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"LOVE" AND THE EASTERN SPIRIT:
A PHILOSOPHIC PERSPECTIVE
John Z. Ding
The human dilemma of love versus hatred has existed throughout development of
both Western and Eastern civilization. "Love" is a central concept, a basic ideal
and an important practice in Eastern culture. It is a loose term, however, and
troubles researchers not only because of its wide Renge in everyday usage, but
also because it is one of those words charged with emotional content. Any
systematic examination of love in Eastern civilization would have to take into
account the way cultural differentiation has been moved by the complex
associations of interpretation, explanation, conceptualization, and theorization of
love. For this purpose, this article examines the Eastern concept of love through
the following five spiritual sources: Hinduism, Buddhism, Daoism, Confucianism,
and Moism.
"Devotional Love" in Hinduism
Hinduism emphasizes four ends of life: Kama (love or pleasure), Artha (material possessions),
Dharma (moral law or duties), and Moksa (final liberation). Kama, as one of them, is
fundamental term in Hinduism. Like Cupid, Kama, also as a personalized god of love with
flower-bow and five flower arrows, sends desire quivering into the heart. In Rig-Veda, Kama is
likened to "the desire of the thirsty steer for water." In Brahmanas and Upanisads, He is given
an erotic role. For example, when Shiva (one of three basic gods) was engaged in meditation,
Kama discharged an arrow at him, to divert his attention to his wife Parvati, but Shiva reduced
him to ashes with a glance from his third eye. In response to the plea of Kama's window Rati
(the goddess of affection and the embodiment of wifely love), Shiva restored Parvati's husband,
representing true love. Kama and Rati, attended by Vasanta (spring), denote love's season.
Kama who is linked with Visnu and hence figuratively with'love and union embodies the attitude
of the sexes, and also, as "bodiless" (Ananga), hovers between lovers intangibly through the
mystery of sex. Mystically, Kama is the essence of magic love known and preserved in esoteric
doctrines, profoundly inspired by the holy mystery of life.
Bhakti Yoga (one of the four Yogas) is a religious practice to attain Divine Being through
devotional love. Feeling devotional love would be at Renscendent experience, as The Bhagavacl
Gita says: "I love you well, I will tell you what's in your best interest. Keep me in your mind,
love me and worship me. Sacrifice to me and prostrate yourself before me. I promise you this, in
all sincerity, for you are clear to me. Give up thinking in terms of laws. Turn to me and make
me your only refuge. I will deliver you from all evil, so have no fear of all evil, have no worries"
(Gita, XVIII. 64). Kama, as a Sanskrit noun, denotes the mystical experience within the sphere
of love and sex on a divine basis. In The Atharva-Veda, love-life means family and married life.
The principle and original aim of this doctrine is to make this love-life a success, and to produce
a happy and harmonious family--an ideal relationship between a husband, his wife, and their
children denoted by phrases as "a love spell with a sweet herb"; "to secure a woman's love"; "to
command a woman's love"; "the incantation of the lover entering the girl's home by night"; "two
charms to win a woman's love"; and "to win and fix a man's love with a plan." For instance, in
the Hindu wedding ceremony, bride and groom are clad in festive garb and sit before a sacred
fire, emblem of the love and holiness into which they are entering. Gita describes godly love:
"He who hates no living creature; who is loving and compassionate, without selfishness and selfseeking, who holds pain and pleasure equally; who is patient, contented, always loyal, full of
self-control and steady determination; who fixes his mind and his reason on me and loves me; he
is dear to me" (Gita, XII. B, 14). There is a basic virtue for the Hindu monk--to abide pervading
the entire world by love, with great immeasurable freedom from hatred.
In general, love in Hinduism is for a divine purpose. The final end of life is relief from samsara
(rebirth), or transfer from the ordinary to the holy life. This liberation or transition combines
Atman (the self) with Brahman (the final supernatural being). Devotional love plays a
determinative role in the whole religious practice; family love, married love and all secular forms
of love are subordinate to the divine love or emotional love of God. Some Hindu romantic ideas
are of unadulterated enjoyment. But to be in love with Diving Being or a human being is to
expose oneself to many rejections. To an extent, the distinctive nature of Hinduism resides in the
caste system, and "love" is also defined in a hierarchical order, and is restricted by this social
structure.
"Universal Love" in Buddhism
Sakyamani (Buddha) criticized Hinduism, and emphasized religious equality and universal love.
Human life is dukkha (suffering, unhappiness, or dissatisfaction) which has two causes-ignorance and desire. Men are bound by three fetters: passion, hatred, and stupidity which could
be broken by wisdom and love (or compassion). Dhammapada (the Way of Righteousness)
discloses: "Never in this world appeased by hatred; it is only appeased by love--this is an eternal
law." (3-5, 201). Only by love, the Way of Righteousness is convinced, will hatred cease.
Majjhirna-hikaya (Middle Collection) states: "if someone curses you, you must repress all
resentment, and make the firm determination that my mind shall not be disturbed, no angry work
shall escape my lips, I shall remain kind and friendly, with loving thoughts and no secret spite; if
you are attacked with fists, stones, sticks, or swords, you must still repress all resentment and
preserve a loving mind with no secret spite." The purpose of Buddhism is to save people from
suffering life, to help them share enlightenment, and to purify those whose minds have been in
false views arising from hatred.
Buddha enthusiastically advocated a universal love, and did not approve of special love for
particular things; "Those who love nothing in the world are rich in joy and free from pain."
Individual love is no good, because it means a limitation of freedom from everyday life.
Buddhist inner perfection, purification self-realization, and finally salvation must be guided by
the principle of love. One of ten basic virtues that the Mahayana Bodhisattva practices during
his career is love.
In Buddhist view, "the joy of right love or the love of the good," and "love for Buddha-truth" are
two important principles. There should be some kind of consistency among love and selfconcentration, self-purification, or self-liberation. On the whole, compassion, sympathy, mercy,
and benevolence are "right kinds of love." For Buddha, the love his disciples cultivate for all
humankind must be universal, and different from the individual love--a very emotional,
prejudicial, narrowed or illusive love. Unreal love causes suffering and unhappiness; so real love
must be the outcome of an infinite withdrawal from ordinary life.
Non-universal love must be given up, for it is one of ten fetters and twelve Nidanas (the linked
chain of causes and effects) by which beings are bound to the wheel of existence. Unreal love
has same negative meaning as lust, thirst, avidity, and desire, and is interpreted as "coveting and
defiling attachment," and is also defined as a love toward wife and children, or a love toward
one's teachers and elders. This love is the illusion, falseness or unreality of desire, the root of
desire, which produces the passions. A personal loving heart is a mind dominated by desire; it is
drowned in the ocean of desire, or is born in the fire of desire, or put in prison of desire; from the
seed of desire, would get the fruit of desire and attachment--suffering. One of eight sufferings is
of being separated from those whom one loves. Unreal love is just like poison, which harms
devotion to Buddha. Karma of love that follows desire forces human being into the bondage of
rebirth by love of life. When dying, the illusion of attachment fertilizes the seed of future
Karma, producing the fruit of further suffering. Unreal love is a cocoon of desire spun about
beings, or a wheel of desire which turns men into the some paths of transmigration. In Buddhist
stories, the demon of love, as a personified evil power, controls human motives, intentions and
behaviors.
The transition from an everyday to an enlightened life is the transition from non-universal to
universal love, and only universal love can help human being achieve enlightenment; even the
Bodhisattvas (Mahayana saviors) achieve nirvana only through universal love. Universal love
comes from the merciful light and the over-spreading cloud of the Buddha's compassion, which
means with compassion all things succeed. Bodhisattvas are asked to apply universal love as
water nourishes life. The Buddha had a former incarnation king of merciful power (Maitribalaraja)--during which, as all his people had embraced the vegetarian life, Yaksas (wild demonic
beings who are hostages of people) had no food and were suffering; the king fed five of them his
own blood. Avalokiteshvara is the power of the Buddha, appears as his helper and embodies one
of the two fundamental aspects of Buddhahood--universal love (mahakaruna), and helps all
beings through his limitless love, such as protecting from natural disasters and grants blessings to
children. Interestingly enough, Avalokitashvara switched from a male in India to a female figure
in China and Japan, becoming the Goddess of Mercy with the Chinese name Guan-Yin and the
Japanese name Kannon; perhaps because the mother's love is boundless and unconditional.
Indeed, in the Far East, the Goddess of Mercy--the universal mother, is almost a household word
to everybody, as an incarnation and embodiment of universal love.
"Natural Love" in Daoism
The purpose of Lao Zi's Daoism is to emphasize a balance or harmony between Dao (the Way,
Final Being, or Ultimate Power), De (Universal Virtue, Supreme Moral Power or Function from
Dao), Wanwu (Natural Being or All Things), and Ren (Human Being). De is an infinite chain
that links the final being, natural being and human being. De includes six "sub-moral powers":
Ci (the great love, sympathy or compassion), Pu ("uncovered wood" or the great simplicity),
Ming (the great brightness or enlightenment), Zhi (the great wisdom or intelligence), Wang (the
great transcendence or forgetfulness), and Wuwei (the great creative quietude, actionless action
or doing-in-non-doing). Ci-great love--is the most basic of six, as Lao Zi says: "There are three
basic precious treasures that I would preserve forever: The first is love (Ci). The second is
frugality. The third is humility. Love creates courage...Love can win when fighting, and also
can defend a position strongly. Heaven would save those who have love." (Ch. 67)
Love-naturism and Pan-lovingness are two characteristics of Lao Zi's theory of love. For Lao Zi,
"The way of Heaven does not have unequal love." (Ch. 79). Unlike human beings, nature loves
all things (Wanwu); unlike ordinary people, the sage loves all people. The person who has this
great love unselfishly saves or helps others. In contrast, if a person's love is for material interests
and reputation, he will waste energy and time. Politically, the ruler should "love the people and
govern the state without knowing." (Ch. 10). Self-love is recognized, but it must be combined
with "universal love"; "if one loves all people as he loves himself, he could be entrusted to rule
the world." (Ch. 13)
Zhuang Zi, the second founder of Daoism, reconstructed theory of love in a more complete way.
He supported Lao Zi's theory illustrated by such expression as "loving all things without
favorites," (Zhuang Zi Ch. 33) and "favorable love is caused by the destruction of Dao." He also
advocated the following viewpoints:
1. Love-mysticism. Zhuang Zi, following Lao Zi's point "loving the people and governing the
state without knowing," emphasizes "loving without knowing" (Ch. 12). In an ideal society, all
people love each other without knowing what love means. By knowing more, one would be
involved in more empirical material interests and physical enjoyment. Supreme love is to love
the Way of Heaven that is the final father of all things and all human beings, and will be realized
through mystical feeling and communication with Dao. In the final analysis, Dao of love is an
integration and balance of Yin and Yang--two cosmic and universal forces.
2. Love-relativism. In Zhuang Zi's view, anything finally is a kind of transformation of Dao.
There are various transformations and interactions between Heaven-Dao, Holy-Dao, SpiritualDao, Material-Dao and Human-Dao and other general or concrete Daos. There is not any
absolute standard for these Daos, and also not any absolute standard to judge the Dao of love.
For example, if the head of a gang of robbers guesses that there are treasures in a house, it is
'intelligence"; if he then gets inside first, it is "courage"; if he gets out last, it is "righteousness";
later, if he distributes the booty fairly, it is "love." Ironically, any great robbers might have the
five "virtues." Similarly, tigers and wolves really have "love," because their family members
love each other. So the standards of love are really relative, depending on time, place and actual
situations.
3. Love-nihilism. Zhuang Zi emphasized a tRenscendent point about love, and assumed that
serf-purification is "sitting and doing forgetfulness." Most human love actually is not real love.
Those ancient saints or sages had absolute freedom without the heavy burden of love, and
purified themselves without regard to love. In many cases, to love people is a starting point for
harming them, and also the destruction of the lover's own nature.
4. Love-criticism. Zhuang Zi's love is based on anti-Confucianism. He criticized Confucius'
Ren (love), and defined Ren in a different way. Ren is following the nature of human being and
things with impartial love. However, Ren is against nature, and destroys human nature. Good
human nature occurs through a natural way, not the artificial moral teachings of Ren. Ren is a lie
and a spiritual tool for the rulers. For example, a thief is executed just for stealing little things,
but those who "steal" the whole country are titled princes with the name of Ren.
"Humanistic Love" in Confucianism
Unlike Hinduism, Buddhism and Daoism, Confucianism emphasized human affairs and 'this life"
other than God, gods and "after life." For Confucius, Ren is a central concept and starting point
in his thought. Ren can be translated as love, goodness, heartedfulness, or humanness.
Confucian love is much more active, particular and concrete than Hindu, Buddhist and Daoist
love. To some extent, Ren is the determinative principle for the harmony, balance, and
equilibrium among human being. Analects says: "only the truly virtuous (Ren) know what to
love or hate in others" (IV. 3); "Ren (Human-heartedness) is to love everyone." (XII. 22).
Everyone should play a certain "love" role in social relationships or human interactions. Love is
a duty, a virtue, a moral conduct, a rational choice, and a social responsibility. Confucius' social
ideal is to transform an ordinary man into a superior man, who is called "Jun-Zi" (Superior Man,
True Manhood or Man-at-His-Best). Love is one of five basic virtues for Jun Zi. Only from Ren,
can Jun-Zi, as a possible member of the ruling class, handle the arts of peace (Wen), the golden
mean--correct decision making (Zhong Yong), rectification of names (Zheng Ming) and rule by
virtue or the arts of governing (Ren Zheng or De Zhi).
Ren is also the fundamental standard for five basic social relationships: 1) love between ruler and
people through Ai-Min (loving the people) and Zhong-Jun (being loyal to the rulers); 2) love
between parents and children through Ai-Zi (loving the children) and Xiao-Jing (respecting the
parents by filial piety); 3) love between elder and younger brothers through Ai-Di (loving the
younger brother) and Zun-Xiong (respecting the elder brother); 4) love between husband and
wife through En-Ai (conjugal or affectionate love in a couple) and also through Yang-Qi (taking
care the wife) and Cong-Fu (keeping chastity for husband); 5) love between friends and even
strangers through Yi-Qi (righteousness, friendship or brotherhood). Besides, love between the
master (the teacher) and the disciple (the student) through Ai-Sheng (loving the student) and
Zun-Shi (respecting the teacher) is also very important. Ren (love) is a combination of special
and all-around virtue, or a combination of individual and universal love. Ren is general and
universal, such as "all men are brothers", and also specific and concrete. Love may be classified
and defined through different standards: some kinds of love are more fundamental, significant,
and emphatic than others.
Mencius, as a Confucian thinker, says: "He who loves others is constantly loved by them"
(Mencius, 4b28). Ren is the core of good human nature. Although human nature is good
originally, it can become evil through bad influence; "All men have a mind which cannot bear (to
see the suffering of) others...if now men suddenly see a child about to fall into a well, they will
without exception experience a feeling of alarm and distress...the feeling of commiseration...Let
them (all men) have their complete development, and they will suffice to protect all within the
four seas. If they are denied that development, they will not suffice even to serve one's parents."
(2A6). "The rule by love" is an ideal political system; so a good ruler must be virtuous and
practice humanness to people. If a ruler adopted "the rule by force", he would lose his people's
heartfelt support, and would be destroyed by the people.
Later, neo-Confucianism continued to reconstruct the theory of love for new social needs. Ren is
identified and also unified with love, but it, as a measurement or judgement of love, is variable in
an actual context through a rational approach. According to Zhu Xi (the most important neoConfucian thinker), Ren is a kind of rational love, but love, a kind of emotional Ren; it is the
rational basis of love, but love could be expressed by the individual's passion, feeling or
intuition. Zhang Zai, a neo-Confucian scholar, discussed Ren or love on a more cosmic or
metaphysical basis, not only confining it to the concrete social life. Cheng Hao, another neoConfucian scholar, asserted that the meaning of Ren is that one feels a oneness with the whole
universe and all other virtues as parts of Ren--righteousness, decency, wisdom and honesty.
Therefore, universal love is a prerequisite for sagehood. In general, neo-Confucianism examined
love through a more cosmic, universal and rational perspective, and some of them also explained
love for actual socio-political needs and preserving the moral order.
"All-embracing Love" in Moism
Mo Zi, the founder of Moism--a non-Confucian school after Confucius, criticized Confucius'
theory of love profoundly. Mo Zi also considered Ren and Yi (brotherly love, friendship or
righteousness) central concepts, but recognized them as an all-embracing or universal love. For
him, to follow Ren and Yi is to practice all-embracing love which is a mutual love based on
social equality without discrimination, and not determined by any difference between
individuals, families, groups, classes, races, religions, professions, or nations.
Accordingly, the father loves himself, and does not love his son, therefore wronging his son, and
seeking his own advantage. This kind of problem could similarly occur between brothers,
couples, strangers, and any other social relationships; it can even explain the reasons of crimes.
For example, the thief loves his own house, and does not love his neighbor's; he therefore steals
from his neighbor's house to benefit his own. The robber loves his own person, and does not
love his neighbor: he therefore assaults his neighbor to benefit himself. Politically, the greater
officer loves his own family not his neighbor's; he therefore throws the neighbor's family into
disorder to benefit his own. The prince loves his own state, and does not love his neighbor's;
therefore he attacks his neighbor's state to benefit his own. The final cause of all social disorder
is a lack of mutual love. Suppose mutual love prevailed throughout the country and men loved
others as they loved themselves. Would there be those who were unkind? Universal mutual love
will lend to a countries happy order and social harmony. So "We must above all inculcate the
love of others." (Mo Zi, Ch.2).
All-embracing love is beneficial to all social members. In order to overcome conflicts,
problems, crises and other socio-political troubles, the law of all-embracing love by the
interchange of mutual benefit must be followed. If one loves others, he will garner benefits; if
one hates others, he will garner troubles. People always return love and benefit, or hatred and
trouble, to each other. One who loves others will be loved, and one who hates others will be
hated; so an ancient poem can give important advice: "Every word finds its answer; every action
its recompense. He threw me a peach; I return him a plum."
Mo Zi believed that all-embracing love is advantageous and easily practiced. The only reason it
is not practiced is that superiors or rulers do not take pleasure in it. If they encourage it by
rewards and praise, and deter those against it by punishment and fines, people would move
toward it. All-embracing love is the way of the sage kings, the principle to secure peace for
rulers and politicians, and also food and clothes for the myriad people. According to Mo Zi's
love-utilitarianism, all-embracing love can provide benefits or utilities to more people and even
the whole society, and establish a happy, harmonious order in the long run.
For Moists, all purposes aim at obtaining benefit and avoiding harm. When one cuts a finger in
order to preserve a hand, this is to choose the greater benefit and the lesser harm. If on meeting a
robber, one loses a finger so as to save one's life, this is a benefit. To love men means to love all
men, and not to have all-embracing love is not to love men; otherwise, one cannot consider
oneself as a loving man. "When riding a horse, one need not ride all horses in order to regard
oneself as riding a horse. For, if one rides only a few horses, one is still riding horses. But when
not riding horses, one must ride no horse at all in order to regard oneself as not riding horses.
This is the difference between all-inclusiveness (in the case of loving men) and the absence of
all-inclusiveness (in the case of riding horses)." (Mo Zi, Ch.44). This is a typical Moist
reasoning for "all-embracing love." 2
Conclusion
The dimensions of Eastern love have been expanded by the tendency of Westernization and
modernization, further creating a new basis for cultural differentiation from most Eastern
countries. First, capitalization, industrialization, urbanization, bureacraticalization, democratization, human rights, freedom and rule by law, and other social progress or development have
established a Westernized value system of love. Second, revolutions, mass movements, political
and economic reforms, racial and class conflicts, increasing population and poverty,
environmental pollution, and other social changes or crises have demanded a suitable new value
system of love. Third, the traditional value system needs to attract the younger generation, and
to reform and reconstruct new interpretations and explanations of love. For these reasons, some
kind of Westernization of traditional Eastern love, or of Eastemization of Western love will be
realized in modern Eastern countries.
Notes
1. Mahayana and the Theravada (Hinayana) have different emphases on love. The former
stresses universal love to save more people from suffering, but the latter emphasizes self-love in
order to purify oneself and attain personal enlightenment.
2. Mencius found the fundamental difference between Confucius' and Mo Zi's love, and
criticized Mo Zi by the following: 1) All-embracing love aims to benefit others, and also oneself;
but even mutual benefit is too material to be involved in the moral life. 2) It does not recognize
classifications of love, such as self-love, family love, and patriotic love. So there will not be any
loyalty, filial piety, fraternal piety, and chastity; but one should love his son, family, hometown,
and country much more than others.
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