8
I.
Communities in the Macro Social Environment: Theories and Concepts
Defining Communities
A.
II.
Community: A number of people who have something in common with one
another that connects them in some way and that distinguishes them from others
1.
Locality-based communities
2.
Nongeographical communities
Theoretical Perspectives on Communities
A.
B.
Social systems theories
1.
System: A set of elements that are orderly, interrelated, and a functional
whole
2.
Each community has boundaries
3.
Analyzes how the various social subsystems within the community
interact with each other
4.
Viewing communities from a social systems perspective can aid you in
assessing your clients’ community and their involvement in that
community
Human ecology theories
1.
Competition, segregation, and integration
a.
Competition: Concerns how community members must compete
over the use of land and seek an advantage of place for
commercial, industrial, institutional, and residential purposes, and
is often related to social class
b.
Segregation: Detachment or isolation of some group through
social pressure, restrictive laws, or personal choice
c.
Integration: Process of bringing together and blending a range of
groups into a unified, functional whole
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2.
C.
D.
E.
Viewing communities from a human ecology perspective helps you to
focus in on the inequities and problems faced by people who have fewer
resources than others in the community
Social-psychological theories
1.
Emphasizes how each community member feels about him- or herself and
how they interact with others; views community members as bound
together for psychological and social reasons
2.
Cultural-anthropological view: Emphasizes attitudes, norms, customs, and
behavior
Structural theories
1.
Political-legal perspective: Communities are considered political entities
that fulfill many political and social functions and mediate between the
state as a central power and the individual
2.
Geographical organization: How properties and roads are arranged within
the community’s geographical area
3.
Power structure: Which units have the most power and influence over
what happens within it
4.
Highlight 8.1: Structural Theories and Social Action
Functionalist theories
1.
Emphasize a community’s purpose or function and how that community
can continue working to attain that purpose, also focus on how the
community has grown, acted, and matured over time
2.
Manifest and latent functions
a.
Manifest functions are intended and recognized consequences of
an activity or social process
b.
Latent functions are unintended consequences of an activity or
social process that are hidden and remain unacknowledged by
participants
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3.
4.
F.
G.
H.
Positive and negative social functions
a.
Positive functions serve to sustain people
b.
Negative functions (or dysfunctions) are the undesirable
consequences of an activity or social process that inhibit a
society’s ability to adapt or adjust
Highlight 8.2: Social Dysfunctions, Social Problems, and Social
Disorganization
Conflict theories
1.
Based on the assumption that groups in society are engaged in a
continuous power struggle for control of scarce resources
2.
Conflict rather than consensus is assumed to be the norm, and coercion
rather than cooperation is considered the primary force in social life
3.
Four concepts include conflict, power, minority, and change
4.
Class conflict
5.
Interest group conflict
Symbolic interactionist theories
1.
Emphasize using a micro-level analysis of how people act toward one
another and how they make sense of their lives
2.
Deviant behavior (such behavior is perceived and learned)
3.
Labeling theory: Developed from symbolic interactionism, states that
society determines which behaviors it considers deviant and labels them as
such
Empowerment theories
1.
The strengths perspective and communities
a.
Each community has assets and strengths
b.
Community problems may be detrimental to the community’s
well-being, but they can also be viewed as jumping-off points for
improvement and growth
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2.
III.
c.
You never can fully realize how far a community can grow and
improve itself
d.
Social workers are most effective when working together
collaboratively with clients
e.
Each community has multiple resources
f.
It is critical to care about the community’s overall well-being and
provide community members with support and help
Resiliency
a.
Resiliency: The ability of any size system including a community
to recover from adversity and resume functioning even when
suffering serious trouble, confusion, or hardship
b.
Highlight 8.3: Using Resiliency to Enhance Communities:
Kwanzaa as an Example
I.
Which Theoretical Perspective Is Best?
J.
Highlight 8.4: Comparison of Community Theories
Community Context: Non-Geographical Communities
A.
Professional communities: The National Association of Social Workers
B.
Spiritual communities
1.
Religion: People’s spiritual beliefs concerning the origin, character, and
reason for being, usually based on the existence of some higher power or
powers, that often involves designated rituals and provides direction for
what is considered moral or right
2.
Spirituality: The views and behaviors that express a sense of relatedness to
something greater than the self; it connotes transcendence or a level of
awareness that exceeds ordinary physical and spatial boundaries
a.
Kwanzaa—African Americans
b.
The Seven Laws—The Lakota people
C.
Ethnic communities and communities of people of color
D.
Communities based on sexual orientation
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IV.
Community Context: Geographical Communities
A.
Population and Size
1.
Density: The ratio of people living within a particular space
2.
Heterogeneity:
characteristics.
3.
Urban communities
4.
a.
Metropolitan areas: Have at least one urbanized area of 50,000 or
more inhabitants
b.
Micropolitan areas: Have at least one urban cluster of at least
10,000 but less than 50,000 population
Highlight 8.5: Variations in Communities
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
5.
B.
Extent to which community members have diverse
Small cities: 15,000 to 20,000 people
Small towns: 8,000 to 20,000 people
Bedroom communities: Primarily residential
Institutional communities: A large institution which is the major
employer in that community
Reservation communities: Recognized by Federal government
where American Indians reside and are sovereign (government and
state laws do not apply within reservation boundaries without
congressional consent)
Homogeneity: Having like or similar characteristics
Rural communities
1.
Rural communities traditionally have 2,500 residents or less
2.
Population trends in rural areas
a.
The actual number of rural residents has grown slowly but steadily
since the first census in 1790 right to the present
b.
The proportion of rural population has declined steadily for more
than a century, at least four states are now over 90 percent urban
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3.
4.
c.
Each 90 percent-plus urban state also has a rural population that, in
actual numbers, exceeds the total population of the smallest states
d.
For the country as a whole, and for most states, the proportion of
the rural population living outside any “organized” place is almost
four times the number of rural people living in towns and villages
of 2,500 or less
Employment issues in rural communities
a.
Mechanization, increased productivity and relocation of industries
have taken a ferocious toll on the number of traditional rural jobs
b.
Many people are forced to live on Social Security, pensions,
TANF, food stamps, and other cash benefits
c.
Social welfare programs are often the most important economic
factor in some rural communities
d.
Many small communities are one- or two-industry towns (company
towns)
e.
U.S. Department of Agriculture classify rural counties by
economic activity and policy traits
1)
Economic types: farming-dependent, mining-dependent,
manufacturing-dependent, government-dependent, services
dependent, and non-specialized
2)
Policy types: retirement-destination, federal lands,
commuting, persistent poverty, and transfer-dependent
(more than 25% of the population receives public funds)
Other problems and issues faced by rural communities
a.
Generally fewer services are available, and are not readily
accessible
b.
Access to health care is limited
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5.
C.
Generalist social work practice in rural communities
a.
Social workers must be true generalists who are prepared to work
with individuals, families, groups, local organizations, and the
community, using a wide range of skills to meet clients’ diverse
needs
b.
It is critical for agencies and their staff to work more closely
together than in many urban communities
c.
It is important to understand the community, its values, and
develop relationships with rural residents
d.
It is important to emphasize the strengths inherent in rural
communities, including natural helping networks
e.
Highlight 8.6: Ethical Issues Involved in Dual Relationships in
Rural Communities
f.
Highlight 8.7: Advantages for Social Workers in Rural
Environments
Urban communities
1.
2.
Problems inherent in urban communities
a.
Problems occur with greater frequency and therefore are more
visible in the cities
b.
Occurrence of discriminatory behavior is widespread because of
the wide variety of ethnic, racial, religious, and cultural groups
living in cities
c.
People migrating to urban areas are unprepared for the pressures
and demands of urban living
d.
Some cities do not have the financial resources to provide services,
and service gaps can affect a large number of people
e.
Greater amounts of psychological stress occur in cities
Highlight 8.8: Generalist Social Work Practice in Urban Communities
a.
Paying close attention to human diversity
b.
Understanding their agency environment
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V.
c.
Seeking resources in the external urban environment
d.
Using advocacy
Membership in Multiple Communities
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