CHAPTER 5
PHYSICAL AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY
Summary Outline
I.
Physical development in infancy
A. Developmental milestones of infancy
1.
Growth patterns
2.
Nutritional needs
B. Brain development
1.
Brain research tools
2.
Begins in embryonic period
3.
Variable rate of growth from conception through adulthood
4.
Probablistic epigenesis
5.
Specialized lobes
C. Neonatal reflexes
1.
Plantar grasp
2.
Babinski
3.
Babkin
4.
Rooting
5.
Sucking
6.
Moro
7.
Grasping
8.
Tonic neck reflex
9.
Stepping
D. Newborn abilities
1.
Imitative behavior
2.
Seeing
3.
Hearing
4.
Active seekers of stimulation
5.
Attempts to master developmental tasks of infancy
E. Neonatal assessment techniques
1.
The Apgar: evaluation of newborn’s basic life signs
2.
Neurological assessment
a.
Identification of any neurological problem
b.
Constant monitoring of a neurological problem
c.
Prognosis about some neurological problem
3.
Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale
a.
Evaluation of how infant interacts with its environment
F. Motor development
1.
Head control
2.
Locomotion: crawling and creeping
3.
Locomotion: standing and walking
G. Neonatal problems
1.
Failure to thrive (FTT)
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II.
III.
a.
Organic
b.
Nonorganic
2.
Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)
a.
Fetal hypoxia
b.
Munchausen by proxy
3.
Sleeping disorders
4.
Respiratory distress syndrome (RDS)
Perceptual development
A. The meaning of perception
1.
Getting and interpreting information from stimuli
2.
Habituation
3.
Depends on learning and maturation
B. Visual perception
1.
Visual preference
a.
Pattern perception
b.
Detecting complexity
2.
Visual adaptation
a.
“Visual cliff” experiments
C. Auditory perception
1.
Hearing
2.
Auditory discrimination
Cognitive development
A. Piaget’s sensorimotor period
1.
Egocentrism
2.
Six stages
a.
Exercise the reflexes
b.
Primary circular reactions
c.
Secondary circular reactions
d.
Coordinate secondary schemes
e.
Tertiary circular reactions
f.
Internal representation
3.
Four major accomplishments
a.
Object permanence
b.
A sense of space
c.
Causality
d.
Time sequences
B. Criticisms of Piaget
1.
Cognitive development may be gradual and partially completed
2.
Specific tasks accomplished earlier than Piaget thought
C. Information processing in infancy
1.
Infants and attention
a.
Selectivity
b.
Involves cognitive processing
c.
Limited
2.
Infants and memory
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a.
Testing infant memory
b.
Infantile amnesia
IV. Language development
A. Acquiring their language
1.
Children learn rules of language
2.
Fast mapping
B. Key signs of language development
1.
Timetable of language acquisition
a.
Crying
b.
Cooing
c.
Babbling
d.
Vocables
2.
First words
a.
Language explosion
b.
Holophrases
c.
Multiple words
d.
Telegraphic speech
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, the student should be able to complete the following goals:
1.
Discuss the important aspects of nutritional needs of and feeding options for infants.
2.
Summarize brain development during infancy.
3.
Summarize neonatal reflexes and neonatal abilities.
4.
Identify and describe the three neonatal assessment techniques.
5.
Summarize milestones in motor development during infancy.
6.
Describe the following neonatal problems: failure to thrive, sudden infant death syndrome
(SIDS), sleeping disorders, and respiratory distress syndrome.
7.
Summarize perceptual development during infancy, including methods of testing.
8.
Characterize the six stages of Piaget’s sensorimotor period and identify the major
accomplishments achieved by the end of this period.
9.
Summarize the major criticisms about Piaget’s theory of cognitive development.
10.
Summarize the development of information processing in infants.
11.
Trace the key signs of language acquisition.
Key Terms
Apgar
apnea
babbling
Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Scale
cooing
coordinate secondary schemes
crawling
creeping
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egocentrism
failure to thrive
habituation
holophrases
holophrastic speech
language explosion
neonate
neurological assessment
phonology
pragmatics
primary circular reactions
reflex
respiratory distress syndrome (RDS)
secondary circular reactions
semantics
sensorimotor period
sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)
syntax
telegraphic speech
tertiary circular reactions
vocables
Lecture Suggestions
1.
Research Methods Used to Study Infants
Developmental psychologists are constantly addressing the questions: “What do babies know?”
and “How do babies learn?” This research is obviously difficult because babies are unable to
talk. Before explaining how infant research is conducted, ask students what they think infants are
capable of and how they think this research is conducted. Then, provide an overview of infant
studies, such as Robert Fantz’s research on infants’ visual preference. Discuss research methods
that have been developed to assess infant development and innovative ways that researchers have
found to overcome obstacles.
For further discussion, have students generate a list of questions that they think would be helpful
to ask about infants. Also, discuss the implications of infant research. Does it challenge beliefs
about how children should be reared and how they should be taught?
2.
Cultural Differences in Caring for Infants
The major assumptions of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development are that infants are active
agents in constructing knowledge and that the interaction of experience and biology leads to
growth and development. The cultural-contextual view agrees with these assumptions but adds
two more: (1) other people make active contributions to infant development, and (2) cultural
practices, which reflect the dominant beliefs and values of a culture, shape infant interaction with
others and, ultimately, shape cognitive development. Variations in sleeping and feeding
behaviors reflect the role of infants in a culture. Beliefs about babies in different cultures
determine how they are treated, who interacts with them, and, consequently, how babies
experience their world.
Have students come to class prepared to discuss cultural differences in infant care. Discuss how
they think these differences influence infant development.
3.
The Impact of Poverty
Children born into poverty lack adequate health care and consequently experience more health
problems and poor nutrition. Discuss the impact of poverty on infant development. Be sure to
include prenatal and infant care. To highlight the biopsychosocial perspective, discuss how
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parental stress related to poverty impacts infant care. What are the consequences of poverty on
infant development?
4.
Strategies Adults Use to Enhance Language Acquisition
Parents and other adults actively facilitate the child’s language acquisition. A variety of devices
can enhance the child’s learning of language: recasting, echoing, expanding, labeling, and
prompting. Discuss language and communication, language development, and the role of
reinforcement and imitation in facilitating language development. Have students speculate about
things that parents could do to enhance language acquisition in their offspring. Have students
develop a research design to explore the validity of one of their proposed ideas.
Instructor’s CD-ROM Resource Activities
1.
2.
Chapter 6 Physical Development in Infancy
A.
A Quiz on Newborns: Are You Ready to Be a Parent?
B.
Class Cybertour of Websites Relevant to Lifespan Development
C.
Infant Feeding: The Benefits of Breastfeeding
D.
Babies Love Sweets!
E.
Interviewing New Parents
F.
Baby Books
G.
Infant Reflexes
H.
Infant Health and Nutrition: What Parents Are Talking About
Chapter 7 Cognitive Development in Infancy
A.
Parent Demonstration of Infant Reflexes
B.
Infant Attention and Habituation
C.
Infant Cognition Tasks
D.
Intermodal Perception
E.
Toy Story: How Cognitively Stimulating are Children’s Toys?
F.
Object Permanence
G.
Sensorimotor Development
H.
Visit an Infant Perception Lab
Classroom or Student Activities
1.
A Demonstration of Piaget’s Sensorimotor Period
Piaget’s sensorimotor period lasts from birth to about two years of age and involves progression
in the infant’s ability to organize and coordinate sensations with physical movements. During the
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sensorimotor period, major achievements include attainment of object permanence and the ability
to form mental representations.
Piaget further divides the sensorimotor period into six substages of intellectual development that
involve gradual transitions in behavior. The sensorimotor period begins with simple reflexes and
ends with the onset of symbolic function. Through gradual transitions in behavior, the child
develops from being a relatively passive thinker into an active thinker. Immense cognitive
changes occur during this two-year span of development.
During the stage of simple reflexes, the infant is able to produce reflex-like actions in the absence
of a triggering stimulus. During stage 2, primary circular reactions, the infant repeats behavior
that produces interesting events that center around the infant’s own body. For the infant in the
secondary circular reaction stage (stage 3), activities are repeated over and over. Focus is on
outcomes occurring beyond the limits of the infant’s own body. In stage 4, coordination of
secondary reactions, the infant coordinates two or more secondary circular reactions efficiently.
Stage 5 of tertiary circular reactions finds the infant actively searching for new ways to interact
with objects and actively exploring potential uses for objects. Finally, during stage 6,
internalization of schemes and beginnings of representational thought appear.
Invite parents with infants to come to the class and use the infants to demonstrate each stage of
the sensorimotor period. Have students identify characteristics of the sensorimotor period. Ask
students to provide examples of changes that they observe in the infants. Discuss major changes
in each substage during infancy development.
2.
Observing the Neonate
One of the authors of the text describes his practice of taking students to Children’s Hospital in
Boston to observe newborns. Make arrangements for students to visit a local hospital for neonate
observation. Have students record newborn behaviors when being fed and changed. What
happens when a new face or object is put in the infant’s field of vision? What do the observations
tell students about how infants learn?
3.
Comparing Approaches to Infant Care: Feeding
Ask students which form of feeding—breast-feeding or bottles with formula—they will use with
their babies if they become parents. If they are parents already, ask them how they feed their
infants. As an out-of-class assignment, ask each student to list the advantages and disadvantages
of the types of feeding they have chosen or used, based on text information, lecture, outside
sources, and/or personal experiences.
As a basis for discussion during a following class period, a panel consisting of a La Leche league
advocate and a pediatrician would be helpful as moderators of a discussion based on the
students’ prepared responses. After presentation of the pros and cons of their choices—and
professional input—survey the students to see if their choices have changed based on the
information gained.
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4.
Tracking Infant Development
From a physical and cognitive perspective, infants change dramatically in the first few months of
life. After reading this chapter, ask students to engage in a relationship with a newborn and its
family (arrangements can be made by the instructor with a local child care facility or students can
work with family members). With parental permission, have students visit and observe the
newborn weekly for the remainder of the course. Students can record physical changes and
growth of the infant, motor development, and changes in language abilities.
Additionally, students can track cognitive development and test the infant’s progress through the
sensorimotor period. Students can be creative (again, with parental permission) and use a video
camera to track infant development. If possible, students can observe parental interaction with
the newborn and comment on the relationship between parental interaction and child
development. At the end of the course, have students write a report on the physical and cognitive
development of the infant they observed and report their findings to the class.
5.
Career-Related Activities
Imagine you are a Community Health Nurse working in your county clinic. Develop take-home
handouts for new moms, showing expected growth for their infants from birth to 6 months.
Questions for Review and Discussion
1.
Describe the relationship between the change in the growth and development of the brain
and the manner in which the child’s mastery of his or her body is increasing.
2.
Describe the different abilities of the newborn. Observe a newborn and describe how you
observe the baby engaged in these behaviors.
3.
Summarize three views on newborn competency. Which view do you agree with? How do
parenting practices influence infant development?
4.
Create a list of possible criteria to help a parent understand the optimal time for toilet
training. Take into consideration both the child’s physical and cognitive abilities and the
mother’s situation.
5.
Discuss Piaget’s six stages of sensorimotor development in terms of thinking skills or
abilities. What does primary circular reaction, for example, have to do with thinking and/or
cognitive development?
6.
Discuss Vygotsky’s stages of language development. Give an example of how a child’s
behavior reflects the use of inner speech.
Web Site Resources
Child Development
Baby Web
Developmental Psychology
Birth Psychology
Jean Piaget
Infants, Babies, Children, and Childbirth
KidSource On Line
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La Leche League International
www.srcd.org
Nurtured Child
www.apa.org/journals/dev.html
Child Cognitive Development Research
www.education.Indiana.edu/~p540/webcour
se/develop.html
www.baby-place.com/
www.birthpsychology.com/index.html
www.moonlily.com/parents/
www.kidsource.com
www.lalecheleague.org
www.nurturedchild.com
www.babysmartstart.com/links.shtml
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Video Resources
1.
The Newborn, 23 minutes, color
2.
Babywatching, 50 minutes, color
3.
Discovering the Outside World, 23 minutes, color
4.
Mothers, Fathers, and Babies, 26 minutes, color
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