Conflict in Europe 1935 – 1945
Civilians at War
Social and economic effects of the war on civilians in Britain
Bombing raids: The ‘Anderson shelter’ and ‘Morrison shelter’ were provided cheaply by the
government to provide protection for families from air and bombing raids. Wealthy stayed
in funk hotels. In London city tube stations were used as public air raid shelters with
thousands sleeping in them. German V1 and V2 rockets caused large scale fear among
civilians. Over 2 million civilians made homelessmajority working class housing. Britain’s
economic production was never seriously threatened. The ‘Dunkirk’ Spirit continued
throughout Blitz.






During the course of the war civilians were unable to leave home without a gas mask
due to the fear of gas being used.
Evacuations: First priority was the safety of the children, evacuation plans for children
and teachers, the disabled, mothers with small children, put into place before outbreak
of war. Within the first days of war over 1.5 million children were evacuated from
Britain’s cities to spare them from the possible bombing raids. 2nd May 1945 – London
Return Plan, judgment made for each child’s situationsome orphaned, some didn’t
want to go home and others not wanted at home
Blackout: introduced to make it difficult for German bombers, air raid was
soundedstreet lights turned off, car headlights dimmed and windows covered to
conceal lighting. Air raid wardens enforced heavy fines for disobeying the ‘blackout’
procedures
Government controls: All men aged between 18 and 51 were able to be conscripted,
the Essential Works Order (1941) - essential workers such as railway employees were
placed under government control. National Registration Act – people had to carry
identity papers at all times. Treacheries Act – imprison, ban or watch people in
organisations considered a threat. Many people of German or Italian descent were
interned or sent overseas.
Propaganda, censorship and the media: Ministry of Information set up under John Reith
– control the amount and nature of information the British people could have.
Censorship of soldiers letters home, creation of anti-German messages and warning of
what was being said in the case of spies. BBC’s television service closed down 1 st
September 1939; radio became the main provider of government information and
propaganda. 1940’s music shows and cinema heightened morale and provided an
escape from the troubles of daily life. (Gone in the Wind, Walt Disney classics)
Rationing: Petrol rationing (1939), Food rationing – butter, bacon, sugar, meat, tea, fats
and jam (Jan 1940 - March 1941). Point system – 16 points for any items. Substitute
products – carrot tart and whale meat. ‘Victory Gardens’- emphasis placed on home
grown foods not rationed. Clothes were rationed – encouraged to make their own


clothes from blankets and curtains, recycle old clothes and ‘make do and mend’
campaign – repair of weak and damaged clothes. Improved health of many poorer
people
Women: over 2 million worked in industry jobs (transport, munitions industry), nursing
overseas, WLA freed up agricultural workers to fight, service jobs (clerical work, repairs
and communications). Civil defence jobs (WRAF, WRNS). National service act (Dec 1941)
– conscripted all single women and childless widows aged from 20-30 for war work
Long term effects: Beveridge Report (1942) – measure to improve the welfare of British
civilians and ensure no repeat of their suffering occurred. ‘General Theory of
Employment, Money and Interest (1936, John Maynard) – ways the government could
manipulate the economy to avoid another depression. ‘Education Act’ (Richard Butler,
1944) – school leaving age rose to 15, free milk, school meals and medical services were
introduced and an ‘11’ plus exam could be sat by working class children to get into
grammar school. (Ken Webb, 2007)
Arthur Marwick: ‘the war brought upon significant social and economic changes due to the
realization of inadequate services such as the hospital system. A new emphasis was placed
upon social equality’
Social and economic effects of the war on civilians in Germany




Evacuations: Specially established camps were set up by the Hitler youth to look after
the children and educate them in Nazi Indoctrination. Class differences emerged as
working class families could not afford to move away together, rather their children
were sent far away
Rationing: Nazi leadership plans in place to ensure starvation did not occur-ration cards
for food were issued in August 1939, points system for clothing. Fruit and veg. not
rationed, meat ration reduced as war continued. Black market allowed the wealthy to
eat well. Towards the end of the wardifficulties in finding food although never critical
Total war: propaganda became more extreme – links between communism and Jews
were emphasized and war atrocities by the Russians were spread through German
media. Albert Speer effect on the economy – introduced mass production and
rationalization which made production more efficient
Allied bombing of Germany: Attack on Hamburg – between 30000-40000 dead, over
500000 homeless and over 20 hospitals and churches and 50% of the city had been
destroyed. Similar attacks occurred in Dresden (Feb 1945) and Berlin (April/May 1945).
Economic activity had to be dispersed from major cities or placed under ground – oil
supplies became critically low, chemical production decreased significantly and the
railway system was disrupted. By the end of the war almost 12 million people were
homeless and 4 million homes had been destroyed by allied bombing attacks. Ruined
houses patched up/homeless camped among the rubble. 305 000 Germans killed and
800 000 injured




Repression and opposition: Nazi Germany was a police terror state; opposition resulted
in visits from the Gestapo or time in the concentration camps. ‘The Reich Central
Security Office’ (September 1939) – coordination of all police forces to improve
efficiency. ‘The Night and Fog Decree’ (September 1941) – regime given the power to
arrest and detain people without trial and deny doing so.
By 1945 – 714000 Germans were in concentration camps for political crimes, between
1933 and 1945 an estimated 3 million Germans spent some time in the camps
Judicial procedure disappeared – the Gestapo and SS were free to act
Women: 14.8 million women in workforce by 1939, women transferred from consumer
sectors to war industries. Army called for compulsory labour service for women which
was denied by Nazi leadership. 194252% German labour force was female, need for
female labour increased. 13th Jan 1943Hitler signed a decree requiring women aged
17-45 to register for war work (not strictly enforced). Hitler against women working as it
could inflict harm upon their psychic and emotional life. Wehrmacht employed 160 000
women as secretaries, cooks, cleaners. 1943 onwards  air raid warning personnel,
search light operators and anti aircraft auxiliaries. (Reich Labour Service)
Richard Overy: ‘women in Germany had a major role in keeping the war effort going’
Martin Broszat: ‘legal process within Germany disappeared during the war with the death of
Franz Gurtner in 1941’
Michael Burleigh: the war led to the complete breakdown of family structures, with men at
war, children located in rural areas and women relocated elsewhere
Nazi racial policies: the Holocaust and the persecution of minorities
The Holocaust



1940 – Ghettos set up in Polish cities such as Warsaw, to separate the Jewish population
from the non Jewish. The conditions in the Ghettos were atrocious with thousands of
people crammed into small areas.
November 1939 a new law made it compulsory for Jews to wear the yellow Star of David
The Wannsee Conference – summer of 1941, Nazi policy of removing Jews had failed.
31st July 1941 – Heydrich met with Goering and discussed plans to develop a solution to
‘the Jewish problem’. Eichmann observed that it was the ‘planned biological destruction
of the Jewish race in the eastern territories’. January 1942 – Heydrich held a secret
meeting with 15 government and SS leaders at Wannsee to discus the final solution and
find more efficient ways for killing.





Jews from all over Europe were sent to death camps throughout 1933 and 1944. Jews
believed they were being resettled
Jews were placed on overcrowded cattle trucks and taken to concentration camps such
as Auschwitz. On arrival they would be examined by an SS doctor who would determine
whether they were fit for work or unfit for work. The unfit (old, pregnant, lame) were
gassed immediately.
Jews were forced to undress and sent into the delousing shower, where the door was
sealed. Through a metal grill Zyklon B gas (prussic acid) was dropped, which gassed the
people in the showers. Bodies were then incinerated at the crematoria.
SS stepped up the killings once it became obvious the war had been lost, resources
made available to ships Jews to death camps.
The Nazis murdered over 6 million Jews by the end of the war, gold filling and jewellery
were taken from bodies, human hair was shaved off and kept and all possessions were
kept for reuse.
The Persecution of Minorities



Gypsies viewed negatively, not racially German making them a danger of racial
pollution. Behaviour was regarded as unproductive and unsocial, did not fit into the Nazi
ideal of Volksgemeinschaft. Over 30,000 German Gypsies + gypsies from other
conquered areas were sent to camps in Poland, with over 200,000 Gypsies murdered by
1945
Homosexuals faced severe penalties, 15000+ homosexuals sent to camps. Targeted by
inmates and guards as they were forced to wear pink triangles. Allegations of
homosexuality used to discredit opponents such as Rohm in 1934.
Mentally ill and handicapped targeted from 1939 by the euthanasia program. Did not fit
the Nazi image of a racially pure and perfect society. Known as Operation T4 people
were gassed using pure carbon monoxide in one of six facilities. Up to 275,000
handicapped and mentally ill killed by the end of the war.
William Shirer: “the Jews and Slavic people were subhuman. To Hitler they had no right to
live, except as the slaves of the German people.”
Ian Kershaw: “Hitler had encouraged radical action and an environment of fate for the Jews.
Nazis were keen to bring about the Final Solution as was Hitler’s wish”

Structuralist Argument: holocaust not a long-term plan/general order, rather result
increasing radicalisation of war; invasion Soviet Union 1941 turning point in fate of
European Jews because Nazi’s began realise sheer number people to exterminate; final
solution evolved out of other unsuccessful plans to eliminate the Jews; final solution not
so much willed and decreed by Hitler, rather improvised by bureaucrats competing
favour Hitler’s eyes; Martin Broszat – Historian.
Intentionalists Argument: mass extermination Jews always intended Hitler meant
everything he said about the Jews; Hitler ordered process extermination begin under the
cover of war; Hitler only waiting opportunity bring about ‘final solution’; Hitler took
state of eliminationist anti-Semitism; Karl Dietrich and Eberhand Jackel – Historians.