Chapter 1
Introduction to Climatology
2. Briefly describe earth’s “spheres.” Give examples of how each of the spheres is connected.
Answer: The earth “spheres” that interact with the atmosphere are the lithosphere, hydrosphere,
cryosphere, and biosphere. The lithosphere is the solid part of the earth nearest to the surface. The
lithosphere can influence atmospheric processes by reducing solar radiation during volcanic eruptions.
The hydrosphere is the part of the earth-ocean-atmosphere system that is covered by liquid water.
Changes in ocean circulation have significant effects on the atmosphere through their global transport of
heat and moisture. The cryosphere is composed of all forms of frozen water. Glaciers and sea ice are
effective at reflecting solar radiation due to their reflective properties. When polar ice caps melt and
glaciers shrink, more solar energy is absorbed at the earth’s surface. The biosphere contains all life forms
on the planet. It also influences the amount of solar energy received at the surface. Deforestation has
produced major climate changes in certain areas, generally leading to a warmer and drier climate. Soil is
an excellent example of how the earth’s “spheres” are connected. These “spheres” significantly influence
atmospheric processes ranging from the global to the local scale.
4. Compare and contrast the sciences of meteorology and climatology.
Answer: Meteorology deals with direct and specific measurements of atmospheric properties and
pressure systems. Meteorology examines the forces that create the atmospheric properties being
measured. It is the only natural science where the primary goal is to predict future conditions.
Climatology refers to the state of the atmosphere for a given place over time. Climatologists study
atmospheric processes in order to understand the long-term consequences of these processes. The field of
climatology allows one to study atmospheric processes and their long-term impacts. Climatology involves
understanding the interaction of the earth-ocean-atmosphere system using at a variety of spatial and
temporal scales. While meteorologist and climatologist both study weather, meteorologists are more
concerned with the condition of the atmosphere at a “certain place in time” while climatologists are
concerned with the condition of the atmosphere for a “given place over time”.
6. Discuss the different sub-disciplines within climatology. How are they different from/similar to one
another?
Answer: Climatology can be divided up into several sub-disciplines, corresponding to the analysis of
atmospheric behavior on a wide range of spatial and temporal scales. Physical climatology is primarily
concerned with the nature of atmospheric energy and matter at climatic time scales. Hydroclimatology
involves the interaction between the atmosphere and near-surface water in all of its forms at all spatial
scales. Dynamic climatology focuses on the processes that induce atmospheric motion, usually at the
planetary scale. Synoptic climatology studies the relationships and interactions between atmospheric
circulation and the surface environment of a specific geographic region. Regional climatology provides a
description of the climate of a particular area without an explanation of the atmospheric processes that
produce the climate. Paleoclimatology focuses on ancient climates using proxy records such as diaries,
tree rings, and ice cores. Bioclimatology is a very diverse subfield of climatology that examines the
interaction of living things with their living environment. Agricultural climatology is closely related to
bioclimatology but focuses only on the living things that have an economic value. Applied climatology is
concerned with the effects that climate has on humans and various aspects of the environment. Applied
climatology can be thought of as the study of climate to solve a variety of social and environmental
issues. Each of the sub disciplines overlap making climatology a holistic science.
8. What is the urban heat island and why is it relevant to temperature assessment?
Answer: The urban heat island is a phenomenon that produces increased temperatures in urban areas due
to the generation of artificial heat by human activities. As populations increase in urban locations natural
vegetation is replaced by impervious surfaces that absorb solar energy. Temperatures can be several
degrees warmer in an urban core compared to the surrounding rural areas. The largest temperature
differences between urban and rural areas are observed at night as the concrete surfaces reradiate the
stored heat gained during the daytime. The urban heat island effect makes it difficult to assess long-term
climate changes because it is difficult to determine the extent that human activities have contributed to the
observed temperature changes, producing a bias in the long-term record. Due to the urban heat island
phenomenon climatic records in urban locations have to be corrected to remove the urban bias.