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Citation:
Jianbo, Luo & Xiaomin, Zhang, "China’s African Policy and its Soft Power",
in AntePodium, Victoria University of Wellington, 2009
China’s African Policy and its Soft Power
Luo Jianbo & Zhang Xiaomin①
Abstract
Africa is an important stage for China to enhance its soft power. The
persistent development of the friendly Sino-African relationship has constituted a
touchstone of China’s national image and its international responsibility in the new
era. China’s soft power in Africa mainly lies in the following areas: Chinese foreign
aid has gained political support from many African countries; Chinese cultural
influence is increasing gradually in African countries; China’s development mode is
increasingly favored by most African countries; the Sino-African multilateral
cooperation mechanism has promoted the development of a friendly Sino-African
relationship. However, trade frictions and value differences between China and some
African countries cast shadows on Sino-African relations to some degree. What is
more, the negative evaluation of China’s African policy in western countries has done
great harm to China’s national image. Therefore, it is high time to take measures to
optimize and improve China’s reputation and image in Africa.
Keywords:
①
China
Africa
Soft power
National image
Development mode
Luo Jianbo, Associate Professor of the Institute for International Strategic Studies, Central Party School of the
Communist Party of China. (罗建波：中共中央党校战略研究所副研究员) His research focuses on China’s
African policy and China’s national image.
Email: jianboluo@yahoo.cn
Zhang Xiaomin, Associate Professor of the School of International Studies and Diplomacy, Beijing Foreign
Studies University. (张效民：北京外国语大学国际关系学院博士) His research focuses on diplomacy and
China’s foreign policy.
Email: zhangxm95@126.com
1
The rising of a country means the rising of its comprehensive power, among
which soft power stands equal to hard power.① During the course of China’s peaceful
rising, soft power is directly related to the protection and expansion of China’s
national interest overseas. It also determines in some way and to what degree a rising
China can be accepted and recognized by the international community. In recent years,
Africa has become an important stage for China to enhance its soft power and shape
its national image. The continuing development of friendly Sino-African relations and
its worldwide influence have served as a touchstone of China’s soft power in the new
era. Therefore, it meets the urgent demand of China’s foreign strategy to analyze the
achievements attained and problems still existing concerning the buildup of China’s
soft power and expansion of China’s influence in Africa.
I. China’s foreign aid to Africa：a profound foundation for building up
China’s soft power
For over half a century, China and Africa have maintained a close historical
friendship. During the period of African national liberation movements, China upheld
the banner of support for African people’s national independence movements and
stood together with African countries to fight against imperialism, colonialism,
hegemonism and racism. When Africa experienced a wave of national independence
movements in the 1960s, Mao Zedong frequently received friends and organizations
from Asia, Africa and Latin America, proclaiming China’s “sincere sympathy and
entire support for African people’s fight against imperialism and colonialism”. ②
During visits to African countries from December 1963 to February 1964, Premier
Zhou Enlai brought forward the “Five Principles” of developing relations with
African countries and Arabian countries as well as the “Eight Principles” of economic
and technological aid, which designated clearly China’s political stance towards
African countries and marked the formation of China’s African policy.③ From 1956 to
Zhang Xiaomin & Luo Jianbo, “Evaluation of China’s Soft Power and Roadmap of Its Development”,
International Forum, Vol.10, No.5, 2008, pp.24-29.（张效民，罗建波：
《中国软实力的评估与发展路径》
，载
《国际论坛》2008 年第 5 期，第 24-29 页。
）
②
Xie Yixian ed., Diplomatic History of China: 1949-1979, Henan Renmin Press (Henan, 1988), pp. 306-307. (谢
益显：
《中国外交史：1949－1979》
，河南人民出版社，第 306－307 页)
③
The “Five Principles” are: 1. Support the fight of African and Arabian countries against imperialism and
colonialism to gain and maintain national independence; 2. Support the policy of African and Arabian countries of
peace, neutrality and nonalignment in international affairs. 3. Support African and Arabian countries to realize
unification and solidarity in their own ways. 4. Support African and Arabian countries to settle disputes and
conflicts between each other through peaceful consultations. 5. Oppose any foreign interference in the internal
affairs of African and Arabian countries. The eight principles are: 1. The Chinese government always bases itself
on the principle of equality and mutual benefit in providing aid to other countries. It never regards such aid as a
kind of unilateral almsgiving but as something mutual; 2. In providing aid to other countries, the Chinese
government strictly respects the sovereignty of the recipient countries and never attaches any conditions or asks for
any privileges; 3. The Chinese government provides economic aid in the form of interest-free or low-interest loans
and extends the time limit for repayment when necessary so as to lighten the burden of the recipient countries as
far as possible; 4. In providing aid to other countries, the purpose of the Chinese government is not to make the
recipient countries dependent on China but to help them embark step by step on the road to self-reliance and
independent economic development; 5. The Chinese government endeavors to help the recipient countries build
projects which require low investment but yield quick results, so that the recipient governments may increase their
income and accumulate capital; 6. The Chinese government provides the best-quality equipment and materials of
its own manufacture at international market prices. If the equipment and material provided by the /Chinese
①
2
1977, China, despite its own great economic plight, offered economic aid amounting
to $2.476 billion to Africa countries, which accounted for 58% of China’s total
foreign aid.① What is mentioned most often is the 1,860 km long Tanzania-Zambia
railroad built by China in six years, which constituted great support for southern
African countries’ national independence and liberation movements. This manifested
successfully China’s will and ability to help African countries, expanded China’s
influence in the African continent and improved China’s position and prestige both in
the Third World and in the international society.
Since the 1980s, most African countries no longer struggle for national
independence, and the tasks of anti-imperialism, anti-colonialism and anti-racism
have given way to economic development. Around this time, China also introduced a
new policy of reform and opening-up, pronouncing economic construction the most
important work hereafter.② Under these circumstances, China’s assistance to Africa
mainly aims at helping African countries to realize political stability and economic
development, which takes a number of forms such as more investments in Africa,
personnel training, timely humanitarian assistance to some countries and writing off
in its power debt owed by those heavily-indebted countries.③ As the statistics indicate,
since the first Ministerial Conference of the Forum on China-Africa Cooperation
(FOCAC) in 2000, China has canceled debt totaling 10.9 billion Yuan (US$1.4 billion)
owed by the heavily indebted poor countries and the least developed countries in
Africa that have diplomatic relations with China. At present, China is fulfilling its
pledge of canceling debt of another 10 billion yuan owed by some African countries.④
The above facts provide evidence that China is determined to help African countries
to realize their common development. The essence of friendly Sino-African relations,
“mutual help” and “win-win”, lay not only in helping and supporting each other on
the world stage but more importantly, win-win cooperation for economic and social
development lays a solid foundation for furthering development of future relations. At
the Beijing Summit of FOCAC in 2006, China and African countries pledged to
establish a “new type of Sino-African Strategic partnership” on the basis of “political
equality, mutual trust, economic cooperation, win-win, and cultural exchanges.”⑤
government are not up to the agreed specifications and quality, the Chinese government undertakes to replace them;
7. In giving any particular technical assistance, the Chinese government will see to it that the personnel of the
recipient country fully master such techniques; 8. The experts dispatched by the Chinese government to help
construction in the recipient countries will enjoy the same standard of living as the experts of these countries. See
Lu Ting’en & Peng Kunyuan, General History of Africa: Modern Times, Huadong Normal University Press
(Shanghai, 1995), pp. 675-676. (陆庭恩，彭坤元：
《非洲通史·现代卷》
，上海：华东师范大学出版社 1995
年版，第 675-676 页)
①
Li Anshan, “On the Adjustment and Transformation of China's Africa Policy”, West Asia and Africa,
Vol. 8, 2006, pp. 11-20. （李安山：
《中国对非政策的调适与转变》
，
《西亚非洲》
，2006 年第 8 期，第 11－20
页）
②
China decided to concentrate on economic development at the Third Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central
Committee of the Chinese Communist Party held in December 1978. See The Chinese Society of International
Relations ed., History of International Relations, 1980-1989, Vol. 11, World Affairs Press (Beijing, 2004), pp.
414-415. （中国国际关系学会主编：
《国际关系史·第十一卷（1980-1989）
》世界知识出版社 2004 年版，
第 414-415 页）
③
Luo Jianbo & Liu Hongwu, “On the Historical Evolvement of China’s Aid towards Africa and Its Significance”,
West Asia and Africa, No.11, 2007, pp.25-30.（罗建波，刘鸿武：
《论中国对非洲援助的阶段性演变及意义》
，
载《西亚非洲》2007 年第 11 期，第 25-30 页。
）
④
“Speech by Wen Jiabao at the Annual Board Meeting of African Bank in 2007”, People Daily, May 5th, 2007.
⑤
“The Sino- African Cooperative Forum Beijing Declaration”, People Daily, November, 6, 2006.
3
We think that China’s Africa foreign policy is characterized by “equality, respect
and goodwill”. Since establishing diplomatic ties with African countries, China has
been adhering to the principle of “equal sovereignty” and “non-interference of the
internal affairs”.① China endeavors to establish partnerships with all African countries
except those who maintain “diplomatic ties” with Taiwan. On the contrary, some
western countries maintain diplomatic ties with African countries through choice.
Take France for example, it mainly maintains relations with those countries where
French is spoken. Not like western countries that offer aid to Africa with rigorous
political and economic terms,② China’s aid, without any political or economic terms,
aims at promoting the development of African countries and consolidating
Sino-African friendly cooperation. Moreover, China never poses as an almsgiver. It
tries to avoid words like “donor”, “aid receiver”, “poverty” and “backwardness” as far
as Africa is concerned. Instead, China emphasizes “solidarity, mutual help, equality,
mutual benefit and common development” in the course of cooperation,③ which
constitutes a remarkable difference from western countries.④
Because the above-mentioned policies led to China having greater sincerity and
credit standing in Africa, China has gained African countries’ recognition and support
for over half a century. They reciprocated China’s political support and assistance. In
1971, 76 countries voted for China’s resumption of its legal seat in the UN, of which
26 were African countries. Chairman Mao vividly pointed out, “It was the African
people who carried China in the UN.”⑤ After the “Tiananmen Incident” in 1989,
African countries stood firmly on side with the Chinese government despite western
pressure. Nine leaders of African countries visited China that year, which played a key
role in helping China smash sanctions and isolation by western countries. African
countries also support China’s stance at human rights conferences. Since 1990, with
the help of African countries, China has frustrated consecutively for 11 times the
human rights motions against China initiated by America and some European
countries at the UN Human Rights Commission. Most of these motions condemned
In 1953, the Chinese government put forward the “Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence” to handle relations
among nations, namely, mutual respect for sovereignty and territorial integrity, mutual non-aggression,
non-interference in each other's internal affairs, equality and mutual benefit and peaceful co-existence In 1956,
China established diplomatic relations with Egypt and began to apply the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence
to its relations with African countries. See, Xie Yixian ed., Diplomatic History of China: 1949-1979, Henan
Renmin Press (Henan, 1988), pp. 306-307. (谢益显：
《中国外交史：1949－1979》
，河南人民出版社，第 306
－307 页)
②
For instance, the American government established Millennium Challenge Account (MCA) to encourage the
African countries to realize good governance through providing economic assistance. The African countries must
meet the criterion set by the MCA to get the aid, namely, the level of good government, political freedom of the
people, freedom of national economy, level of social development and health care and so on. Till August 2007, the
MCA selected 17 developing countries in the world which were badly in need of aid, and among them 7 were
African countries.
③
In January 2006, the Chinese government issued “Documents of China’s Africa Policy” which stressed that one
of China’s overall objectives of China’s Africa policy was “mutual benefit and common prosperity. To achieve that
goal, the Chinese government pledged “to support African countries to develop their economy and build their own
nations, to carry out various forms of cooperation in the field of economy, trade and social development and to
promote the common development”. See “Documents of China’s Africa Policy”, People Daily, January 13, 2006.
④
For example, the DFID of Britain describes Ethiopia as one of the poorest countries in the world. Among its
77million people, over 60 million (81%) live below a poverty line of $2 a day. See
http://www.dfid.gov.uk/countries/africa/ethiopia.asp
Another one is Kenya. Kenya is one of the poorest countries in Africa. About 55% of people live below the
poverty line. See http://www.dfid.gov.uk/countries/africa/kenya.asp
⑤
Fu Hao & Li Tongcheng, ed. Diplomats in the UN, China Hua Chiao Press (Beijing, 1995), p.9.
①
4
China for its lack of political democracy, lack of safeguard for human rights, violation
of rights and interests of minorities and Tibet and Xinjiang issues. For example, on the
pretext of lacking human rights in Tibet, America and some other western countries
submitted a motion of “Situation in Tibet” to the UN Human Rights Commission in
1992.① Concerning the Taiwan issue, most African countries stick firmly to the “one
China” principle.
II. Cultural influence: manifestation of China’s soft power in Africa.
Cultural influence abroad comprises a very important part of soft power and a
significant manifestation of it as well. A big country with a culture bearing the marks
of amicability and friendliness can exert certain influence on other countries’ cultures
or even influence on the progress of humankind. Cultural exchange with other
countries is an effective way to build up a country’s national image and step up its soft
power.②
After the 1950s when China and African countries established diplomatic ties,
culture played a very important role in promoting Sino-African relations. Up until the
present time, China has entered into 65 cultural agreements and signed over 150
implementing plans of those agreements with African countries; more than 50 official
cultural delegations and 170 various art groups have paid visits to Africa countries.③
Under the framework of FOCAC, China reinforced its cultural diplomacy in Africa. In
2004, China held an activity titled “Chinese Culture in Africa”, which involved
organizing four art groups to perform and three art exhibitions to be displayed in
African countries. This activity promoted Chinese culture and did a lot to enhance its
appeal to African countries. In the new century, China began to establish Confucius
Institutes in some African countries to promote the spread of Chinese culture. In
August 2005, the first Confucius Institute in Africa was founded in Nairobi, the
capital of Kenya. Already 21 Confucius Institutes (including Confucius Classes) have
been established in 14 African countries. In April 2006, when visiting Kenya,
Chairman Hu Jintao met with teachers and students of Nairobi Confucius Institute and
encouraged them to study hard and contribute to the development of the Sino-Kenyan
friendship.④
Idea innovation is another manifestation of the charm of Chinese culture. To
enhance soft power and shape a good national image, a nation should put forward
values and political ideas conforming to the tide of the era, and hold its own
Wu Jianmin, “Memorable Days of Fight Concerning Issues of Human Rights in Geneva,”, Guangming Daily,
March 13,2008. (吴建民：
《日内瓦人权战的难忘岁月》
，载《光明日报》2008 年 3 月 13 日)
②
Luo Jianbo, “Building China’s Foreign Cultural Strategy in Its Peaceful Rise”, Contemporary International
Relations, No.3, 2006, pp.27-32.（罗建波：
《构建中国崛起的对外文化战略》
，载《现代国际关系》2006 年第
3 期，第 27-32 页。
）
③
“Cultural Exchanges Promote Sino-African Friendship”, People Daily, August 8, 2006. （
《文化交流促进中非
友谊》
，
《人民日报》
，2006 年 8 月 8 日）
④
“Great Achievements in Sino-African Educational Cooperation and Exchange”, People Daily, February 8, 2009.
(《同育硕果 共谱华章——中非教育合作交流成就喜人》，载《人民日报》2009 年 2 月 8 日)
①
5
viewpoints concerning international peace, development and the common interest of
all humankind. At the Bandung Conference in 1955, the principle of seeking common
points while reserving difference and reaching agreement through consultation
advocated by Zhou Enlai was acclaimed by most African delegates. The notions of
Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence, establishing a new international political and
economic order, and promoting the multipolarization of the world were welcomed by
the African countries. At present, the notions of “peaceful rising”① and “harmonious
world”,② which were welcomed by the African countries at the Beijing Summit of
FOCAC in 2006, can best illustrate China’s innovation in ideas.③ Just as the Chinese
government says, China will fulfill its development in a peaceful way and at the same
time promote the long-lasting peace and common development of the whole world.④
This is a pledge made by the Chinese government to the world.
III. The effect of development mode as an example: a key factor to step up
China’s soft power in Africa
China has entered a phase of fast development, great progress and most profound
change since introducing the policy of reform and opening-up. With social stability
and continuing economic development, China has achieved much in the process of
modernization. In a country with a population larger than that of the total of America,
Japan, Russia and all of Europe, those world-shaking changes are impressive and
eye-catching. In some countries of Latin America, East Europe and African counties
that practice the “Washington Consensus”, they have experienced to some degree
economic depression and a sharp decline in living standards. For example, in the
1980s, most African countries put into practice the “Economic Restructuring Plan”
advocated by the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund, but unfortunately
in many countries the economy went from bad to worse. It was estimated by the
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development that the Restructuring Plan for Africa at
least lowered 10% of Africa’s development. The WB and IMF also had to admit that
the plan did not work as expected. ⑤ Contrary to this, China’s economy has
maintained an extremely fast growth over the past 30 years.
The success of China’s development model lies in its step-by-step reform instead
In 2005, the Chinese government published “the White Book of China’s Peaceful Development”, pledging that
China will achieve its own development in accordance to the principle of peace, cooperation and win-win, and on
such a basis, further promote the world peace and development. The News Press Office of P. R. C., “The White
Book of China’s Peaceful Development”, December 2005.
②
On September 15th, 2005, Chairman Hu Jiaotao illustrated across-the-board the idea of “Harmonious World” at
the Summit Meeting of the 60th anniversary of the UN, namely, advocating multilateralism and principle of mutual
benefits and cooperation to promote the long-lasting peace and common prosperity of the whole world. See
“Endeavor to Build a world of Long-lasting Peace and Common Prosperity”, People Daily, September 16, 2006.
(《努力建设持久和平、共同繁荣的和谐世界》
，载《人民日报》2006 年 9 月 16 日)
③
Leaders of China and Africa unanimously acknowledge that the important objective of the new type of strategic
partnership is to promote the long-lasting peace and common prosperity of the whole world. See “The SinoAfrican Cooperative Forum Beijing Declaration”, People Daily, November, 6, 2006. (《中非合作论坛北京峰会宣
言》
，载《人民日报》2006 年 11 月 6 日)
④
The News Press Office of P. R. C., “The White Book of China’s Peaceful Development”, December 2005.
⑤
Timothy Murithi, The African Union: Pan-Africanism, Peacebuilding and Development, Ashgate Publishing
Limited, 2005, P.4.
①
6
of “shock therapy” and properly handling relations between stability, reform and
development.① This model first and foremost endeavors to meet people’s most urgent
demands, namely, poverty alleviation. China has gained outstanding success in this
field. According to statistics by the Chinese government, the rural population in
absolute poverty in China has reduced from 250 million in 1978 to 14.79 million in
2007, which accounted for 55% of the population alleviated from poverty throughout
the whole world and 75% of that of the developing countries. China achieved the
United Nations Millennium Development Goal of reducing half of the population in
poverty ahead of time.② Put another way, without China’s outstanding achievements,
the work of poverty alleviation throughout the entire world would be far less
significant. Therefore, China’s experience carries far-reaching significance in the
world. African leaders attended the Beijing Summit not only for aid and trade
opportunities, but also to learn more about China’s development model. For they
know that China was as poor as Malawi 30 years ago and now China’s economy has
enlarged 9 times while Malawi still remains one of the least developing countries in
the world.
In recent years, in order to help other developing countries explore a way
suitable for their own development, China has enhanced human resource development
and personnel training. As early as 2000, an “African human resource development
foundation” was set up at the FOCAC.③ Under this framework, China has trained
about 20,000 technicians and administration personnel for African countries. The
Chinese government also actively advocated some international seminars to exchange
experiences with other developing countries in economic development and poverty
alleviation. In May 2007, at the annual conference of the African Development Bank
Council held in Shanghai, questions like African infrastructure construction,
enterprise capability construction, debt management and poverty alleviation were
discussed.④ That is another significant action taken by China to promote exchange
and cooperation with African countries in aspects of development experience and
state affairs management. After the Beijing Summit of FOCAC Thabo Mbeki, former
president of South Africa wrote an article titled “At the Heavenly Gate in Beijing
hope is born” highly praising China’s “Great achievements in development” and its
practical significance to Africa’s development.⑤ The World Bank also acknowledged,
“China’s efforts created immediate opportunities for the economy of other developing
countries as well as chances for them to acquire abundant knowledge and experience
from China in regard to their own development.”⑥
①
Yu Keping ed., China Model and Beijing Consensus: Surpass Washington Consensus, Social Sciences Academic
Press (Beijing, 2006), pp. 409-434. (俞可平 主编：
《中国模式与“北京共识”
：超越“华盛顿共识”
》
，北京：
社会科学文献出版社，2006 年版，第 409～434 页)
②
“China is an Important Practicer of Poverty Alleviation among the World”, People Daily, September 2, 2008.
(《中国是全球减贫事业的重要实践者》
，载《人民日报》2008 年 9 月 2 日)
③
“The Creed of Sino-African Cooperation in Economy and Social Development, (《中非经济和社会发展合作纲
领》), http://www.gov.cn/ztzl/zflt/content_428691.htm
④
“ The Annual Meeting of African Bank in 2007 Opens in Shanghai”, Jiefang Daily, May 17, 2007. (《2007 年非
行年会在上海开幕》
，载《解放日报》2007 年 5 月 17 日).
⑤
Thabo Mbeki, “At the Heavenly Gate in Beijing hope is born!”,
http://www.anc.org.za/ancdocs/anctoday/2006/at44.htm
⑥
IBRD, China and the WB: Promote the Innovative Partnership, 2007, www.worldbank.org
7
IV. Multilateral cooperation mechanism: an effective way to step up China’s
soft power in Africa
In an age of global interdependence, international or regional multilateral
mechanisms constitute a platform for a nation to show its national image. This is an
efficient way to build up a country’s good image and improve its international
position and influence through active participation in the multilateral mechanism.
Since the policy of reform and opening-up, China has tried to enter the international
system and regional system and participate in international and regional affairs
through multilateral diplomacy. At the international level, China participates in a more
active and responsible way in the work of the United Nations Security Council
(UNSC) and promotes UN reform; it successfully entered the WTO and plays an
important role at present; and it attempts to constructively communicate with the
Group of Eight. At the regional level, it actively promotes APEC integrity; it
endeavors to propel the establishment and development of a China-ASEAN free trade
zone; it promotes the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO); and it has
successfully established an all-round strategic partnership with the EU.
Multilateralism has become an important strategy and form of diplomacy for
China, and the Chinese government seems to have realized that the practice of
multilateral diplomacy is an important way to deal with foreign relations. For instance,
China has begun to apply the multilateral cooperation mechanism to its foreign
relations with African countries and evidence shows this to be an efficient way to step
up its soft power in Africa. This mechanism is illustrated by the following examples:
- First, China and African countries initiated FOCAC, a new pattern of
cooperation which indicates China’s special position and responsibility as a big power.
With China’s active advocacy, the first Ministerial Conference of FOCAC was
successfully held in Beijing in October 2000, announcing the new cooperation pattern
of communication and multilateral consultation between China and African countries.
This clearly shows that China has successfully applied multilateral diplomacy to its
foreign relations with African countries. The Forum has convoked Ministerial
conferences three times. In 2006, the Beijing Summit of the third FOCAC was held.
Taking the FOCAC as a platform, China and African countries carried out substantial
dialogues and consultations in respect to establishing a just and reasonable
international political and economic order, so as to protect as much as possible the
common interests of developing countries and to further trade, culture and education
cooperation between the two sides. The Chinese government has firmly kept its
promise to cancel some debt owed by African countries in the stipulated time.
Furthermore, taking advantage of the framework, it has offered them tremendous
material and technological aid and trained lots of technicians. At the Beijing Summit,
China promised to help build the African Union (AU) Conference Center in order to
show its support for the unification and integrity of African countries. Just as Zhai Jun,
the assistant minister of the Foreign Ministry of China remarked when meeting with
Jean Ping, of the African Union Commission, the Chinese government would attach
8
great emphasis on the project of the African Union Conference Center and would
continue to support the efforts together made by the African countries to strengthen
themselves.①
- Second, under the UN framework, China in cooperation with the UN nations
supports peace and development of African countries in a responsible way. As the
only developing country of the five permanent members of the UNSC, China’s
responsibility lies first in protecting the interests of developing countries. Deng
Xiaoping had emphasized more than once, “China will belong to the Third World
forever and will stand side by side with the countries of the Third World
forever.” ② Africa has the densest amount of developing countries and the most
frequent armed clashes. To efficiently control the turbulence and clashes and create
conditions suitable to the development of African countries, China actively
participates in peace-keeping activities in Africa. As mentioned by Zhai Jun, the
assistant minister of the Foreign Ministry, till October 2007, China dispatched about
1300 soldiers in total to participate in 7 UN peace-keeping operations in Africa, which
contributed a lot to the peace and stability of Africa.③At present, China’s organic
peace-keeping force is mainly deployed in Africa, comprising an important part of the
UN peace-keeping mechanism in Africa. Notably, China dispatches more soldiers to
Africa than any other of the five permanent members of the UNSC.
V. Challenges to China’s soft power in Africa
Because of geographical distance and limited historical relations, there is still a
lack of cultural exchange between China and African countries. Most African people
know about western civilization and Islamic civilization much better than that of
Chinese civilization and this is predicted to be so for some time to come.④ There
remains little existence of Chinese culture in Africa. On the contrary, western media is
quite popular among people from African countries and through this media, western
value systems and ways of living infiltrate into African culture. Influenced by
European and American culture and public opinion, some Africans do not hold
favorable attitudes towards China’s fast development and reform, which results in
prejudice against and misunderstanding of China’s African policy. In this case, to
build up soft power in Africa, China needs to conduct cultural diplomacy, so Africans
can learn more about Chinese culture and build up a more favorable attitude. This will
play an important role in further developing friendly Sino-African relations as will
China’s attempts to learn more about and respect African culture.
“AU Committee Chairman Meets with the Envoy of Chinese Government”, People Daily, January. 30, 2009
(《非盟委员会主席会见中国政府特使》
，载《人民日报》2009 年 1 月 30 日).
②
“Deng Xiaoping: China Still Belongs to the Third World even when it becomes developed in the future”, People
Daily, June 22, 1986 (《邓小平：中国将来发展了仍属于第三世界》
，载《人民日报》1986 年 6 月 22 日).
③
Zhai Jun, “Promote the new style of Strategic Partnership between China and Africa” (翟隽：
《推进中非新型战
略伙伴关系》), http://www.gov.cn/jrzg/2007-11/04/content_795427.htm
④
Luo Jianbo, African Integration and Sino-African Relations, Social Sciences Academic Press (Beijing, 2006),
p.328.（罗建波：
《非洲一体化与中非关系》
，社科文献出版社 2006 年版，第 328 页。
）
①
9
China’s development mode to some degree is also questioned in Africa. Political
differences concerning democracy and human rights are becoming more and more
prominent. Since the 1990s, the practice of democratic reform and multi-party
elections has been prevalent in most African countries and their political and
economic systems have undergone great changes. These changes are different from
China’s political system and operation. Most of the new-generation of leaders of
African countries were educated in western countries, therefore, they identify a great
deal with the western notions of democracy, human rights, freedom, and good
governance. In the increasingly active African civil society, China’s political system
and foreign policy in Africa is criticized for ignoring democracy, human rights and
good governance, among which the most often cited concern is China’s close relations
with Sudan and Zimbabwe.①
These increasing frictions in Sino-African trade impacts the mutual benefits
brought forth by the economic and trade cooperation between the two sides. Since
1965, China had maintained a surplus position in the trade with African countries. In
the 1980s the trade imbalance got even worse. In 1987, China’s exports to Africa
amounted to 854 million dollars, which was 5.53 times the imports (China’s imports
from Africa only amounted to 155 million dollars).② In recent years, the Chinese
government has taken many measures to increase imports from Africa and the trade
imbalance between the two sides has been gradually relieved. In 2006, Sino-African
trade amounted to $55.5 billion and China’s trade deficit amounted to $2.1billion; in
2007, Sino-African trade amounted to $73.57 billion and China attained a favorable
balance of $1.01billion.③ Although the volume of trade between the two sides is
marching towards balance on the whole, China still maintains trade surplus to some
degree with most African countries apart from some energy exporters such as Angola,
Equatorial Guinea, Sudan, Libya, Mauritius, Gabon, Chad and Nigeria. Another
concern of African countries is that the mass flow of China’s cheap goods, especially
textile products, into African markets may impact the growth of their manufacturing
and lead to enterprise bankruptcy and unemployment. Countries including South
Africa and Egypt have begun to adopt anti-dumping measures against Chinese
products (especially textile products). For example, by the end of December 2007, the
South African authorities have initiated 41 anti-dumping investigations on Chinese
exports, 4 of which took place in 2007. South Africa is among those nations that most
frequently subject Chinese exports to anti-dumping investigations.④
Daniel Deng Bul, “Oil Exploration and Exploitation in Northern Upper Nile”, in Kwesi Kwaa Prah (ed.),
Afro-Chinese Relations: Past, Present and Future, SED Printing Solutions, Cape Town, 2007,pp.175-203. Ali
Askouri, “China’s Investment in Sudan: Displacing Villages and Destroying Communities”, in Firoze Manji &
Stephen Marks (eds.), African perspectives on China in Africa, Cape Town, Fahamu-Networks for Social Justice,
2007, pp.71-86.
②
Oxfam Hong Kong, “How to Promote Mutual Prosperity and Development between China and African
Countries through Chinese Aid, Trade, and Investment in Africa”, Paper presented at the meeting of “China’s
Footprint in Development Countries Research Sharing Workshop”, January 22-24, Hong Kong, YMCA
International House.
③
“Sino-AfricanTrade Amounts to $73.57 Billion in 2007” (中国海关：
《2007 年中非双边贸易规模突破 700 亿
美元，零关税待遇商品范围扩大成效显著》),
http://www.customs.gov.cn/publish/portal0/tab7841/module24699/info106309.htm
④
Ministry of Commerce of P.R.C, “Foreign Market Access Report 2008: South Africa”,
http://gpj.mofcom.gov.cn/accessory/200805/1210069164477.pdf
①
10
A lack of social responsibility on the part of some Chinese enterprises in Africa
damages China’s national image. First, some enterprises ignore production safety. The
Chinese government encourages enterprises to embark on resource development and
large-scale infrastructure construction in Africa. In recent years, Chinese enterprises
are increasingly undertaking large-scale projects in construction, mining and
chemicals, such as the investment in oil in Sudan by China Petroleum, copper mining
in Zambia by China Nonferrous Metals Industry Group Corporation and so on. These
are fields of great danger. What is more, some enterprises attach little attention to
production safety. This, as a result, leads to frequent accidents. On April 20, 2005, a
gas explosion at Chambishi copper mine in Zambia caused 50 deaths. This accident
caused great concern to the Zambian government, civil society and international
society and triggered a strike of the African employees and even a riot. The local labor
union imputed the accident to the Chinese investor’s carelessness, for the related
workers did not possess the relevant technical ability/training and were not prepared
or equipped to deal with dangerous materials. ① Second, Chinese enterprises are
criticized for not creating enough job positions. African countries are also unsatisfied
with the fact that in Africa the Chinese government and enterprises employ a large
number of Chinese laborers in China-invested items or items Chinese enterprises
successfully get bids for.② African countries and civil society groups critique Chinese
foreign investors for not helping them increase local employment and develop human
resources. Third, Chinese enterprises are criticized for bringing few benefits to local
communities. At the seminar of “Afro-Chinese Relations: Past, Present and Future”
held in South Africa in November 2005, Daniel Deng, the archbishop in Southern
Sudan, aired his grievance against issues of social responsibility of Chinese
enterprises in Southern Sudan. He urged that “the Chinese oil companies should
enhance protection of environment in Southern Sudan, increase communications with
local citizens, protect their interests and improve their lives.” ③ Fourth, Chinese
enterprises are blamed for not taking enough efforts to protect Africa’s environment
and its resources. For example, Chinese enterprises exploit and purchase timber in
Africa. They also help the Sudanese build the Merowe Dam and plan to build the
Mpanda Nkuwa Dam in Mozambique. In African perspectives on China in Africa, a
book published by the African Fahamu Foundation in 2007, China was sharply
criticized for its lumbering and building dams in Africa.④
The negative appraisals and opinions of some academics toward Sino-African
relations further worsen the public opinion environment China is faced with. They
assert that China helps Africa only to scramble for strategic resources for its own
domestic economic development; that China’s exploitation of African resources is
neo-colonialism; that China’s trade with Africa is typical mercantilism; that the
Jackie Range of Dow Jones Newswires ， Zambia's Miners Pay High Price For Copper Boom ，
http://www.minesandcommunities.org/Action/press791.htm
②
Guillaume Moumouni, “Domestic Transformations and Change in Sino-African Relations”, International
Politics Quarterly, Vol. 4, 2006, pp. 42-52.
③
Daniel Deng Bul, “Oil Exploration and Exploitation in Northern Upper Nile”, in Kwesi Kwaa Prah(ed.),
Afro-Chinese Relations: Past, Present and Future, SED Printing Solutions, Cape Town, 2007,pp.175-203.
④
Firoze Manji & Stephen Marks (eds.), African perspectives on China in Africa, Cape Town, Fahamu-Networks
for Social Justice, 2007.
①
11
increasing amount of Chinese commodities in Africa weakens the ability of African
countries to adjust their economic structure and to improve their industry; and that
China only focuses on economic gains and ignores democracy and human rights in
African countries.① Most westerners are not antagonistic to China. They show their
concern about the Sino-African relationship to compel a rising China to shoulder its
international responsibility and together with the international society promote good
governance and development in Africa. However, some misperceptions, suspicions
and mistakes in their arguments exist, and I argue that many of these academics do
not understand China’s Africa policy. Here are some examples. In February 2006,
Jack Straw, Foreign Minister of Britain, criticized China for its “neocolonialism” in
Africa, labeling China together with poverty, regional conflict, and terrorism and so
on as one of the ten greatest challenges facing Africa. The very word, which used to
mean those colonial suzerains continued to exploit the colonized countries through
political interference and economical control, is now applied to China by some
westerners to condemn China’s bald-faced exploitation of developing countries. In
July 2008, Albert Bergesen, a sociology professor in Arizona University in America
even termed China’s diplomacy in Africa as “the new surgical colonialism”.②
VI. Ways to further step up China’s soft power in Africa
African countries are important allies for China and Africa is the stage from
which China can step into the international society in a more significant way. In order
to consolidate the Sino-African relationship, promote China’s peaceful rising and its
policy of harmonious development of the whole world, the Chinese government
should figure out ways to optimize and strengthen its soft power in Africa. Based on
the above analysis, the writers hereby bring forth the following suggestions:
- The Chinese government should formulate a comprehensive and coherent grand
strategy of soft power buildup in Africa. For quite a long time, the government has
focused on hard power more than soft power. However, the components of national
power and the evolution of international competition make it necessary for China to
propel the innovation of strategic thinking and strengthen the construction of soft
power. To be a truly great power, China should possess a great culture that other
cultures respect and admire and should shoulder more global responsibility. Under
these circumstances, China, when making its Africa policy, must attach greater
attention to the spread of its culture, enhance the attractiveness of its development
mode and shape a responsible national image in the process of promoting mutual
benefit cooperation and common development of the two sides.
Denis M. Tull, “China’s Engagement in Africa: Scope, Significance and Consequences，” The Journal of
Modern African Studies, September 2006, pp.459-479; Joshua Eisenman & Joshua Kurlantzick, “China’s Africa
Strategy，” Current History, May2006, pp219-.224; Michael Klare & Daniel Volman, “America, China & the
scramble for Africa’s Oil，” Review of African Political Economy, No.108, 2006, pp.297-309; “Africa-China: For
Better Or For Worse，” Africa Research Bulletin, June 1st-30th 2006, p.16696.
②
Albert Bergesen, “The New Surgical Colonialism: China, Africa, and Oil”, Paper presented at the annual
meeting of the American Sociological Association Annual Meeting, Sheraton Boston and the Boston Marriott
Copley Place, Boston, http://www.allacademic.com/meta/p237190_index.html
①
12
- China should strengthen cultural diplomacy to expand its cultural influence in
Africa. On the one hand, China can receive more African students and hold more
training classes and seminars related to African countries, so as to increase
cooperation in the field of human resource development. China pledged at the 2006
Beijing Summit of FOCAC that China would endeavor to increase scholarship quotas
for African countries from 2000 people per year to 4000 people per year before 2009.
It is encouraging to see that the government plans to train 15,000 technological and
administrative personnel for African countries from 2006-2009.① On the other hand,
China can help African countries study Chinese by building more Confucius Institutes
and holding Chinese cultural exhibitions in Africa, thus strengthening its cultural
appeal.
- China should increase international promotion and awareness of its African
policy to optimize its national image. It is true that facts speak louder than eloquence.
However, in the era of global information, only facts with promotion can meet the
demands of the reality of international politics and the field of diplomacy. China
needs to frame timing and meticulous propaganda maneuvers to publicize the essence
of its Africa policy. Meanwhile, China should expose and condemn malicious slander
from the international society and African countries. The Chinese government should
carry out dialogue and communication with those who bear prejudice against China
through official or civil channels.
- China should make full play of public diplomacy to enhance understanding and
recognition by African countries of China’s Africa policy. China, for a long time, has
placed great emphasis on official cooperation with African countries while ignoring
the perception of China by African society. China’s diplomacy has neither reached far
into African civil society nor the African NGOs which possess enormous influence on
public opinion. Chinese enterprises and the government should make friends not only
with African governments but also with the African people. Thus, based on the
experience of long-term civil diplomacy, China should speed up formulating a public
diplomacy strategy with Chinese characteristics. First, we need to promote China’s
successful development and improve Sino-African relations. China can invite
influential public figures from African civil society and NGOs to attend meetings,
seminars and training. Second, China should encourage Chinese scholars, reporters
and NGOs to go to Africa. China’s Africa Policy Files carefully designate, “in reply to
the urgent demand of African countries for humanitarian aid, China encourages the
Red Cross and other NGOs to conduct exchange and cooperation with those of
African countries”, “encourage and guide civil exchanges between the two sides,
especially exchanges between the youth and women, so as to enhance mutual
understanding, mutual trust and cooperation.”② On October 26, 2005, the Chinese
government supported the establishment of the China Civil Organization for the
Promotion of International Exchange. ③ Under this framework, China began to
“Speech Delivered by Chairman Hu Jintao at Beijing Summit of FOCAC”, People Daily, Nov. 5, 2006.
“Files of China’s Africa Policy”, People Daily, Jan. 13, 2006.
③
“China Civil Organization for Promoting Communication Founded”, People Daily, October 27, 2005 《
( “中国民
间组织交流促进会”成立》
，载《人民日报》2005 年 10 月 27 日).
①
②
13
explore ways to propel Chinese NGOs to go to Africa and deal directly with African
NGOs. In 2005, China began to dispatch volunteers to Ethiopia and planned to
dispatch 300 volunteers to Africa from 2007 to 2009.① The Red Cross of China made
2007 “the Year of Africa” and carried out activities of donating to African countries.②
Civil diplomacy has played a key role in new China’s foreign relations and the
Chinese government should continue to take advantage of this kind of Track II
diplomacy in the future.
- Chinese enterprises, the government and the Chinese people should be more
concerned about Africa’s development and African people’s livelihood in the process
of Sino-African economic and trade cooperation so as to leave no handles which can
be utilized by African countries to attack China. The problems arising in economic
and trade cooperation are mainly due to the misconduct of individual enterprises or
belong to normal trade frictions. However, misconducts of some enterprises easily
lead to misinterpretation of China’s African policy and disparagement of China’s
image by the outside world. To solve this problem, the Chinese government needs to
take long-term interests and reality into consideration and reconcile conflicts caused
by trade frictions between the two sides through consultation. This needs to be
explained in detail. First, the Chinese government should encourage its enterprises to
facilitate local development and improve people’s livelihood in the course of resource
development and extraction. They should contribute to local environmental protection,
education, health and sanitation. The Chinese government should enact laws and
regulations to supervise and restrict the conduct of some enterprises. Second, based on
the principle of common development, China should take steps to protect Africa’s
pillar industries such as the textile industry. In June 2006, when visiting South Africa,
Premier Wen Jiabao declared that China was determined to take measures to restrict
exporting quotas of textile products so as to help related African countries adjust the
structure of textile industry and improve the competitive power of their own
products. ③ Third, China should encourage enterprises to increase investment in
Africa to foster the national industries of African countries. Through investment in
Africa, cooperation with African enterprises and local personnel training, China can
help African countries develop their capability to produce, promote diversification of
their export products, and enhance their self-development. For that, China proclaimed
in 2006 that it would build 3-5 economic and trade cooperation zones in Africa.④ The
first one was founded in Lusaka, the capital of Zambia, on February 4, 2007. Its
purpose is, through copper mining, smelting and processing, to bring along the
development of Zambia’s machinery, light industry, construction material and
household appliances and improve its processing and exporting capabilities.
- China should pay more attention to dialogues and consultations with African
“Speech Delivered by Chairman Hu Jintao at Beijing Summit of FOCAC”, People Daily, Nov. 5, 2006.
“The Red Cross: Aid to Africa Draws the Curtain in 2007”, World Affairs, Vol. 10, 2007 (《中国红十字会：2007
年援非行动拉开序幕》
，载《世界知识》2007 年第 10 期).
③
“China Limits Its Textile Exports to South Africa” ( 《 中 国 自 动 限 制 对 南 非 纺 织 品 出 口 》 ) ,
http://www.econet.com.cn/zcfg/2006qgfz03.htm
④
“Speech Delivered by Chairman Hu Jintao at Beijing Summit of FOCAC”, People Daily, Nov. 5, 2006.
①
②
14
countries concerning democracy and human rights to enhance mutual political trust.
Frankly speaking, it is really a tough job at present to wipe ideological differences
between the two sides. However, it is still possible to further the total diplomacy of
both sides through regular and multi-level dialogues. China should convey such
information to Africa that democracy, freedom and equality is the direction of the
whole of human society, and explain how China is embarking on the construction of
socialist democracy and committing itself to a democratic, just, equal and harmonious
society. China is undoubtedly in accordance with African countries in pursuing good
governance despite the differences of political systems and focus on human rights and
democracy. Efforts should be made to promote the idea that China is striving to
support African countries to realize political stability, economic development, social
harmony and good governance and to improve the ability of the state to manage its
affairs. This conforms to the will of the African people and does not conflict with
western countries’ Africa policies. As to the Darfur issue in Sudan, efforts should be
made to show China’s active role as a mediator. China urged the Sudanese
government to accept the three-step peacekeeping scheme put forward in November
2006 by Kofi Annan, the former UN Secretary General. After the Sudanese
government agreed to accept it in principle, China further promoted the UNSC to
adopt unanimously Resolution 1769 deploying in Darfur a mixed peacekeeping force
of 26,000 soldiers by UN and AU on July 31, 2007. In October 2007, China took the
lead in dispatching a force of 315 engineers to Darfur, the first force in this
peacekeeping activity, to prepare for the deployment of mixed peacekeeping force.①
- China should lay emphasis on coordination with the international society
concerning diplomatic activities in Africa so as to enhance its diplomatic say on the
international stage. On the one hand, China should continue to cooperate with the UN,
World Bank and other international organizations. China can strengthen the
construction of infrastructure in African countries, support their rural economic
development and personnel training, participate in the UN’s peacekeeping activities in
Africa, and help them realize the UN’s Millennium Development Goals and fulfill the
rejuvenation of Africa. On the other hand, China should also coordinate with the
United States and European countries concerning some diplomatic activities in Africa.
China should not ignore censures from western powers for its Africa policy, for those
censures will increase cost and difficulty for China to build up its soft power in Africa
and impact the smooth development of the Sino-African relationship. China needs to
state clearly to the world that, although there exists certain competition with other
powers in Africa, China does not bear any intention or the ability to crowd western
countries out of the African market. China can have substantive talks with America
and other western powers regarding humanitarian crisis (such as the Darfur issue in
Sudan), and coordinate with them in aspects of oil and resource development. This
kind of cooperation not only profits both China and the United States but also
constitutes great benefit to the peace and development of Africa.
Liu Hongwu, “The Promoter of Peace and Development”, People Daily, September 25, 2007 (刘鸿武：
《和平与
发展的助推者》
，载《人民日报》2007 年 9 月 25 日).
①
15
Conclusion
The optimization of China’s soft power lies not only in getting trusted by neighboring
countries and western powers. As traditional strategic allies and increasingly
important trade partners, African countries also play a key role in changing the
international political, economic and public opinion environment facing China. In the
course of China’s peaceful rising, Africa constitutes a very important stage for China
to expand its international influence and shape a responsible image. China’s political
stance towards African countries should promote its political style and global
responsibility. Accordingly, China should shape its national image and conduct soft
power diplomacy from the strategic perspective of realizing its peaceful development
and the harmonious coexistence of the whole world; as well as to propel innovation,
and development forward and perfect the ways of diplomacy toward Africa in terms
of the long-range development of the Sino-African relationship. In a word, China’s
peaceful rising needs support from African countries and its expansion of
international influence heavily relies on a more mature Sino-African relationship.
16
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Firoze Manji & Stephen Marks (eds.), African perspectives on China in Africa, Cape Town,
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“Cultural Exchanges Promote Sino-African Friendship”, People Daily, August 8, 2006. （
《文化交
流促进中非友谊》
，
《人民日报》
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）
Daniel Deng Bul, “Oil Exploration and Exploitation in Northern Upper Nile”, in Kwesi Kwaa
Prah (ed.), Afro-Chinese Relations: Past, Present and Future, SED Printing Solutions, Cape
Town, 2007,pp.175-203.
Denis M. Tull, “China’s Engagement in Africa: Scope, Significance and Consequences，” The
Journal of Modern African Studies, September, 2006, pp.459-479.
“Files of China’s African Policy”, People Daily, Jan. 13, 2006. (《中国对非政策文件》，
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报》2006 年 1 月 13 日。)
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第 328 页。
）
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，
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，载《西亚非洲》2007 年第 11 期，第 25-30 页。
）
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Michael Klare & Daniel Volman, “America, China & the scramble for Africa’s Oil，” Review of
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Oxfam Hong Kong, “How to Promote Mutual Prosperity and Development between China and
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17
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识”
：超越“华盛顿共识”
》
，北京：社会科学文献出版社，2006 年版，第 409～434 页)
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软实力的评估与发展路径》
，载《国际论坛》2008 年第 5 期，第 24-29 页。
）
18