Department of Gender and Cultural Studies
Style Guide
Simone de Beauvoir. Source: flickr, Charles Keatts
Table of Contents
1) Introduction: What is a Style Guide? .............................................................................................. 2
2) Researching, Writing and Submitting an Essay for Gender and Cultural Studies .......... 2
Data Security ............................................................................................................................................................ 2
Assignment Preparation, Criteria and Grade Descriptors....................................................................... 2
Researching a Topic............................................................................................................................................... 3
Writing an Essay Outline ...................................................................................................................................... 3
Essay Structure ........................................................................................................................................................ 3
Paragraphs ................................................................................................................................................................ 4
Editing and proofreading..................................................................................................................................... 5
Academic Honesty and Plagiarism ................................................................................................................... 5
Plagiarism and the Internet ................................................................................................................................ 5
Using Academic Sources Appropriately: Citing, Quoting, Paraphrasing ............................................ 6
3) Referencing Systems ............................................................................................................................ 9
MLA System ............................................................................................................................................................ 10
Author-Date or Harvard System..................................................................................................................... 12
Referencing Software ......................................................................................................................................... 14
4) Footnotes and Endnotes................................................................................................................... 14
5) Written Expression and Writing Style ........................................................................................ 15
6) Common Grammatical Errors in Student Essays ..................................................................... 17
7) Further resources............................................................................................................................... 19
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1) Introduction: What is a Style Guide?
A style guide provides information on the rules that govern all forms of written expression and the
presentation of a piece of work, whether this is for an author submitting something for formal
publication or a student presenting an essay for a unit of study. This style guide has been written
specifically for students in the Department of Gender and Cultural Studies. In this guide you will
find information about referencing and footnoting/endnoting your essays as well as advice about
structuring and writing an essay. The guide also includes information on common grammatical
errors in student assignments. Links to other useful resources are given. Other guidance about
academic writing and skills is available within the University. The library has extensive resources as
does the Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences. Please save this document and keep it as a handy
reference when writing and submitting assignments.
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2) Researching, Writing and Submitting an Essay for Gender and Cultural
Studies
All assignments/essays must be typed on A4 paper using either 1.5 or double spacing with pages
numbered consecutively. Please leave a wide margin so that your marker has enough space to write
comments. Use a font size that is large enough so that your markers do not have to strain their eyes
in reading your work. Although actual sizes differ from font to font, it is recommended that you use
Font size 11 or up. All essays must be submitted with a cover sheet to the SOPHI school office or
online via procedures that will be explained within your given unit of study.
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Data Security
Please retain copies of all assignments before and after submission. Never save only a single
copy to a single location. To avoid unexpected loss of work due to technical difficulties, theft etc.,
always ensure that you regularly back up your work during the composition process. Methods of
backing up include saving a copy to an external thumb or hard drive, and using a cloud storage
service to automatically save a file from a computer to an external server over the internet.
Remember backups to hardware can fail in circumstances such as loss/theft and house fires. Many
cloud services are free or cheap for small amounts of data storage and allow files to be synchronized
across several devices in addition to being saved online.
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Assignment Preparation, Criteria and Grade Descriptors
Although the general principles of academic writing hold in most assessments, requirements for
written assignments may vary. Study the assignment brief given to you by teachers closely and take
note of advice given in class when planning your work. Examine the wording of the question or task
to help identify relevant issues, concepts, theories, examples, methods, and sources. Depending on
the learning context and the aims of the assessment, tasks may be broad, allowing you some latitude
to determine your approach, or they may be very specific, requiring you to address particular
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objects or topics. Either way, an assignment task always requires that you take a carefully
considered approach towards a goal. It will never be an invitation to write generally on a topic.
Similarly marking criteria might be detailed, outlining the characteristics markers are looking for in
the assignment, or they may be the general Gender and Cultural Studies Grade Descriptors.
Researching a Topic
If you are looking for research material for an assignment please consult the unit outlines or your
lecturer or tutor. If you require any further material then the best place to access this is through the
Library Catalogue using a subject or keyword search or through the Library’s databases, which are
located on the Library homepage. The most common databases that you will need for Gender and
Cultural Studies courses include the MLA, Expanded Academic Index, APA-FT, Science Direct,
LegalTrac and Lexis Nexis. CrossSearch and Google Scholar are a general search engines that can
be used in addition to subject or source specific ones but should not be relied on alone. They also
provide links to works that have cited the sources listed. The library publishes guides about
resources available in subject areas, including Gender and Cultural Studies. Library staff run regular
workshops about searching for academic sources.
In recent years students have come to rely on the Internet as a resource for information. While it can
be a valuable tool for finding all sorts of information, the Department encourages scholarly research
in the writing of your essays and assignments. Much of the material on the Internet is produced
without the refereeing process that pertains to scholarly publishing. Please be careful when pulling
material off the net and remember that the library catalogue and databases are usually a better place
to do your research.
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Writing an Essay Outline
Although we all have different ways of beginning an essay, it is important that you learn how to
write an essay outline. This not only saves you time but forces you to focus on the essay question or
topic. An outline is like a synopsis in that it provides a script for what you want to cover in your
essay.
After you have done your reading and made substantial notes, write a list of the main points that
you want to cover in your essay, making sure that you leave lots of space in between the points so
that you can add material as you go. Once you have a list of main points, sift through your notes and
build up comments and quotes around these main points that will serve to remind you what you
want to say and the evidence you want to use to back up your statements.
This is just one approach to writing an outline. You may have your own method for producing one.
Just remember that an outline will save you time and help structure your ideas.
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Essay Structure
Although the essay is not the only form of assessment that you will encounter in your studies, it is
the most common one. While the basic structure of an essay includes an introduction, the main body
of the essay and then a conclusion, there are other factors to consider when writing essays.
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Make sure that your essay is well structured, with coherent paragraphs that logically develop an
argument or thesis position. Make sure that you include an analysis and interpretation of the
topic and include evidence to back up your claims. You need to explain and provide clear
interpretations of the terms and concepts that you use in the essay. It is also important to remember
that writing an essay is a process that you don’t get right in the first draft. It often takes several
rewrites to craft your analysis, argument and expression.
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


INTRODUCTION
(for a 3000 word essay an introduction is usually only one or two paragraphs)
 Introduce the topic of the essay
Introduce your main thesis statement (this is the position that you will take in the essay or the
purpose of your essay).
 Briefly state what you will cover in your essay
BODY
The body of the essay should build on your thesis statement. This means providing an argument
and evidence that supports the claims that you are making. The evidence comes from your
research and note taking that you did to complete your essay outline.
The argument should determine the order of your analysis and the presentation of your ideas. By
beginning with an essay outline you will have already worked out some sense of how you want
to structure your essay.
CONCLUSION
Here you should conclude your argument and reflect on what you have covered in the body of
your essay.
 Avoid conclusions that just repeat what you have said in the introduction or in the body of your
essay. Repeating what you have said in the Introduction does not constitute a conclusion. Rather
think about the significance of the topic you have been discussing and its place in the context of
the course as a whole.
 Do not introduce new material or evidence in your conclusion.
 Remember that the conclusion is the last opportunity you have to convince your reader of your
argument, so use it effectively.

Paragraphs
A paragraph is what gives your essay its structure. A paragraph consists of a group of sentences
which are linked together to form a main idea. A paragraph should contain a topic sentence (which
states what you will discuss), sentences that explain and elaborate on the topic and evidence that
back up the claims that you have made.
Paragraphs that go on forever or contain one or two sentences indicate a poorly structured essay.
Very long paragraphs often indicate that you are not clear where one idea ends and a new one starts.
Very short paragraphs suggest that you have not provided enough evidence to back up your claims
or developed your ideas fully.
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As a rule do not break up your essays into sub-headings. This is especially important in an essay
length of only 2-3000 words. Instead structure your paragraphs so that they each contain a main
topic or point that you expand on in the paragraph.
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Editing and proofreading
Reviewing your work is an important part of the academic writing process. It is therefore essential
that you leave enough time to be able to carefully proofread and edit your work. Beware relying on
computer spell-check tools as you can accidentally change the intended usage and spelling of a
word. Editing is the review of the overall composition, style, argument and sequencing of ideas.
Proofreading is the final checking of grammar, spelling, punctuation, referencing and word use.
Generally speaking reviewing and revising drafts of your work raises its quality. Ideally even if
tried you should do few round revising work your submit to avoid caress sentences like this one that
would not be flagged by a spellchecker—but also to improve flow, transitions between parts and
argument. It is advisable to leave gaps between edits so that you can re-read your work with a fresh
perspective.
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Academic Honesty and Plagiarism
The Department of Gender and Cultural Studies encourages critical analysis and independent
written work. Plagiarism is defined as the unacknowledged use of another’s words or ideas and is
not acceptable within the University. Self-plagiarism is also possible and this is when a student uses
their own previously submitted work from another assignment as though it is new.
As most assessments require that you present the work of other scholars as evidence of your critical
engagement with the course material, it is essential that you reference this material. If you are lifting
text directly from another author into your essay then you must use quotation marks around the text
and reference appropriately. If you are using an author’s argument or ideas but paraphrasing this
material, you must still provide a reference for the idea/s that you have incorporated. To pass off
the ideas or arguments of others as your own work constitutes plagiarism.
For more information regarding academic honesty and plagiarism, please visit:
http://sydney.edu.au/arts/current_students/plagiarism.shtml. This page provides links to the rules
and also useful resources about improving academic writing and avoiding plagiarism, including an
interactive tutorial provided by the library. The official University policy includes details of
disciplinary procedures that may eventuate in cases of potential academic dishonesty. The following
page links to further useful pages about avoiding plagiarism provided at Usyd and beyond:
http://sydney.edu.au/student_affairs/plagiarism/links.shtml
Also note that academic dishonesty includes not just plagiarism but other inappropriate practices
such as collusion. This is when students work together or gain help from others on an assignment
that should represent only their own work.
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Plagiarism and the Internet
The Internet can be a valuable research tool and source of information. It is important to remember,
however, that any information that you get off the net should be correctly referenced. Do not cut
and paste information from web sites and attempt to present it as your own work. This constitutes
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plagiarism and is easily detected by your markers. The university uses several kinds of text
similarity detection software. Furthermore, do not be tempted to download an assignment from one
of the many “cheat” sites offering student essays. This material is easily spotted by your markers as
a plagiarised piece of work and can be traced to the site that you found it on by the
University’s software packages.
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Using Academic Sources Appropriately: Citing, Quoting, Paraphrasing
Using sources well is a very important part of academic writing. The latter is distinguished from
other kinds of writing mainly by the requirement to develop arguments that are supported by
evidence and reasoning. Your own analysis should provide some of the evidence and reasoning
through which your argument is developed. However, building a position on your topic that is
informed by the theories, research findings and arguments of others who have considered similar or
related topics is the key to making your own argument a good one. Explicitly drawing upon the
work of other scholars—and discussing, analyzing and interrogating it in relevant ways—is vital.
To reiterate, whenever you incorporate ideas that can be specifically traced to another text you must
cite it accurately, i.e. provide details of the source to the reader (see Referencing Systems below).
Reading academic texts is one of the best ways to learn how to quote and paraphrase effectively.
Paraphrasing
The most common way to present somebody else’s ideas is through paraphrasing. This is when you
use your own words to convey points made by an author. It is particularly useful when summarizing
their overall argument, or expressing a series of interrelated ideas (that would be awkward to
present as a series of quotations). Paraphrasing can also be used to show that several authors have
made a similar point as you can express it in words that convey the idea they hold in common and
provide citations for each source. If the ideas paraphrased can be located to a specific page or page
range in a source, the page numbers should be included in the in-text citation.
Paraphrasing tends to interrupt your own authorial voice less than direct quotation does. However,
as paraphrase is the rewording of others’ ideas care should be taken to ensure the paraphrase is a
fair representation of the original ideas. Do not be vague or tempted to suggest the author said
something different from what they really said because it would suit your argument to do so.
An example of paraphrasing is given below.
a) According to Mason (2002), the use of personal safety maps by gay men and lesbians constitutes
a form of self-management that works to control the visibility or invisibility of their homosexuality
in relation to the perceived safety of any given social context.
OR
b) The use of personal safety maps by gay men and lesbians constitutes a form of self-management
that works to control the visibility or invisibility of their homosexuality in relation to the perceived
safety of any given social context (Mason: 2002).
Both paraphrases summarise the central argument from Gail Mason’s chapter on “Body Maps” in
The Spectacle of Violence: Homophobia, Gender and Knowledge, London and New York:
Routledge, 2002. Although Mason’s argument is rephrased, the concepts and ideas here originate
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from her work and therefore must be acknowledged. Note that as this is a summary of a main
argument made throughout, no page numbers need be given.
Quotations
If you use the exact wording found in a source you should quote those words. This is done by
placing quote marks around sections of text. Longer extracts of four lines or more should be
presented as a block quote. A block quote is a section of indented text preceded and followed by a
blank line. When quoting your citation also needs to include the page number(s) from the original
source.
Quotations are useful when an author’s original phrasing articulates an idea well. However, using
too many may create a cluttered effect and smother your own authorial voice. When quoting you
need to consider the transition from your own words to those of the author. You should avoid
peppering your writing with direct quotes that are not properly introduced or explained. An example
of a quote that is integrated with surrounding language is given below:
According to Shepherd et al. (2003: 469), ‘it would be accurate to describe radio programming in its
early days in most countries as an ongoing talent show’ because poorly funded stations frequently
showcased local aspiring artists who were eager for airplay and did not expect payment.
Below is an example of a block quote with the sentences that precede and follow it:
We were also aware of how values and cultural practices traditionally associated with the middleclass, and reliant on access to forms of cultural capital, were increasingly becoming the normative,
generating what Mike Savage identifies as the new ‘particular-universal’, which he suggests echoes
a larger social shift in the late twentieth century:
[. . .] the middle class then colonised the resulting empty social and cultural
space, with the result that it has become the particular-universal class. That
is to say, although it was in fact a particular class with a specific history,
nonetheless it has become the class around which an increasing range of
practices are regarded as universally ‘normal’, ‘good’ and ‘appropriate’.
(Savage, 2003: 536)
Marilyn Strathern (1992) also demonstrates how middle-class practices have come increasingly to
define the Western social itself.
Note also the use of square brackets […] to indicate that part of sentence in the original was elided.
There is not space here to cover all such conventions, but the published style guides and online sites
referred to in the Referencing Systems section below include more details about how to integrate
quotations into your text.
Being organised
Some plagiarism cases result from lack of skill in using academic sources more than from
dishonesty. Failing to cite ideas taken from other sources is, however, not acceptable whether or not
it is intentional. It is very important to keep good notes from your readings. Ensure you take all the
bibliographic detail you will need to reference a work and keep your notes or any extracts you take
from that reading in the same place, clearly identified as being from that text. An essay plan should
not be a series of fragments from multiple sources thrown together leaving you with the tasks of
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retracing where you got each idea from or trying to remember which bits are quotes. You should
include citations and quotation marks in the text as you compose an assignment.
Avoiding conflation and misleading citations
Always clearly differentiate the ideas of another person from your own and seek to represent them
accurately. If the author made their points in a different context or in relation to a different object of
study you need to explain how their ideas can be applied to your topic. For example, in an essay
about reality television you might want to develop an argument drawing upon various media and
cultural theorists. However, it would be incorrect to write a sentence such as:
The presence of ordinary people on reality television suggests that the lives of individuals are
important but in fact we only get very limited representations of them that are compatible with
media industry entertainment formulas (Adorno and Horkheimer [1944] 2002).
This makes it sound like Adorno and Horkheimer were writing about reality TV, whereas this is not
the case. The essay writer is mixing up their own ideas about reality TV with the theories of the
culture industry from Adorno and Horkheimer that they wish to apply to an argument about reality
TV. They would be better off writing that sentence above without a citation and then following it up
with a fully cited discussion of Adorno and Horkheimer’s ideas (about popular media appearing
original while being formulaic) with an explanation of how (despite their being developed in
relation to other popular media forms like movies and radio) those ideas may help us develop a
critical reading of reality TV.
How many sources is enough?
Different kinds of assignment might require a different depth or breadth of research effort. For
example a close reading exercise is likely to be judged on how well you use a small number of
sources, assessing their arguments closely. An annotated bibliography or literature review, however,
might require you to find more sources and cover each in less detail. If guidance about the kind or
number of texts that should be consulted is not given by teachers it is because identifying an
appropriate range of relevant sources is part of the task being set for the student.
The answer to the question ‘how many sources should I have for an essay?’ is ‘as many sources as
you use well to develop your argument’. Using many texts does indicate a good research effort, but
it does not ensure you use the materials effectively. Including a long list of works cited but only
referring to a couple of the texts in the essay will not be considered a strong research effort.
What kind of sources should I consult?
Wikipedia is a way to acquaint yourself with new ideas. However, it is not a reliable source for
academic research. The same is true of journalism, the web in general or popular literature.
Academic texts such as academic journal articles, monographs and edited books of essays by
academics involve rigorous research and approved methods for providing evidence. They are
prepared in line with conventions of academic discourse such as use of scholarly bibliographies and
peer review by experts. These are sometimes referred to as ‘secondary sources’ and form the
research basis of most essays.
Other kinds of text may still be used but are more likely to be analysed as examples of nonacademic discourses that show how some aspect of gender and culture is represented in our broader
society. ‘Primary sources’ is the term given to such non-academic texts when used in academic
work. Clearly there are times when scholars in Gender and Cultural Studies need to refer to
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journalism, films, advertisements and any number of other popular sources, but they will not be
treated as holding academic authority on the topics they represent. Primary sources still need to be
cited.
In some fields there are also non-academic texts with some research authority. For example,
government statistics or NGO reports may be accorded greater authority as they often have official
status or observe some of the conventions of academic discourse. Such sources are sometimes
referred to as ‘grey literature’.
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3) Referencing Systems
The use of an academic referencing system enables readers to track the sources that you have used
in producing a piece of written work. It is also a system that ensures intellectual honesty and
accuracy in terms of how you present information. As such it is vital in writing an essay that you
acknowledge all material that you have used. This is done through the use of direct referencing as
well by incorporating a bibliography or reference list at the end of your essay. Although different
disciplines prefer particular referencing systems, The Department of Gender and Cultural Studies
recommends that you use either the MLA system or the Author-Date (or Harvard) system shown
below. Both of these systems use in-text referencing which assists both the writer and reader in
keeping track of the material used.
If you are using a parenthetical in-text referencing system (either the MLA or Author-Date systems
described below) you will not need to include your sources in a footnote or endnote. However, if
you wish to give further references on your topic or provide more information to something that you
have said in your essay without disrupting the flow of your argument, then you can include this in
an endnote at the end of your essay or in a footnote. Generally it is best to use in-text referencing
unless teachers request you use endnotes or footnotes for referencing instead.
Referencing systems have developed by convention through the influence of academic journals and
associations. MLA is named after one such association (The Modern Languages Association),
which publishes a detailed definitive book, the MLA style manual and guide to scholarly publishing.
‘Harvard style’, however, is an umbrella term for similar systems using author-date parenthetical
citations, but you will find many versions with slight variations in punctuation and presentation
conventions. ‘APA’ style (American Psychological Association) is very close to Harvard. You
might expect Harvard University Press to publish a definitive guide, but that is not the case. Usyd
library has an interactive tutorial using APA.
Usyd library provides information about each style and information about guide books available.
There are many websites giving advice on how to cite and reference. One of the clearest and most
detailed is on the Purdue Owl writing site. Another is based at UWA. The guidance below is a
summary of common publication source types only. The books and websites above have a wider
range of examples, should you need to work out how to reference unusual sources, a ‘tweet’ or flyer
for example.
Some kinds of sources are so unusual or new that a method of citation has not yet been finalized. In
such cases you should use the closest information you have to categories such as author, date, title,
location, ideally giving enough information that a reader could identify it and track it down. For
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instance you might have reason to cite a poster or another form of media ephemera. You would
need to find the closest equivalents to author (band name?) title (a description of it or the main
headline?) and date (date you viewed it? Date of gig? Both?) so it can be cited and placed in the
alphabetized reference list. You can also give other information and even a note clarifying the genre
(‘promotional poster’ etc.).
Consistency and clarity are key whether you are following a model or having to find a new way to
cite an unusual source. Some general conventions are shared across systems, though in slightly
different forms that can be checked in the guides above. For instance when citing work that has
been republished multiple times the reference list entry and citation can include both the original
date of publication and the date in which it appeared in the version cited. (See the reference to
Adorno and Horkheimer above. This is only really important for historical texts and is not necessary
when editions or versions are only few years apart.) Likewise where a work has three authors or
more the in-text citation is presented as the name of the first listed author followed by ‘et al.’. The
full list of authors, however, must be given in the reference list.
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MLA System
The MLA System is a very straightforward in-text referencing system. As a general rule you need to
include the author’s surname and the page number of the publication in brackets in the text at the
end of the sentence (e.g. i). If you have already mentioned the author in your sentence then you
include only the page number (e.g. ii). This applies whether you are using a direct quotation or
citing someone else’s argument. You then include a complete list of references at the end of your
essay in a bibliography.
Examples:
i)
The concept of the public sphere derives from the German philosopher, Jugen Habermas,
and is used to describe “the world of communal, economic, and political life rather than
intimacy and familial relations” (Green 116).
ii)
According to Lelia Green, the concept of the public sphere derives from the German
Philosopher, Jurgen Habermas and is used to describe “the world of communal, economic,
and political life rather than intimacy and familial relations” (116).
If you are using indirect evidence, that is, quoting a passage from an author that appears in another
text, you must include the abbreviation “qtd. in” (quoted in). For e.g.:
Jan Fernbank argues that “Cyberspace has become a new arena for participation in public
life” (qtd. in Green 120).
When you are using two or more works by the same author in your essay, you can differentiate
them by including an abbreviated form of the title in your in-text reference. For example:
Elspeth Probyn considers the realm of the alimentary an important site for “thinking about
an ethics of existence” (Carnal Appetites 3).
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N.B. note that citations are part of a sentence. Punctuation follows parenthetical citations. Don’t
finish a sentence and then put the citation after the full-stop.
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MLA Bibliography
All essays must contain a bibliography. Include all material that you have used in your references.
Entries must be arranged in alphabetical order, with the author’s surname appearing first followed
by the first name. You must include the full title of the work, publisher and place and date of
publication. The list must include not only academic works, but also any films, newspaper or
Internet articles that you have used. Please note that all titles of books, journals and films appear in
Italics.
Examples:
1) Book Title
Probyn, Elspeth. Carnal Appetites: Food, Sex, Identities. London and New York: Routledge, 2000.
2) Book with a Translator
Derrida, Jaques. Of Grammatology. Trans. Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak. Baltimore and London:
The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1976.
3) Book with two or more Authors or Editors
Fuery, Patrick and Nick Mansfield. Cultural Studies and the New Humanities: Concepts and
Controversies. Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1997.
Grosz, Elizabeth and Elspeth Probyn eds. Sexy Bodies: The Strange Carnalities of Feminism.
London and New York: Routledge, 1995.
4) Journal Article
Green, Lelia. “Technology and Conversation: Construction and Deconstruction of Community.”
Australian Journal of Communication 23. 3 (1996): 54-67.
5) Essay from a Collection or Anthology
Palmer, Len. “Regulating Technology.” In Framing Technology: Society, Choice and Change. Ed.
Lelia Green and Roger Guinery. Sydney: Allen and Unwin. 77-90.
6) Newspaper/Magazine Article
McGrath, Ann. “Diversity is Lost in Boy’s Own History.” Sydney Morning Herald 17 July 2003,
13.
If there is no author, the article should be listed with the title first.
7) Film
Boys Don’t Cry. Dir. Kimberley Peirce. Fox Searchlight Pictures and the Independent Film Channel
Productions, 1999.
8) Video
Heaven. Videorecording. Dir. Tracey Moffatt. Canberra: Ronin Films, 1997.
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9) Television Program
“…For Being Lebanese.” Four Corners. Reporter Stephen McDonell. ABC TV, Sydney 16 Sept.
2002.
10) Video Clip
Madonna. “Vogue.” Video Clip. Broadcast ABC TV, 16 Sep. 1992.
11) Internet Sources
Because Internet sites do not always contain information such as authors, dates or titles, the rule is
to include as much information as is available. You must, however always include the Internet
address and the date that you accessed the site. If there is no author list the site in alphabetical order
under the title.
Poster, Mark. “The Net as a Public Sphere.” Wired. Nov. 1995.
http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/3.11/poster.if_pr.html. (Accessed 18 July, 2013).
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Author-Date or Harvard System
The Author-Date system is commonly used in the social sciences and increasingly in the humanities
as well. As indicated by its name, the general rule of this system is that you include the author’s
surname, date of publication and page number in brackets within the text. As with other systems,
this applies whether you are using a direct quote or incorporating an idea or argument from another
author. At the end of your essay, you must supply the full reference details of the texts that you have
used in a bibliography.
Examples:
i.
The concept of the public sphere derives from the German philosopher, Jurgen Habermas,
and is used to describe ‘the world of communal, economic, and political life rather than
intimacy and familial relations’ (Green, 2002: 116).
ii.
According to Lelia Green (2002: 116), the concept of the public sphere derives from the
German Philosopher, Jurgen Habermas and is used to describe ‘the world of communal,
economic, and political life rather than intimacy and familial relations’.
Please note that unlike the MLA System, the Harvard system uses single quote marks rather than
double. Also the year and page number are separated by a colon. If the author’s name is mentioned
in the sentence the reference goes immediately after the name. If the author’s name is not mentioned
the reference goes immediately after the quote or idea/argument that you have borrowed, with the
author’s surname included in the parenthetical citation (as in examples above).
If you are using indirect evidence, that is, quoting a passage from an author that appears in another
text, you must include the word ‘in’.
iii.
Jan Fernbank (in Green, 2002: 120) argues that ‘Cyberspace has become a new arena for
participation in public life’.
When you are using two or more works by the same author use a, b, c…to differentiate them.
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iv)
Elspeth Probyn (2000a: 3) considers the realm of the alimentary an important site for
‘thinking about an ethics of existence’.
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Author-Date System Bibliography
As with any system you must include all sources that you have used in a bibliography at the end of
your essay. These must be listed in alphabetical order beginning with the surname. Unlike the
MLA, however, the Author-Date System only includes an initial for the author’s second name. Also
the date of publication follows the author’s surname in brackets, followed by title, place of
publication and publisher.
Examples:
1) Book Title
Probyn, E. (2000) Carnal Appetites: Food, Sex, Identities, London and New York: Routledge
Please note that a comma appears after the book title and there is no full stop at the end of the
reference.
2) Book with a Translator
Derrida, J. (1976) Of Grammatology, trans. G. Chakravorty Spivak, Baltimore and London: The
Johns Hopkins University Press
3) Book with two or more Authors or Editors
Fuery, P. and N. Mansfield (1997) Cultural Studies and the New Humanities: Concepts and
Controversies, Melbourne: Oxford University Press
Grosz, E. and E. Probyn (eds) (1995) Sexy Bodies: The Strange Carnalities of Feminism, London
and New York: Routledge
4) Journal Article
Green, L. (1996) ‘Technology and Conversation: Construction and Deconstruction of Community’
Australian Journal of Communication 23, 3, pp. 54-67
5) Essay from a Collection or Anthology
Palmer, L. (1994) ‘Regulating Technology’ in Green, L. and Guinery, R. (eds) Framing
Technology: Society, Choice and Change, Sydney: Allen and Unwin, pp. 77-90
6) Newspaper/Magazine Article
McGrath, A. (2003) ‘Diversity is Lost in Boy’s Own History’ Sydney Morning Herald 17 July p. 13
If there is no author, the article should be listed with the title first.
7) Film
Boys Don’t Cry (motion picture) 1999, Fox Searchlight Pictures and the Independent Film Channel
Productions, directed by Kimberley Peirce
8) Video
Heaven (videorecording) 1997, Canberra, Ronin Films, directed by Tracey Moffatt.
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9) Television Program
‘…For Being Lebanese’ (2002) Four Corners Sydney, ABC TV, 16 September, reporter Stephen
McDonell.
10) Video Clip
Madonna (1992) ‘Vogue’ (video clip), ABC TV, 16 September
11) Internet Sources
Because Internet sites do not always contain information such as authors, dates or titles, the rule is
to include as much information as is available. You must, however always include the Internet
address and the date that you accessed the site. If there is no author list the site in alphabetical order
under the title.
Poster, M. (1995) ‘The Net as a Public Sphere’, Wired,
http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/3.11/poster.if_pr.html. (Accessed 18 Jul. 2003)
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Referencing Software
Reference data can be easily organized through software packages such as Endnote, which is a free
download for University of Sydney students. The Library regularly runs workshops in how to use
the program. Endnote automates the referencing process. It allows you to compile lists of sources
that can be formatted into reference lists in different bibliographic styles. Records can be entered
manually but most academic databases allow you to export records as files that can be directly
copied into an Endnote library. Endnote can be integrated with Microsoft Word allowing you to cite
sources as you write. Your reading notes can also be attached to Endnote records. Learning to use
Endnote early in your university career can save you many hours that you would otherwise spend
referencing manually. N.B. In default settings Endnote might generate versions of MLA or Harvard
that are slightly different from those in this guide. You can amend the filter settings of Endnote or
amend the bibliography after it has been exported to Word.
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4) Footnotes and Endnotes
While many disciplines in the humanities have moved towards the use of in-text referencing, there
are still good reasons why you may want to use footnotes or endnotes. In certain disciplines such as
history, where detailed source information is often needed, footnotes are still preferred. Remember
that footnotes appear at the bottom of the page while endnotes appear at the end of the document. If
you wish to use footnotes/endnotes rather than in-text referencing then you need to consult the
MLA Style guide. A copy is available in the reference section of the library.
Footnotes and endnotes can also be used for non-bibliographic comments that give additional
information or clarification about points made in the text. For example, they might include some
further technical details about a methodology or facts about the topic, or they might clarify how an
author is using a term. They work best as brief asides. Generally you should minimize their use
because it is distracting for readers to have to switch away from the main text constantly. If material
develops main points or arguments it is better incorporated into the main text.
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5) Written Expression and Writing Style
While writing style is a very individual matter, there are certain conventions that are required in
academic writing. You need to become familiar with these conventions and avoid common
grammatical and style errors. The last two sections will provide information about some of the
expectations of academic writing in the humanities and some of the common errors encountered in
student essays.
Style Matters
Style does indeed matter. Below are some suggestions about style in academic writing.
a) Clichés
Clichés are overused expressions that are often inserted in place of a more straightforward statement
relevant to your topic. Avoid using clichéd expressions in academic writing because apart from
sounding tired they lack precision. Some of the common clichés that students use are:
since time immemorial
bear in mind
the powers that be
an uphill battle
explore every avenue
b) Slang, Colloquial Expressions and Generalisations
Avoid using slang and colloquial expressions in your essays unless quoting something or else to
make a point about an expression’s usage. As a rule avoid using colloquial contractions such as
“can’t” and “don’t” as they sit awkwardly in an essay. Similarly, avoid the use of generalisations
such as “patriarchy”, “most people”, “society”. If you do use these terms, make sure that you
critically reflect on the context in which they appear.
c) Use of the First Person : Using “I” in an Essay
Although traditional academic writing often discouraged the use of the first person, it has become
more acceptable within the humanities in recent years. While there are important reasons for
sometimes using “I” in an essay or other piece of written work, particularly if you are asked to
reflect on your own experience, there are also good reasons for not overusing “I” in a more formal
essay.
In an essay where you are asked to critically analyse a specific topic or question, you are not
required to give your opinion per se, but rather a well-researched and informed response. As such to
begin a sentence with “I think…” undermines the critical nature of your argument or analysis. If
you do use “I” in an essay make sure that you use it sparingly and only when it is relevant to the
context of your argument. For example:
Appropriate uses of “I”
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Although dragkinging has now become a global phenomenon, I first encountered it in Adelaide
many years ago when I was researching community art practices.
In this sentence the author is using “I” to situate their knowledge about the subject.
Unnecessary uses of “I”
I think that postcolonial theory is important for an analysis of Salman Rushdie’s novels.
Here the use of the phrase “I think” is unnecessary. Since it is a given that postcolonial literature is
relevant to an analysis of Rushdie’s work, it becomes redundant to say “I think”. Instead the
sentence should read: Postcolonial theory is important for an analysis of Salman Rushdie’s
novels.
I found the novel a fascinating account of the deprivation experienced by children growing up in the
slums of New Delhi.
Here the use of “I” detracts from the rhetorical force of an argument or analysis. The sentence
should read: The novel is a fascinating account of the deprivation experienced by children
growing up in the slums of New Delhi.
d) Overuse of the Passive Voice
While the passive voice is sometimes necessary in academic writing, try not to overuse it,
particularly in an argumentative style essay. The passive voice often creates unnecessary wordiness,
which disrupts the flow of your essay. For e.g.:
Passive Voice
It is through this essay that I propose to analyse the effects of homophobic violence on male high
school students.
Active Voice
This essay will examine the effects of homophobic violence on male high school students.
Common uses of the passive voice in student essays occur when referring to evidence or examples.
Avoid these constructions:
This is also seen when
It is shown that
It can be seen that
e) Non-Discriminatory Language
The University of Sydney Senate policy has strict guidelines about the use of non-discriminatory
language. The most common forms of non-discriminatory language include non-sexist and nonracist language. As a general rule it is important to recognise diversity and difference in your
writing otherwise it may be perceived as offensive to certain groups. Remember that language
discriminates when it makes certain groups invisible.
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Because English has no third person singular pronoun that is gender-neutral, traditionally “he”,
“his” or “him” has been used to refer to both men and women. This has become unacceptable in
recent years so it is important in your writing to include both men and women when referring
generically to a person or persons. Ways to overcome this include:
She or he
S/he
They
If a student wants their result early, she or he should go to the student centre.
If a student wants their result early, s/he should go to the student centre.
If a student wants their results early, they should go to the student centre.
(Although this last sentence is grammatically incorrect, in speech it has become common practice to
use the pronoun “they” when referring to a generic person).
As a general rule avoid terms that obscure the presence of women in particular occupations or mark
out a person’s gender when it is not necessary to do so.
Actor for both men and women
Humankind or humanity rather than mankind
Police Officers rather than Policeman
Chairperson or Chair rather than Chairman
In referring to nationalities, ethnic and racial groups, always use a capital letter (eg. Macedonian,
Aboriginal, Torres Strait Islander, German, American). The Koori Centre also prefers Indigenous to
be spelt with a capital letter.
Some assignments involve writing that is shared with or addressed towards other students.
Remember that respectful language must always be used as per the University’s codes of conduct.
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6) Common Grammatical Errors in Student Essays
a) Run-on Sentence
This is a sentence that goes on for too long without the appropriate use of a conjunction or
punctuation. Technically it is two grammatically separate sentences running on one after the other.
For example:
Homophobic violence is a form of interpersonal violence it affects gay men and lesbians.
There should be a full-stop after ‘violence’. However, that would lead to two very abrupt sentences.
This sentence could read:
Homophobic violence is a form of interpersonal violence, which affects gay men and lesbians.
b) Comma Splice
This occurs where a comma is used instead of a full stop, i.e. two sentences are spliced together
using a comma. For e.g.:
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Homophobic violence is a form of hate crime, it affects gay men and lesbians of all ages and from
all backgrounds.
This sentence should read:
Homophobic violence is a form of hate crime. It affects gay men and lesbians of all ages and from
all backgrounds.
c) Sentence Fragment
This is a sentence that lacks a subject or a verb. For e.g.
The James Bulger case caused a media sensation in Britain. Which is understandable.
This sentence should read:
The James Bulger case caused a media sensation in Britain, which is understandable.
d) Agreement of Verbs and Subjects
Verbs have to agree with their subjects. Singular verbs have singular subjects. Plural verbs have
plural subjects. Some times it is difficult to determine the subject of the sentence.
Incorrect Verb Agreement:
The representation of unmarried women in Jane Austen’s novels are comical and ironic.
Correct Verb agreement:
The representation of unmarried women in Jane Austen’s novels is comical and ironic.
Here the subject of the sentence is the representation of unmarried women. Since the subject is
singular, the verb should also be singular.
e) Using Colons and Semi Colons
A colon is used to introduce a list or a long quotation after a formal sentence or an indented
quotation. Remember that what comes after a colon is often not a full grammatical sentence. For
e.g.:
i)
You will need to bring three items to the lecture: your course reader, a pen and a note pad.
ii)
In Bourdieu’s argument:
Taste, a class culture turned into nature, that is embodied, helps shape the class body.
It is an incorporated principle of classification which governs all forms of
incorporation, choosing and modifying everything that the body ingests and digests
and assimilates, physiologically and psychologically. (Bourdieu, 1979/1984: 190).
iii)
In order to convey the currency of Marxism, Amin describes the present in these terms:
“One hundred and fifty years after The Communist Manifesto was put forth we are once
again in one of those moments when the gluttons hold their orgy” (1998: 22).
A semi-colon is used to connect (usually two independent clauses) rather than introduce. This
means that a semi-colon is invariably preceded and followed by a full grammatical sentence. e.g.:
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At the meeting the vice-chancellor discussed the new education reforms; the entire audience sat
motionless.
f) Use of Apostrophes
Apostrophes are used to indicate possession, as in ‘Nalini’s house’. They are sometimes incorrectly
used with plurals such as in the 1990’s or ‘Hundred’s were killed on the first day of hostilities.’
Apostrophes are also used to contract words, i.e. make them sound more like spoken forms. This is
usually an inadvisable stylistic choice in academic writing. In an essay you should write “It is
debatable whether…’ rather than ‘It’s debatable whether…’. Don’t forget possessive use of ‘its’
does not take an apostrophe as that would mix it up with the common contraction it’s (‘it is’).
Incorrect: ‘The ABC should be responsible for it’s own programming policies’
Correct: ‘The ABC should be responsible for its own programming policies’
g) Missing and Erroneous Words
As already mentioned, spell-checkers can make it easy to include words that are spelled correctly
but are not the word intended, and they do not identify missed words. Always proofread yourself.
‘Splatting infinitives is not recommended by traditionalists’ (splitting infinitives is even worse…)
‘The fieldwork was carried in Western Sydney’ (no it wasn’t…)
h) Mixing up Adjectives and Adverbs
You should ‘be carefully to use them correct’.
No. Actually you should ‘be careful to use them correctly’ and can refer to a dictionary to compare
adjective and adverb forms.
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7) Further resources
LIBR1000 Library skills http://www.library.usyd.edu.au/skills/tutorials/esearch/
Designed for 1st years, this is a series of modules that look at everything from finding course
readings, planning research, citing references and plagiarism. The modules are available for anyone
to use. There is also a final quiz in Blackboard so that students can be tested on the material.
The WriteSite http://writesite.elearn.usyd.edu.au/ is a great resource for developing academic and
professional writing skills, everything from grammar to structuring an essay. Module 2 discusses
quoting and referencing.
The Learning Centre http://sydney.edu.au/stuserv/learning_centre/resour.shtml provides online
assistance too, including analysing an essay question and referencing guidelines.
Version date: 27/05/2014
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