CULTURAL AWARENESS
GOAL
To identify biculturalism in New Zealand within society and the church, to encourage
participants to think through and make a just response to the present issues in the context of their
youth work practice.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After completing this module participants will be able to:
A)
Identify the main points of the Treaty of Waitangi and how they impact society today.
B)
Define key terms relating to the cultural context of faith
C)
Describe a personal response to the issue of tino rangatiratanga
D)
Identify a basis for a just working partnership between different cultures.
CONTENTS
Goal, Learning Outcomes and Contents
1
Resources and Learning Methods
2
Definitions
2
Treaty of Waitangi
3
The cultural context of faith
3
Partnerships across cultures
4
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RESOURCES
SOURCE BOOK:
One Faith Two Peoples
(2nd edition if possible, published by Kapiti Print Media Box 1562,
Paraparaumu Beach)
OTHER RESOURCES: (both are short, readable books, usually available at Whitcoulls or
your local library, and well worth a look!)
Talking Past Each Other
-Metge and Kinloch
(1989 Victoria University Press)
The Story of a Treaty
-Claudia Orange
(1989 Allen & Unwin, Wellington)
LEARNING METHODS
NOTES
1.
To start off read and make notes on the source book.
2.
As well as making use of the other resource books, you are encouraged to go and discuss
some of the issues with other people wherever possible. Just remember that the person you
speak to doesn’t ‘speak for Maori people’ any more than you may ‘speak for’ people of your
own cultural background. Therefore where possible try and speak to more than one person on
an issues and present a range of the opinions you find rather than attempting to come up with a
single ‘right answer’.
3.
Make sure you source your material. Include references, if it is of a conversation note
the date and the person you spoke to. If they are a Maori or Pacific Islands person be sensitive
to the possibility that they may wish to introduce themselves in a certain way (eg. By their Iwi
as well as their name).
Step One
Definitions
Provide a short (1-2 sentences) definition for each of these terms. Don’t quote -use
your own words, but acknowledge the sources you have used.
1.
Multicultural
2.
Bicultural
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3.
Tauiwi
4.
Tangata Whenua
Step Two
The Treaty of Waitangi
Suggested resource book: The Story of a Treaty by Claudia Orange
1.
Briefly summarise (use your own words) each article in the Treaty of Waitangi. Set it
out in the format below.
What do you think it meant to people What do you think it means today ?
then?
1
2
3
2.
Discuss the role of the church in cross cultural relations in the period 1840-1880, your
discussion should focus on the part Christians (especially missionaries) played in the
following issues:
-Treaty of Waitangi negotiations (1840)
-The Land Wars of the 1860’s
-The declaration of the Treaty as a ‘legal nullity’ (1877)
You could concentrate on one event or provide a brief overview of all three.
(500 words)
You can either present the next two questions in a written format (max 500 words), or in the
form of a chart illustrating the issues and your growth in relation to them.
3.
Tino Rangatiratanga
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A simple definition of this term is ‘self determination’. Give 2-3 examples of different
ways in which Maori have interpreted the term in practice. Your best source of
information will probably be talking to different Maori people.
4.
Step 3
State which definition you are most comfortable with. Identify and comment on how
your own background has influenced you in the direction you have stated.
The cultural context of faith
Provide a 1-2 sentence definition of these terms and give an example of each from
experience in your own cultural background :
1.
Contextualisation
2.
Syncretism
3.
Ethnocentric
Re read Chapter 3 and 4 of One Faith Two Peoples. Then pick one of the four
speakers (Norman Tawhiao, Hapai Winiata, Hone Maxwell or Monte Ohia).
4.
Describe some of the key issues in maintaining a balance between contextualising our
faith and becoming syncretic. Follow the arguments of the speaker you have picked
and comment on how you feel this person has (or hasn’t) maintained a balance in this
area. (2-300 words)..
Step 4 Partnership across cultures
You can use either a picture or chart format to illustrate your points in this final
question, or else stick with writing (approx or equivalent to 500 words). Revise
chapters 7 and 8 of One Faith Two Peoples.
1.
What do you think are the key foundations for a practical and just working relationship
between cultures in New Zealand ? Apply your discussion to your own context of youthwork.
You may wish to treat multiculturalism and biculturalism as separate issues or pick one of them
to focus on.
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RESOURCE MATERIAL:
SECTION ONE - CULTURE
UNDERSTANDING A DEFINITION OF CULTURE
"by your blood you ransomed for God saints from every tribe and language and people and
nation; you have made them to be a kingdom and priests serving our God" (Revelation 5:9-10
New Revised Standard Version).
Everyone grows up shaped by their cultural background where they spent their childhood. If
the cultural background has been "square", then people turn out to be square. If "round", people
are round. (Figure 1).
To have personal understanding of the meaning of 'culture' helps us to increase our cross-ultural
awareness. Culture is an identity. Here are a few definitions. Which definition do you believe
covers the meaning of culture the best?

Culture is anything a group of people does that is not integral to its sustenance.
(MARGARET CORIN)

Culture is the integrated system of learned behaviour patterns, ideas and products
characteristic of a society. (CHARLES KRAFT)

Culture is a formation of people who have many characteristics in common. (BEULAH
WOOD)

Culture is the total life way of a people—a people's design for living. (KLUCKHOHN)

Culture is a pattern of shared values, symbols, language and behaviour which enables
communities to live together, either within a culture or as cultures alongside each other.
(PETER LINEHAM)
At our residential college an Asian student commented to me about the challenges of living in a
multicultural setting. She said she found Pakeha students very individualistic. For example when
she had friends visiting from her country she was very happy to sleep on the floor and let her
friend sleep in her bed. She considered sharing a room with her visitors very convenient and
enjoyable, even though her single bedroom accommodation at the college was not spacious. She
felt Pakeha students, on the other hand, often looked for a spare room in the college or some
neighbouring home for their guests. Privacy was not a priority in this Asian student's thinking.
Furthermore the Asian student rightly consulted her parents about important decisions, even
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when they were separated by thousands of miles. She was an adult, but had acquired the cultural
understanding that it was important that her family members of the older generation needed to
have a pivotal decision-making role in her life. She was amazed to see young adults at the
College make lifelong decisions without contacting their families. She was even more
incredulous when she discovered that some Pakeha students had not had contact with family
members for months on end.
In his writings on how to handle stress when you cross cultures Jim Chew, a Singaporian
Christian leader who has done much youth work and teaching, said
The lack of personal privacy can be a source of stress. Living in New Zealand, my wife
and I observed that personal privacy is highly respected. In many areas, homes will not
have fences or gates. In crowded and noisy Asia, retreating into the quiet privacy of one's
own home may not be possible. (Chew 1992)
Hence both Asian immigrants and New Zealanders, indeed any cross cultural grouping, have
adjustments to make when we work together. Our varied background should not necessarily be
considered RIGHT OR WRONG, but DIFFERENT.
You will be able to think of numerous examples of the many challenges and questions you face
as you learn to befriend people from various cultures both in your youth ministry, faith
community, and in the wider community.
Living and working in a multicultural setting can enhance our life. Women and men are raised
up from every culture to follow and serve God. The understanding of cultural differences is
fundamental to the success of working together in youth ministry.
An increased comprehension of cultural diversity will help us have insight regarding the people
with whom we relate from other cultures and also help us understand ourselves within our own
culture.
WHERE IS CULTURE PRACTISED?
Beulah Wood writes about where culture is practised:
Who we are is expressed in many different places, and we hardly ever think about it...
1. In homes - family life, food, food customs, hospitality, money, language and communicating.
2. In religious buildings - marked cultural differences show in religion.
3. On special areas of land - marae, other tapu land, cemetery, public gardens, war memorials or
cenotaph, parks, public land for civic welcomes, sports grounds.
4. Schools and universities - which were mainly Pakeha/European, now making more provision
for increasing pupils' understanding of different cultures, and retaining minority ethnic groups
longer.
5. Clubs, restaurants, public buildings and community halls.
6. Parliament and local bodies, courthouses
7. Hospitals.
8. Financial institutions.
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9. Media - they convey the 'worldview1 of the journalist and script writer, leaving out some
Tacts' and giving a slant. They have at times:
(a) Made some groups look bad as compared with others.
(b) Omitted whole groups of people as if they were not there.
When we study where it is practised, we often find European culture is dominant, even though
many Pakeha people have never realised the advantage this gives them (Wood, p. 3 7)
A WHOLISTIC APPROACH
Paul Hiebert gives a wholistic emphasis and says:
"cultures mold people's physical characteristics. Humans are remarkably imaginative in
changing their bodies to fit their tastes. They drill holes in their ears, lips, cheeks, and teeth to
support ornaments; bind heads and feet to change their shapes; put on glasses and hearing aids to
improve their perceptions; paint and tattoo their skin, nails, and hair; cut their bodies and shape
their hair in a thousand ways. Cultures also influence the ideas people have about health and
beauty. In the West, where slim bodies are considered attractive, women diet to stay slender; in
Tonga in the South Pacific, where beauty is measured by bulk, a woman eats to maintain a full
figure."
"Similarly the interaction of models must be studied in order to determine how people's
biological systems affect them psychologically, how their psychological systems affect them
physically, and how both affect and are affected by their culture." (Hiebert p.26-27).
Figure 2 Hiebert p.26
An Integrated Approach to the Study of Humans
Hiebert goes on to explain that our understanding of reality, in order to gain a wholistic
approach, must include the SPIRITUAL aspects of the people with whom we minister along
with the social, psychological, physical, cultural and biological.
Hiebert reminds us:
"we should not judge another culture by the values of our own culture. Rather we need to judge
it by 1) a bicultural evaluation scale that is detached from both and evaluates both, and by 2) the
Scriptures and God's revelation." (Hiebert p.99)
Figure 3 Hiebert p.99
Evaluating Other Cultures
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A Model for Evaluating Cultures at the World View Level
(Not misunderstanding)
Understanding
(Not tthnocontrism)
Appreciation
(Not prejudgmmt)
Informed Judgment
TASK ORIENTATION VERSUS PERSON
ORIENTATION
To develop skills that promote interaction between people of different cultures in a sensitive and
appropriate way in our work among youth an understanding of both task and person orientation
is vital.
In their book on ministering cross-culturally Lingenfelter and Mayers write:
"Individuals who are task-oriented find satisfaction in reaching their objectives and completing
their projects. Their lives are motivated and directed by an unending succession of objectives.
Frequently they aspire to complete a greater number of tasks than is humanly possible in the
time they allocate; as a result, their lives take on a frenetic pace filled with activities. Many
become workaholics, allowing tasks to so dominate their lives that other people are viewed as
merely a part of their work schedule."
"The social life of task-oriented individuals is often merely an extension of work activity. At
social gatherings their conversation is limited primarily to problems or concerns in their work.
Other subjects (except for those that focus on another of their objectives) bore them. Taskoriented people consider social activities a drain on their productive time and often prefer the
solitude of working alone and uninterrupted. To achieve is more important than to build social
relationships, and they are willing to endure social deprivation to reach their goals."
"Individuals who are person-oriented find their satisfaction in interaction with others. Their
highest priority is to establish and maintain personal relationships. They enjoy the social
interaction required to sustain these relationships. Some take every available opportunity to meet
new people and to cultivate an extensive network of personal contacts."
"People who have interaction as a goal need the acceptance and stimulus of their group of
associates. They must spend a significant amount of time and energy fulfilling the obligations of
group membership and maintaining personal ties. They work hard to promote group interests
and interaction, often sacrificing their own personal goals for the interests of others. Failure to
accomplish a task is less critical to them than a gain in the quality of personal relationships."
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TASK ORIENTATION:
1. Focuses on tasks and principles
2. Finds satisfaction in the achievement of goals
3. Seeks friends with similar goals
4. Accepts loneliness and social deprivation for the sake of personal achievements
PERSON ORIENTATION:
1. Focuses on persons and relationships
2. Finds satisfaction in interaction
3. Seeks friends who are group-oriented.
4. Deplores loneliness; sacrifices personal achievements for group interaction
Lingenfelter/Mayers p.83
QUESTIONS FOR YOUR REFLECTION:
1. Would you consider yourself more task or person oriented?
2. How do you think your cultural context has shaped this?
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RESOURCE MATERIAL:
SECTION TWO - APPLICATION
UNDERSTANDING WORLDVIEW
If you have studied the "Know Your Context" Module you will have seen the importance of
acknowledging our own point of view for a good understanding of who we are before
proceeding to an understanding of others. It is particularly true when we desire to communicate
with others from another culture that we understand who we are and our own worldview.
DEFINITION OF WORLDVIEW:
Worldview is:
1.
"The culturally structured assumptions, values, and commitments underlying a people's
perception of REALITY." (Charles Kraft)
2.
"The basic assumptions about REALITY which lie behind the beliefs and behaviour of a
culture are sometimes called a worldview." (Paul Hiebert)
There are similarities and differences in worldviews. In other words, deep values in many
societies may be comparable. For example the belief in the evil of incest is a value held by the
majority of cultures. It is helpful to note differences in worldviews but also vital to observe
appropriate similarities.
David Bosch writes:
"Some years back it was popular to construct absolute contrasts between Hebrew and
Greek worldviews. Today it is widely agreed that the difference was over-emphasized.
Many notions regarded as typically Hebrew have been shown to exist in Greek thinking
as well, and vice versa ." (Bosch p. 195).
In this module there is the opportunity to understand first the worldview of ourselves before we
seek to understand the worldview of others. Part of understanding ourselves is the need to
understand the reality of our backgrounds. Denis Lane in his book on Eastern and Western
worldviews speaks of the need for a person to first stand apart and reflect on their own
REALITY before being able to understand the REALITY of others. Charles Kraft speaks of the
small "r"~our reality, which is subjective, and the big "R"—God's reality (or perspective) which
is objective.
(Figure 4)
r
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WHO AM I?
Before we try to understand someone else's culture we must first be able to identify our own.
Use these questions to help you become aware of your cultural "givens".
Getting started: Make five "I am" statements...
1.
What were my parents'/guardians' occupations?
your lifestyle.
State how their occupations affected
2. How open was our home to the extended family and people outside the family?
3. What were the most important values which my parents'/guardians' stressed?
4. What beliefs did my family emphasise? How was this expressed?
5. Describe the sorts of people I encountered in my life. What effect did they have on me?
6. What things in my family background do I most value?
7. What things in my culture do I most like?
8. What things about our Aotearoa/New Zealand context do I most appreciate? What makes me
feel uncomfortable?
UNDERSTANDING OTHER CULTURES MADE
PRACTICAL
AN INTERVIEW METHOD
Understanding each other takes time. It is about being open to sharing ourselves, our strengths
and weaknesses from our backgrounds. It is also about making the most of opportunities to learn
about other cultures from people with whom we have contact.
In youth ministry we can be monocultural in our stance and be unaware of cultural differences
around us. However, God works in and through cultures.
To enhance our knowledge of cultural differences it is an excellent learning experience to
interview someone from another culture. It is important to use a process which will heighten the
possibility of learning as much as possible about that culture in an integrated manner. Charles
Kraft divides cultures into subsystems. To find out about each subsystem in a culture helps us to
cover some of the most important aspects of that culture.
We will look at each of Charles Kraft's subsystems and discuss briefly what each one means:
(Figure 5) MODEL OF CULTURE AND ITS SUBSYTEMS
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1 RELIGIOUS SUBSYSTEM
The religious subsystem is the area of deep concepts, values and assumptions that relate to the
supernatural plus moral commitments and beliefs.
When we look at the life of Abraham we see in Genesis 12 that he already had a belief system
and some understanding of God. It makes an interesting study to consider what that belief
entailed.
To gain information about someone's religious beliefs, from another culture, in our youth
ministry, we might ask them about their understanding of

the supernatural

a high God

angels and demons

spirits

ancestor worship

reincarnation

heaven-hell

prayer

sacrifices

mythology

taboos
Sample questions:
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* What is the relationship between God and the universe?
* Who is God?
* How do you worship God?

2
How does your understanding of God influence your values?
COMMUNICATION SUBSYSTEM
Communication is how we relate to one another in a culture.
A. Language: Language is a personal way, in vocal form, used for communication between
people.
Some important information can be learned about language by asking:
* Is verbal language or written language more important in your culture?
* Haw does your language show unique characteristics of your culture? e.g. the Eskimos have
26 words for snow.
* Are there any differences in your language in the way you speak to older people or younger
people?
B. Arts: Art forms are an important part of communication in any culture. Some of these
include:
Dancing Music Drama Folklore
Sample questions:
* What are the different sorts of ways people choose to express and celebrate your culture?
Which are most popular and why?
* Which stories get repeated? Why are they significant?
* Where is music played/performed in your culture ? What is its purpose in the settings where
it is played/performed?
* Who are the performers in your culture? Where do performances happen? Who is the
audience?
3 TECHNOLOGICAL SUBSYSTEM
The products of technology take many forms. A culture should not be assessed solely on its
technological sophistication. It is important to have an integrated understanding of a culture.
The Western world is very advanced in technical skills, with computers, internet systems, etc.,
with rapidly moving changes. However, many primal (indigenous) cultures like the Colorado
Indians in South America have intricate systems for making their artifacts. Earth cooking in
hangi/umu and navigation by the stars are Polynesian accomplishments.
Sample questions:
* How does your culture view/think about technology?
* Identify some unique inventions of your culture.
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* What equipment/tools are used daily in your culture for cooking, farming, transport,
teaching...
4 ECONOMIC SUBSYSTEM
There are complex economic processes behind creating value and having money. How money is
used provides interesting insights into a culture. For example we can find out much about
discrimination and equal rights by an understanding of bribes and how they are used, or not
used, to compensate for a low salary. In New Zealand material possessions are a way of
measuring success.
Government legislation concerning employment law is also another way to view the economic
situation in a culture.
Sample questions:
* What is money used for in your culture?
* How is work allocated in your culture? Which work is valued, "which is undervalued and
why?
* How is success measured in your society?
5 SOCIAL SUBSYSTEM
We can note from Charles Kraft's diagram of his model of culture and its subsystems (pi 3) that
he has incorporated six subheadings in the social subsystem:
life cycle refers to the stages of life like childhood, initiation rights, whether ancestorhood exists
and the way the society defines life.
education may be formal or informal
marriage and family may include practices where an economic arrangement, like a dowry, is
necessary. Arranged marriages may be customary, or increasingly in NZ people are choosing to
live together without being married. The family may be viewed as nuclear (parent/s and
children) which is more common in an individualistic society such as New Zealand. The family
may be extended (grandparents, aunts, cousins, etc.) which is more common in the non Western
world.
status and role demonstrates a person's position, a social role which has recognised rights and
duties.
kinship and associations are important in cultures like the Maori and Polynesian societies. waka, tribe, hapu: rangatira, matai
social control defines what behaviour is acceptable in the society e.g., shame, taboos, law and
legal mores, political and governmental practices. Particular examples of this include drug use,
violence, sex before marriage.
Sample questions:
* What are the range of living arrangements in your culture? Which are most acceptable, and
which are frowned upon? Is this changing, if so how, and why?
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* What significance do the various relationships have within a family?
* Who is respected in your society and how can you tell? Who is disenfranchised?
RESOURCE MATERIAL:
SECTION THREE - SENSITIVITY
FIVE THINGS THAT HELP US TO BE CULTURALLY SENSITIVE:
1. Knowing there is good and bad in every culture. No culture is perfect
2. Understanding there are many equally valid ways to solve life's problems.
3. To understand a person from another culture before making any assumptions about
that person's behaviour.
4. Being willing to learn about our own cultural background before we venture to make
assessments of other cultural realities.
5. Learning about God's heart and plan for people from different cultures.
JESUS' CROSS-CULTURAL SENSITIVITY A BIBLICAL MODEL FOR CULTURAL AWARENESS
READ John 4:1-41
Jews held Samaritans in contempt. They felt Samaritans were half bred Jews. Jesus, a Jew,
showed by his actions that he was deeply interested in people from other cultures and wanted to
bring freedom to those who were in bondage because of their culture. His action was a
judgement of his own culture. All of our communication needs to come out of a good
understanding of how we can relate better across any boundaries of culture. There are five facets
that are helpful, role modelled by Jesus in John 4.
1. Non Verbal Communication
Communication is 60% non verbal. Our body language tells others a lot about us. There are
distinctive cultural ways of communicating non verbally. Maori people use touch often to show
they care. Pakehas do not use touch very much other than with close family members. Jesus did
not feel it was necessary to remove himself when a non Jewish woman turned up at the well
where he was resting. He was aware of her presence and acknowledged her both non verbally
and verbally.
2. Listening
Appropriate listening skills enables us to understand each other better and are extremely
important in cross-cultural communication. Silence can be easily misunderstood between
cultures. For example among Asians it is an expectation that it will take some time for people to
relate together, including time for listening. It is common in a Chinese restaurant to have ten
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people around one table. The meal is expected to last sufficient time to enable people to slowly
get to know each other and relax enough in order to communicate. Whereas a Pakeha person
may want to chat immediately and feel uncomfortable if there is not open communication
quickly.
Listening was a very significant part of Jesus' communication. Jesus was very sensitive to the
Samaritan woman's needs. When he spoke to her he waited for her to respond in her own way
and time. He listened carefully to what she said and answered her in a manner which indicated a
willingness to treat her equally. Jesus, by his listening skills, treated the Samaritan woman with
real dignity.
3. Questioning
Sometimes we can talk past each other, without realising it, when asking questions of a person
from another culture. One has to learn to ask questions very clearly. Some personal questions
may offend the Pakeha like the asking of their age. Asians may be very relaxed about
discussing prices and bargains. Visitors may enquire about the price of things in the home
without meaning any offence. Pakehas, on the other hand, may want to be very private about
their salary and the price of articles. However, Pakehas can ask questions perceived by other
cultures as being difficult to understand, with the use of a negative and a positive in one sentence
such as: "You cant come to our Youth Fellowship on Saturday, can you?"
Jesus used questioning skillfully. Jesus listened carefully to the Samaritan woman's questions.
He did not question her unnecessarily. He responded to her questions sensitively and honestly.
Jesus met the Samaritan woman where she was at, within her own thinking and needs.
4. Ministering
Pacific Islanders and Asians may show friendship and hospitality by serving food. Polynesians
may feel that fellowship is not complete without time together over a relaxed meal. Pakehas may
be programme and time orientated and place a priority on the quality of the function. Indian
students may serve food to the men in a group before the women. In their homes they are
accustomed to the male members of their extended family being served first.
To minister with a Maori family during a funeral/tangi it is helpful to realise that a funeral may
take a number of days, involving various services, perhaps in varied locations, and could well
include the unveiling of the headstone up to a year later. Much time is given to encouragement
and support for the mourners.
Jesus and the Samaritan woman took time for open communication and careful dialogue. The
sensitivity of Jesus towards this woman resulted in her growing respect of Jesus. You will
appreciate the following words from ancient times, a quote from "Ephraim the Syrian" an early
church-father.
SAMARITAN WOMAN; IN THE BEGINNING JESUS DIDN'T MAKE HIMSELF KNOWN
TO HER. AT FIRST SHE CAUGHT SIGHT OF A NEEDY MAN, THEN A JEW, THEN A
RABBI, AFTERWARDS A PROPHET, AND AT LAST THE MESSIAH. SHE TRIED TO
GET THE BETTER OF THE NEEDY MAN, SHE SHOWED HER DISLIKE OF THE JEW,
SHE HECKLED WITH THE RABBI, WAS SWEPT OFF HER FEET BY THE PROPHET,
AND ADORED THE MESSIAH.
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UNDERSTANDING DIFFERENCE
Joan Mete, New Zealand Anthropologist, has written the very helpful following article on the
challenge of difference (Metge p. 7)
New Zealand has always been more diverse, less homogeneous, than we have recognised, and
our diversity is increasing. In the past the Pakeha majority saw cultural diversity as a threat to
the unity of the nation and tried to absorb the Maori and other minorities by assimilation. UnderJOAN, standably they resisted, and
Anthro we should be glad they did. For true unity is
not uniformity but the interlocking of diverse parts into a whole which is greater than their sum.
Cultural diversity offers us a wonderful opportunity to widen our horizons and increase the range
of strategies available to us. Yet how often do we ask "Why can't THEY Maori/Pakeha/immigrant minorities/other people - be more like US?"
In the process of growing up we have the rules of social interaction impressed upon us so
strongly that we store them ia car minds as part of its operating programme. We cease to. think
about them, take them for granted as "natural" and "right". It takes real effort to acknowledge
that people from a different cultural background have internalised their social rules too and are
as strongly attached to them as we are to ours. Once we make this breakthrough, however, we
find that their ways, which we previously saw as rude or irrational, make perfectly good sense.
Take the way we use our eyes. My parents and teachers all insisted that I looked at them when
they were talking to me. Looking anywhere else was interpreted -and jumped upon - as lack of
interest, disrespect or a guilty conscience: shifting eyes were shifty eyes. When as an adult I
began to work with Maori I often felt uncomfortable and confused by their response to me.
Eventually I pinned this down to their habitual evasion of sustained eye contact. When I asked
why they wouldn't meet my eyes, they said it had been drummed into them as children that
"eyeballing" people is disrespectful, an attempt to dominate or belittle. Engaging and then disengaging glances respects another's personal space and encourages confidences. Now I can play it
both ways - as long as I choose the appropriate setting!
Another common area of misunderstanding relates to the expression of appreciation. We Pakeha
drum into our children the importance of saying "please" and thank you" and as adults we feel
hurt if the recipients of our gifts and services do not say thank you and add appreciative
comments about them. Maori for their part are sceptical of mere words, which "vanish on the
wind", and prefer to show gratitude in tangible form. So they return gifts and services in kind,
not immediately but on appropriate future occasions, topped up with a little bit extra. This sets
up a process of exchange, criss-crossing between the parties, binding them together in an ongoing relation. That is the real reference of the "Tui, Tui, Tuia" of the 1990 logo ("tui" means to
lace or lash together with a cord).
When it comes to debating issues, Maori and Pakeha often fail to connect because of different
styles of presentation. Pakeha typically set great store on facts and figures, step-by-step
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reasoning and objectivity, criticising Maori speakers for ignoring facts, wandering from the point
and emotive language. Maori on their side care more about people than facts and figures, value
logic but prefer a circling to a straight-line approach and delight in extended metaphors and
hyperbole. The two styles are not right or wrong: they are simply different. Though Pakeha
favour one style and Maori the other, both are familiar with and on occasion use that favoured by
the other. Greater willingness to recognise, respect and enjoy each other's favoured style would
improve both the level of debate and the success of the outcome. •
ASIAN CULTURES DESCRIBED AS 'SHAME' CULTURES
Jim Chew says in describing his own culture:
"Asian cultures are described as 'shame' cultures rather than 'guilt' cultures. However, both guilt
and shame are prevalent in interpersonal relationships. It is common for Asians to take the
blame for violating a code of conduct rather than offend someone. A person sometimes may put
the blame on circumstances rather than embarrass another, because causing shame or
embarrassment to an individual, his family or community should be avoided in Asian cultures.
We use the term 'face saving' But Asians can also use the mechanism of projection to save face
and cause hurt to others......
The matter of not placing guilt where it belongs can be a cultural weakness. This factor could
cause unnecessary stress for Asian cross-cultural workers. As Asians, we need to responsibly
handle such matters in order to live in reality. Practising forgiveness is also essential" (Chew
p.22-23).
A Samoan Expression of Difference
Losa's poem:
Ode to Mum & Dad
My parents ...
Eager to give their offspring
the best,
Moved to another land
'Aiga wooing them to
a paradise of money,
Better education & promises of
opportunity, without
the drudgery of sitting by the kerosene stove
doing the saka,
Life in New Zealand
is easy, they say...
Everyone has a fridge
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and a T V
Freedom from the countless
fa'alavelave's
Why does my stomach
ache for Taro, Palusami
in a country where
you can have anything you want?
Why does my heart yearn
for, a view of our
in Poutasi.
Why do I feel like I don't
belong, in a country that I grew up in ...
Why do I want to escape
all the time?
There's nowhere to run away to,
I've been sentenced to one thing
and there's a yearning to be
Somewhere else.
Dissatisfied, everything is tainted
by the feeling ...
What is the feeling?
Not belonging, yet part of
Belonging but rejected
Some say I'm F/'a - Palagi
Some say I'm F/a - Mauli
I've been remade & all
my parts don't slot together,
my parts slot in sometimes,
and pop out at the slightest
interference,
it doesn't have to be anything
Major!!
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A word, a nod, an attitude
I am shattered
It takes a long time to be me again
As normal as I can be,
... Under the circumstances.
From "A Boy called Broke" Fa'amoana John Luafutu 1994 Mac Millan Brown Centre For
Pacific Studies
Resources referred to:
Bosch, David I, Transforming Mission. New York: Orbis Books, 1992.
Chew, Jim, How to Handle Stress When You Cross Cultures. Singapore: The Navigators, 1992.
Kebert, Paul G., Anthropological Insights for Missionaries. Michigan: Baker Book House. 1985.
Lane, Denis, One World Two Minds. United States: OMF International, 1995
Lingenfelter, Sherwood G, and Marvin K. Mayers, Ministering Cross-Culturally. Michigan:
Baker Book House, 1986.
Metge, Joan, The Challenge of Difference, in Listener. June 12,1993, p7.
Wood, Beulah, Our Cultures in Todays Context. Auckland: Houhanga Kongo, 1991.
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Here are some excerpts from "Culture, Ethnicity and Learning" by David Thomas,
University of VVaikato 1993
Polynesians and Pakeha in New Zealand
In a detailed description of the differences between Pakeha (Europeans) and Polynesians in New
Zealand, Metge and Kinloch (1978) gave some specific examples of the ways in which cultural
differences in communication styles can lead to misunderstanding. They have described a
number of ways in which Polynesians and Pakeha differ in the extent to which they respond to
non-verbal communication (such as the use of facial expressions and gaze patterns), greeting
behaviours, signs of hospitality and ways of showing embarrassment. The following examples
illustrate some of these differences.
... Maori and Samoans emphasize 'body language' more and verbalization less than
Pakehas. Pakehas ... typically find Maori and Samoans unresponsive and 'hard to talk to'.
... To Maoris and Samoans, Pakehas often seem deaf to what others are trying to tell
them, while at the same time they are 'forever talking', (p. 10)
A Pakeha infant teacher related how she found she was continually repeating herself to
her predominantly Polynesian class. She established that she was doing it in response to
the raised eyebrows gesture which she had interpreted as 'Please say it again', and
realized that they were in fact signalling 'Yes, we understand', (p. 11)
Maori and Samoans ... consider it impolite to look directly at others when talking to
them. ... they rest their gaze elsewhere, slightly to one side, on the floor, ceiling or distant
horizon ... behaviour intended to avoid offence is often 'read' by Pakehas with other ideas
as rudeness or shiftiness, (p. 13)
When Maori, Pakehas and Samoans act on the assumption that they give particular words
and actions the same meaning while actually giving them different ones, they 'talk past
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each other', misread each others' words and actions, respond inappropriately, and judge
each other as stupid, odd or rude in the light of their own standards. (Metge & Kinloch,
1978, pp. 8-9)
Food plays an important part in greetings and extending hospitality to guests among Polynesian
groups. Often food is provided immediately after formal greetings are completed. As Metge and
Kinloch note, Maori and Samoans do not offer food to guests, they provide it (1978, p. 19).
Guests are called to the dining room to eat food that is already laid out for them. In contrast,
when Pakeha ask Maori or Samoan visitors if they would like tea or coffee, the visitors often
feel the hospitality is rather lukewarm, and may politely refuse anything.
Another situation where Polynesians and Pakeha differ is in greeting behaviours. For example
Maoris and Samoans often comment that they attended a school function or meeting, where they
were eager to be involved, and report that nobody spoke to them so they didn't go back (Metge &
Kinloch, 1978, p. 15). In this situation Maori and other Polynesian groups emphasize
"inclusiveness" where people are made to feel pan of the group by being explicitly welcomed
into it (Graves & Graves, 1985). Polynesians expect that newcomers will be personally greeted
and made to feel welcome by the organizers of an event before the formal business commences.
This pattern is clearly shown among Maori communities when visitors are welcomed on to a
marae with a formal greeting or mihi. After the greeting speeches the hosts meet all of the guests
in a reception line. At informal Maori social functions a newcomer will generally be introduced
to, or greet, each person in the room.
In contrast, many Pakeha expect that at larger gatherings or public meetings the initiative for
introductions and strangers getting to know one another is left to individuals. If any welcome is
extended it is done briefly and in general terms by the chairperson at the start of formal business
of the meeting. At a smaller social gatherings, a newcomer may be introduced to those already
present as a group, without individual introductions, or only to one or two people among those
already present.
These examples of cultural differences in expectations about appropriate behaviours in a range
of situations indicate that such differences can often be misinterpreted and may cause
misunderstanding or offence. Many of the examples outlined above are presented as clearcut
cultural differences. However, situations involving people from different cultures are frequently
ambiguous. That is, several interpretations about what is "culturally appropriate" behaviour may
be plausible.
In order to avoid misunderstandings between people from different cultures it is best to use
behaviours which are culturally appropriate for the particular setting or environment where they
occur. For example on a marae, one should avoid behaviours which are likely to cause offence to
Maori people, even though such behaviours may be perfectly acceptable among Pakeha people.
People who bicultural or multicultural, and thus familiar with patterns of social behaviour in
other cultural groups, may show different social behaviours in different settings. Such variation
can be seen as a socially skilled pattern, rather than being seen as inconsistency.
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