. It has a special job or
jobs to do.
 A body system consists of a number of organs which work together to
carry out a special job.
The animal body is made of 9 systems:
1. Musculo-skeletal system
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Digestive system
Circulatory system
Respiratory system
Urinary system
Nervous system
Sensory system
Reproductive system
Lympho-reticular system
Professor Doctor/ Taha A. Fouda
King Faisal University
Clinical Examination of Camels in Relation to Some Disease Conditions
System of the
Body
Organs in the Body
12
Job or function
Musculoskeletal
muscle (meat) bones
Support and move the body
Digestive
stomach, liver, intestine,
pancreas
Digest and absorb feed
Circulatory
heart, blood vessels
The brood carries substances
around the body
Respiratory
muzzle, windpipe, lungs
Breathing
Urinary
kidneys, bladder
Get rid of poisons and waste
(urine)
Nervous
brain, nerves spinal cord
Pass messages around the body,
control the body
Sensory
eyes, ears, nose skin
Sense and detect things outside
the body
Reproductive
testes, penis ovaries, uterus,
To produce and feed young
vagina, vulva, udder
Lymphoreticular
lymph nodes, spleen
Professor Doctor/ Taha A. Fouda
Protect against infectious
diseases, produce blood
King Faisal University
Clinical Examination of Camels in Relation to Some Disease Conditions
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Several disease conditions are encountered in the field of camel medicine including
the followings:
Non infectious conditions such as
Red urine
Wounds and burns
Allergy
Esophageal obstruction
Pica
Intestinal obstruction
Edema
Indigestion
Downer syndrome
Bloat
Plant poisoning
Constipation
Snake bite
goitre
Viral diseases such as
Rabies
Camel pox
Contagious ecthyma
Corona virus infection
Rota virus infection
Rift valley fever
Foot and mouth disease
Influenza
Bacterial diseases such as
Anthrax
Endotoxemia
Brucellosis
Pasteurellosis
Paratuberculosis
Tuberculosis
Botulism
Leptospirosis
Listeriosis
Anaerobic infections
Parasitic diseases such as
Gastrointestinal parasites
Mange
Trypansomiasis
Ticks infestation
Lung worms
Liver fluke
Professor Doctor/ Taha A. Fouda
King Faisal University
Clinical Examination of Camels in Relation to Some Disease Conditions
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Mycotic diseases such as
Ringworm
Aspegillosis
Candidiasis
Mucor mycosis
Mycotic dermatitis
Diseases of camel-calves
Neonatal diarrhea
Poor mothering
Navel ill
Colibacillosis
Salmonellosis
Esophageal obstruction
Coccidiosis
Cryptosporidosis
Corona virus infection
Rota virus infection
General rules of diagnosis
1. Obtaining the history
2. Complete physical examination of the patient
3. Recording the clinical signs of the diseases
4. Carrying out the post mortem examination whenever possible
5. Obtaining samples for laboratory examination, such samples include:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
Blood samples
Skin scrapings and other dermatologic examination
Ruminal fluid
Cerebrospinal fluid
Synovial fluid
Analysis of diet
Professor Doctor/ Taha A. Fouda
King Faisal University
Clinical Examination of Camels in Relation to Some Disease Conditions
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Ruminal fluid (obtaining and analysis)
Evaluation of rumen fluid characteristics is an essential and important procedure
in establishing and clarifying the etiology, pathophysiology and clinical findings of
reticuloruminal dysfunction.
Indications for obtaining rumen fluid:
Rumen fluid can be obtained for the following purposes:
1. Diagnosis or exclusion of microbial dysfunction.
2. Diagnosis of abomasal reflux into the rumen.
3. Chemical analysis for the ingested toxins if be expected in some disease
conditions.
4. Evaluating the effect of new drugs or medicaments on rumen microbial activity
5. Evacuation of overloaded rumen.
6. Obtaining rumen fluid from healthy animal for therapeutic purposes in case of
forestomach disorders and for speeding of the recovery from various systemic
diseases.
Factors affecting the collection of rumen fluid
It is important to bear in mind the following factors when obtaining rumen fluid in
order to obtain sample without or at least with minimum contamination especially
with salivary secretion.
1. Construction of the probe
In order to aspirate rumen fluid from the ventral ruminal sac, it is necessary
to use probe (stomach tube) with 2.30 meter long and 0.8-2cm internal diameter.
Probe could be attached with suction pump that facilitates obtaining of the fluid.
2. Composition of the diet
When a ground poorly structured feed is provided for the animal, the normal
separation between the ventrally located fluid and the overlying fibrous layer does
not occur. Instead of that the rumen fluid is thorough blended with solid particles;
so that the probe is easily bluged by feed particles and little amount of rumen fluid
is available.
3. Time interval from last feeding and the degree of fullness of stomach
Professor Doctor/ Taha A. Fouda
King Faisal University
Clinical Examination of Camels in Relation to Some Disease Conditions
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As the proportion of the fluid in the rumen contents is lowest immediately after
feed consumption and be greatest at morning before the first feeding of the
animal. The most appropriate time for sampling is early morning before first
feeding, or could be 3-4 hours after feeding.
4. Reaction of the animal during sampling, and experience of the
operator
It has been established by many researchers that, the stronger the resistance shown
by the animal to passing of the tube, and the less experience of the operator  the
longer the time that elapses between first introduction of the tube and the
aspiration of the fluid. Also this results in greater contamination of rumen fluid
with salivary secretion.
Analysis of rumen fluid
Laboratory evaluations of rumen fluid include
1) Biophysical characteristics of rumen fluid which involve color, smell,
consistency, sedimentation and floatation test, cellulose digestion and pH.
2) Biochemical evaluation of rumen fluid which involves the following tests:
 Redox-potential or oxidation – reduction
 Glucose fermentation
 Determination of lactic acid
 Determination of volatile fatty acids
 Determination of chloride
 Determination of indole
 Determination of Ammonia
Color, odor, and consistency of rumen fluid
These parameters should be assessed immediately following the collection of
sample.
A) Color of the rumen fluid
It varies greatly depending on the nature of animal’s feed, degree or severity of
reticulorumen disturbances and the time elapsed since the collection of sample.
 Normal animals kept on hay ration  have an olive to brownish green
rumen fluid.
Professor Doctor/ Taha A. Fouda
King Faisal University
Clinical Examination of Camels in Relation to Some Disease Conditions
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 Animals kept on grasses  have a deeper green rumen fluid.
 Animals on grain or silage  have a yellowish brown rumen fluid.
Mean while,
 Cattle with acidosis tend to have rumen fluid of milky- grey coloration.
 Cattle with rumen stasis and / or decomposition of reticulorumen
contents have a darker greenish to black rumen fluid.
 Calves with abomasal reflux or esophageal groove defects have grey
color fluid with clots of milk.
B) Consistency of rumen fluid
Normal rumen fluid has a slightly viscous consistency. When the rumen microbiota
become inactive, the consistency of the fluid varies from the normal.
Rumen lactic acidosis and simple inactivity of reticulorumen fauna result in more
aqueous or watery consistency. Meanwhile, contamination of rumen fluid with saliva
increases its consistency which becomes more viscous.
C) Odor or smell of rumen fluid
Normal smell of rumen fluid is aromatic. It becomes less prominent when the
activity of rumen microflora depressed.
 Rumen alkalosis and urea poisoning  smell of ammonia.
 Protein decomposition and spoiled milk with putrefaction 
putrid foul smell
 Rumen tympany  offensive smell.
2-Hydrogen Ion concentration (pH) of Rumen fluid
PH of the rumen fluid fluctuates within a broad range of normal values. The values of
pH of any rumen sample depend on:
a-
Type of animal’s feed.
b-
Fermentation pattern within the reticulorumen.
c-
Duration of time since last feeding
d-
Health condition of the animal and its stomach.
The physiologic rumen pH ranges from 6.4-7.2 in animals fed
mostly on forages, and 5.5 to 6.5 in animals fed mostly on grains.
Professor Doctor/ Taha A. Fouda
King Faisal University
Clinical Examination of Camels in Relation to Some Disease Conditions
18
The pH value tends to elevate toward the high end of normal
range immediately after feeding, then reduced to the lower values
2-4 hours post feeding, then it rises again if no food have been
added to the animal.
Animals that suffer from anorexia have rumen pH value above
7.0.
Animals with rumen alkalosis and putrefaction of the content have
an elevated rumen pH which could reach up to 8.5.
Animals with severe lactic acidosis have a very lower rumen pH
(Less 5-5.5).
3-Sedimentation and floatation activity:
It provides a rapid evaluation of microflora activity. This test should be
conducted immediately after collection of the rumen sample. When fresh rumen fluid
is left undisturbed in a glass cylinder or test tube, the finer feed particles and large–
sized infusaria tend to settle, while larger fibrous constituents float to the surface.
When the sample is kept at body temperature, gas produced by active flora
will buoy to the surface some particles that originally sank in the fluid. The
normal time for completion of the activity is ranged between 4 and 8 minutes.
Watery inactive sample (as in starvation, inappetence, feed of low nutritional
value, rumen acidosis)  rapid sedimentation with no or little floatation.
When the animals consume a rich pelleted diet or when foamy bloat is
present  No sedimentation nor floatation, and the particles remain in
suspension for long time.
4-Redox- potential = Methylene blue reduction time
The redox potential is a useful indicator that reflects the fermentative activity of
the rumen flora. The redox potential is maintained by microbial fermentation and to a
lesser extent by enzyme systems of plant origin; as the rumen is normally an
anaerobic environment. The test involves mixing 1.0 ml of 0.03% methylene blue
solution with 20 ml of fresh rumen fluid (at body or room temperature) in a glass
tube. Then the time required for discoloration of the fluid is measured which is
inversely proportional to the microbial activity.
Highly active samples from cows fed a mixed hay and grain diet  3 minutes
reduction time.
Professor Doctor/ Taha A. Fouda
King Faisal University
Clinical Examination of Camels in Relation to Some Disease Conditions
19
Cows fed mostly hay with some grain  3-6 minutes are required for
reduction.
Indigestible diets, prolonged inanition, and rumen acidosis  result in delay of
reduction time.
5-Microscopic examination of rumen fluid
Evaluation of the number and activity of the rumen protozoa provides a
sensitive indicator of the condition of the sample. This examination is easily
accomplished by microscopic examination of a drop of fresh, warm rumen
fluid.
The presence of many active ciliates of various sizes is an indication of an
active rumen. Great reduction in the total number is usually observed with
inanition or diets lacking energy and protein.
All protozoa are killed when the rumen pH drops to 5.0, and thus their absence
in milky rumen fluid is an indication of acute rumen acidosis.
Normal rumen fluid should contain a variety of bacterial forms, with a
predominance of Gram- negative organisms. While overgrowth of Grampositive organisms occurs with acute lactic acidosis.
Table (1)
Indications for obtaining rumen fluid from cattle
1. Diagnosis or exclusion of microbial dysfunction (indigestion). Diagnosis of
abomasal reflux into the rumen.
2. Chemical analysis for ingested toxins.
3. Evaluating the effects of new drugs on rumen microbial activity. Emptying the
rumen affected with overloading of fluid ingesta or with other dysfunction.
4. Obtaining rumen fluid from healthy cattle for therapy of forestomach disorders
and metabolic diseases as well as for speeding the recovery from various
systemic illnesses.
Professor Doctor/ Taha A. Fouda
King Faisal University
Clinical Examination of Camels in Relation to Some Disease Conditions
20
Parameters that must be determined immediately after obtaining rumen fluid
Color, odor, and consistency.
PH.
Methylene blue reduction.
Sedimentation (including protozoa) and flotation
Total titratable acidity.
Chloride concentration.
Important rumen fluid parameters that can be measured in the laboratory
Glucose fermentation (gas formation).
Lactic acid
Nitrite reduction.
Buffer capacity.
Concentration of volatile acids and lactic acid.
Ammonia concentration
Protozoa (microscopic, quantitative)
Professor Doctor/ Taha A. Fouda
King Faisal University
Clinical Examination of Camels in Relation to Some Disease Conditions
21
Diagnostic tests in dermatology include the followings
Procedure
Pathogen/pathology demonstrated
1-Wood's lamp illumination
Some of Microsporum species
2- Skin scrapings
Ectoparasites, dermatophytes and
helminthes
3- Hair plucking
Ectoparasites, dermatophytes and
hair morphology
4- Coat brushings
Ectoparasites and dermatophytes
5- Swab / crust samples
Fungi, bacteria and virus
6- Smear / wet preparation
Bacteria, fungi and protozoan
cytology
7- Biopsy
Bacteria, fungi and virus infections,
histopathology and histochemistry
8- Blood samples
Cytology, Biochemistry, hormonal
status and serology
Wood's lamp illumination
The wood's lamp illumination depends on a source of ultraviolet radiation at wave
length which excites characteristic apple-green fluorescence in about 50% of
naturally occurring Microsporum canis infection, and other Microsporum species
also fluoresce. It is seen only in infection of actively growing hair. The
disadvantages of this method are, it may give + Ve result with other chemical
agents as tetracycline, and failure to demonstrate such fluorescence does not rule
out dermatophytosis.
Skin Scrapings
The skin scraping is one of the most valuable and commonly used tests in
veterinary dermatology, confirming the diagnosis of the ectoparasites and
dermatophytosis. The hair, superficial scales, epidermis and contents of the hair
follicle mouths may be sampled by this technique.
Professor Doctor/ Taha A. Fouda
King Faisal University
Clinical Examination of Camels in Relation to Some Disease Conditions
22
Protocol of skin scrapings:
1. Select the area of scraping with great care to the predilection site for the
disease either ectoparasites or dermatophytes.
2. The hair should be firstly trimmed short.
3. Skin should be gently wiped with swab moistened with sterile water.
4. Scraping is done with scalpel blade held firmly between the thumb and first
two fingers of one hand at angle of about 50% to the skin and drawn firmly
across the surface towards the operator. The surrounding skin is tensed with
fingers of other hand.
5. Scraping is continued until the first signs of bleeding appear. Moistening the
skin with water, mineral oil or glycerin for adherence of the scrapings to the
blade.
6. Microscopical examination of the scrapings.

Scrapings are suspended in drop of oil on microscope slide, and covered
with cover slip, and examined under the x 10 objective. Microscope
condenser should be lowered to increase the contrast.

Scrapings are collected dry or moistened with water and suspended on
slide in 20% potassium hydroxide.

Suspension is warmed to accelerate clearing.

Cover slip is applied and the preparation is examined under the x 40
objective.

Scrapings are collected in test tube or small beaker and add 4-10% sodium
or potassium hydroxide.
Heat gently, but not boil, until the hair is dissolved for about 5 minutes. "If
the sample is boiled the parasite will be transparent and difficult to
diagnosis."
Maceration overnight without heat may be sufficient.
Allow the tube to stand for minutes and cooling.
Centrifuge the sample and examine the sediment.
Sample from the bottom by glass rode or dropper and transferred to slide
then cover with cover glass and examined microscopically under the low
power.
Scrapings can be collected dry in sealed paper envelope
And then cultured directly for isolation of dermatophytes on specific
media.
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Professor Doctor/ Taha A. Fouda
King Faisal University
Clinical Examination of Camels in Relation to Some Disease Conditions
23
Hairs from the chosen site are grasped firmly with forceps and plucked and it may
be inoculated directly onto specific media for mycological isolation and
identification. Or examined under the microscope with low power objective and
the hairs are mounted between glass slides held together with tape. Or under x40
objective and hairs held with mineral oil gives better resolution.
Coat brushings
It is useful where the skin lesions are diffuse and infection of the hair or
superficial stratum corneum is suspected. Coat brushings enable the loose hairs,
scruff and crusts from large areas of the skin to be collected.
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The animal is placed on sheet of clean paper.
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The coat ruffled with coarse brush causing any loose material to be fall onto
the paper.
The collected materials are examined under the microscope under the 10
objective lens in between glass slides.
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Some debris is screened with wood’s lamp.
Sample may be put on slide and examined microscopically in mineral oil or in
20% potassium hydroxide.
If fungal or dermatophytes are suspected the brush cultures on specific media.
Swab and Crust samples
Cotton swabs are commonly used to sample pustular or exudative lesions for smear
preparation and isolation of bacteria Candida from the skin.
 The hair is first clipped from around the lesions.
 Gentle cleaning with 70% Alcohol.
 Pustules arc opened with the tip of sterile needle.
 The adjacent skin is gently squeezed.
 The emerging pus collected on the tip of the swab and avoiding contact
with the skin.
 The fruncular and scabby lesions are also sampled as pustules but scabs
are a potent source of microorganism as pox virus and dermatophilosis.
Portion of scabs may be emulsified in sterile distilled water, to provide
material for culture or smear preparation.
Smears and wet preparations
Smears and wet preparations provide a rapid and relatively simple means for
the demonstration of microorganism, and host cells in skin lesions. It is particularly
useful in demonstration of yeast and neoplastic cells.
Professor Doctor/ Taha A. Fouda
King Faisal University
Clinical Examination of Camels in Relation to Some Disease Conditions
24
Smears may be prepared in three ways:
1. Direct impression smears are made by pressing the slide onto the surface of
moist skin lesions, the base of freshly removed scab or the cut surface of a
biopsy specimen causing cells and exudates to adhere to it.
2. Smear also can be made from pus or exudates taken from the lesion and
spread thinly onto the slide.
3. Samples are collected on swab by scraping the affected skin, or by
aspiration using needle and syringe.
4. They are smeared onto the slide with swab or using bacteriological loop.
Smears may also made from emulsified scabs
Slides should be cleaned with alcohol prior to use to promote adherence
and even distribution of the material.
The smears are air-dried, fixed by flooding with alcohol for one minute
and allowed to dry.
Staining smear with an appropriate technique depending on the features,
which are to be demonstrated. Most common stains are: Gram's,
methylene blue, Giemsa.
Wet preparations are unstained specimens prepared from exudates or scab
emulsions; as described by many researchers.
Drop of specimen is placed on the slide.
Normal saline is added to dilute the material or as mounting medium.
Cover slip is applied.
Examination under the microscope by phase-contrast illumination or with
the condenser lowered.
Biopsy samples
These samples are usually obtained for histopathology
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Local anesthesia.
Hair is clipped with scissors.
Cleaning with 70% alcohol.
Incision of the skin or punch method is applied.
Specimen put in 10% formalin for at least 24 hours.
Blood samples
Changes in the cellular or biochemical composition of the blood are
useful in confirming or ruling out differential diagnosis in dermatology.
Specialized tests as hormonal assays and serological tests may be used to
identify specific conditions.
Professor Doctor/ Taha A. Fouda
King Faisal University