The Back Story of Psychology
An Examination of the Personal and Social Contexts of the Discovery Process
Submitted by
Barbara Lusk
blusk@ccccd.edu
972-548-6809
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The Back Story of Psychology
An Examination of the Personal and Social Contexts of the Discovery Process
“Yet it is good to study the discoveries of others in a way that discloses to us the source
of the discoveries and renders them in a sort our own. And I wish that authors would
give us the history of their discoveries and the steps by which they have arrived at them.
When they neglect to do so, we must try to divine these steps in order to profit the more
from their works.”
Leibniz to Louis Bourquet, 22 March 1714
Research in the history and sociology of science clearly indicates that scientists do not
have great flashes of insight, weigh the evidence they gather, construct new theories and evaluate
the ideas of others in a vacuum, untouched by their own very personal experiences and the
broader social contexts in which they are embedded. Scientific inquiry, it is argued, does not
typically proceed in an orderly fashion, with all concerned remaining objective, fair-minded, and
untouched by jealousy, political expediency, and petty concerns. These historians and
sociologists place tremendous emphasis on social and cultural factors affecting the development
of science. Recently, a new wave of scholars, self-proclaimed “psychobiographers,” has added
their distinctive perspective. Here, researchers delve more deeply into the personal lives of their
subjects – early memories, traumatic experiences, the parent-child relationship, sibling rivalry,
love-life, professional controversies, public and private battles with colleagues, foes, and their
own demons – linking these (and more) to the development of the ideas, the theories they
construct, and the manner in which their ideas are received by the relevant community of
psychologists.
As I consider my academic training as a clinical psychologist and my years of
teaching introductory psychology courses, I am sorely aware of my own lack of
knowledge about the history of science, and about the details of the lives of the
individuals who shaped the field of psychology. At best, the standard texts relegate
biographical information to a portion of a first chapter, a “boxed” entry located in the
margins of later chapters, or it is buried in an appendix. Worse, the information that is
provided is rarely more than a caricature. Mythic episodes stand in place of a systematic
analysis of the unique personality of individual scholars, and a sociohistorical account of
the development of scientific thought is never mentioned. These abbreviated accounts
are, practically speaking, worthless.
Humans are, by nature, curious and nosy. Interest in the “back story” of psychology
seems a very natural response to the sanitized version of the “science” that is typically presented
for review. But more important, there is great value for me and for students in knowing both the
personal and historical/social context of the development of psychological knowledge. This
information provides flesh and bones to the more abstract theories and processes of science; it
makes the materials come alive and become more memorable.
Should I receive this grant, I will study the autobiographies and biographies of some of
the most significant figures in the development of psychological theory and practice. Major
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figures drawn from the areas of psychoanalytic theory, behaviorism, humanism, animal behavior,
social psychology, personality psychology, and cognitive/social development will be included.
Included, too, will be women who were pioneers in the discipline.
The purpose of this study grant is multi-layered. I will be reading these materials with an
eye toward examining the following set of questions:
First, what precisely is the new field of psychobiography? What are its main tenets and
modus operandi? How does it differ from more mainstream work in the history of psychology?
How does the new field of psychobiography fit within mainstream psychology? Is
psychobiography considered a viable method of inquiry in the discipline? Is the current climate
in psychology open to the study of individual lives?
Second, how are the personal lives of the creators of the work I have chosen to examine
connected to their finished products? For example, there is a well-known story of how Gordon
Allport’s famous meeting with Freud soured him of psychoanalytic theory, but also ultimately
influenced the development of his personality theory. Jung, in an autobiographical account,
describes dreams he had as a child that ultimately shaped his ideas of consciousness. Who
nurtured – and impeded - their creative process? Were colleagues close at hand and at a distance
more of a help or a hindrance? Did family obligations and the day-to-day vicissitudes of life
intrude? How, precisely, did these scholars arrive at their theories? What false starts, serious
blunders, and happy accidents accompanied the discovery process?
Third, what was the cognitive/intellectual setting that existed and influenced the
discovery process and, ultimately, the reception of new ideas? As stated earlier, no ideas emerge
in a vacuum. Most theories are constructed as a response to “accepted” ideas that may be
considered outdated, limiting, inaccurate, or useless. How does this process of unseating a
previously accepted set of ideas or principals unfold? Competition, petty rivalries, and
institutional cronyism surely affect these battles. Moreover, competition is not limited to
psychologists with divergent perspectives. Often, two or more psychologists are involved in a
“race” to be the first to “discover” important theories and win the recognition that it confers.
Freud, for example, was involved in many “priority disputes” during his most creative years.
Fourth, apart from intellectual concerns, what broader social factors affected the response
of the scientific community to these ideas? Theories may be accepted or rejected because of the
right “timing.” Issues of status, money, and political climate all influence the ultimate acceptance
or rejection of theory.
This type of information needed to answer the foregoing questions is rarely included in
either journal publications of primary work or in any textbook overview of theoretical findings.
The answer to these questions, I believe, is critical to an understanding of the process of the
development of knowledge – the main objective of this study.
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Plan of Study
The sources I shall be examining are of five types: (1) full biographic treatments
by noted historians in the field, (2) briefer biographical sketches that have appeared in the
six volume Portraits of Pioneers in Psychology series, (3) autobiographies that have
appeared in the widely acclaimed A History of Psychology in Autobiography, (4) general
historical accounts of the development of psychology, and (5) a series of articles
published by psychobiographers in both the recently published Handbook of
Psychobiography edited by William Todd Schultz and standard journals in psychology.
Week 1
To provide a frame for the biographies and autobiographies I have chosen to
examine, I shall begin with an overview of the field of psychobiography. In his
introduction to the handbook, William Todd Schultz provides a description of the
specialty, its place in the field of psychology, and information regarding what is
considered by the experts to be “good” versus “bad” psychobiographies. William M.
Runyan, one of the founders of the field, provides a counterpoint in his chapter,
“Evolving Conceptions of Psychobiography and the Study of Lives: Encounters With
Psychoanalysis, Personality Psychology, and Historical Science.” Next, I shall read
James William Anderson’s “The Psychobiographical Study of Psychologists,” which
surveys a number of cases that have recently appeared. Last, to get some sense of how a
practicing psychobiographer goes about his/her work, I shall read Nicole Barenbaum’s
case study of Gordon Allport, “Four, Two, or One? Gordon Allport and the Unique
Personality.”
Weeks 2 - 4
Next, I shall turn to two full length biographies of the giants in psychodynamic
theory. Peter Gay’s FREUD: A Life for Our Time is considered to be the authoritative
account of Freud’s remarkable career. In this massive 650 page volume, Gay, the
Sterling Professor of History at Yale University, also builds a case for history informed
by psychoanalysis.
I will follow Freud’s biography with Deirdre Bair’s Jung. A previous National
Book Award recipient for her biography of Samuel Beckett, Bair has been a literary
journalist and university professor of comparative literature. Her text on Jung includes
restricted interviews, analytic diaries, and early drafts of Jung’s writings, in addition to
private archival information she was allowed to access.
Weeks 5 - 7
Watsonian behaviorism developed, in part, in opposition to both functionalism
and psychodynamic theory’s emphasis on internal processes. Kerry W. Buckley’s
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Mechanical Man: John Broadus Watson and the Beginnings of Behaviorism, addresses
these issues in detail. Buckley received his Ph.D. in American Social and Intellectual
History from the University of Massachusetts at Amherst. His work on Watson is
considered to be somewhat of a hybrid—half biography and half history of behavioral
psychology. Therefore the book serves to provide details of Watson’s life, as well as
information about the impact of behaviorism on society.
Today, the name most associated with the behaviorist approach is B.F. Skinner.
Daniel W. Bjork’s book, B.F. Skinner: A Life is based on intensive interviews with
Skinner and his family and information from the Skinner collection in the Harvard
archives. Described as objective, well-documented, and insightful, this book is the only
complete biography of one of the most controversial and influential learning theorists.
Bjork is a professor of history at St. Mary’s University in San Antonio.
Week 8
I shall turn next to two scholars instrumental in developing personality theory. In
their autobiographical accounts of their work, Gordon Allport and Henry A. Murray
outline the many factors that affected the development of their thought and the reception
of their ideas. These will be supplemented by Barenbaum’s two excellent
psychobiographical case studies: one on Allport (mentioned above), the second, “Henry
A. Murray: Personology as Biography, Science and Art,” which appears in the Portraits
series.
Week 9-10
Abraham Maslow is considered to be a leader in the “third wave” of psychology.
This movement, a reaction to the determinism of psychoanalysis and behaviorism, is
addressed in Edward Hoffman’s biography Abraham Maslow—The Right to Be Human.
Hoffman, a clinical psychologist in private practice in New York City, presents a
compelling account of Maslow’s life and work.
Equal in stature to Maslow in the development of humanism is Carl Rogers. To
explore his role in shaping the humanist movement, I shall read Lakin’s “Carl Rogers and
the Culture of Psychotherapy” published in the Portraits series.
Week 10-12
Erik Erikson, trained by Sigmund and Anna Freud, departed from psychoanalytic
doctrine by insisting that social circumstances were no less important than inner psyche
in determining human personality. His theory of psychosocial development over the life
span is considered to be one of the most influential developmental theories in
psychology. Lawrence J. Friedman’s comprehensive biography, Identity’s Architect, a
Biography of Erik H. Erikson, explores the relationship between Erikson’s personal life
and his groundbreaking ideas. Friedman is a noted historian and professor at Indiana
University, as well as a four-time National Endowment of the Humanities recipient.
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Jean Piaget, best known for reorganizing cognitive development theory into a
series of stages, is considered to be a pioneer in the constructivist theory of knowing. To
explore the life and work of this leader in cognitive theory, I shall read Zigler's and
Gilman’s account, “The Legacy of Jean Piaget,” in the Portraits series.
Weeks 12-13
Much important work in the study of psychology is derived from animal studies. I
shall focus on two of the towering figures in animal/comparative psychology, Harry
Harlow, best known for his research on the importance love and affection in primates,
and Robert Yerkes, namesake and director of the first US lab for the study of non-human
primates.
To gain a better understanding of the professional and biographical aspects of
Harlow’s groundbreaking work, I shall rely on Deborah Blum, a Pulitzer Prize-winning
author and professor of journalism at the University of Wisconsin. Her book, Love at
Goon Park: Harry Harlow and the Science of Affection, has received high praise from
reviewers for her deft handling and intermingling of biographical and professional
matters.
For the story of Yerkes’ life, research, institution-building efforts, and the
reception accorded to his efforts, I shall read noted historian of psychology Donald A.
Dewsbury’s recently published Monkey Farm: A History of the Yerkes Laboratories of
Primate Biology, Orange Park, Florida, 1930-1965.
Week 14
Social Psychology has always been a vibrant sub-specialty in the discipline of
psychology and always seems to engage the attention of students enrolled in general
psychology classes. The lives and work of Leon Festinger, Stanley Milgram, Floyd
Allport, and Soloman Asch, all leaders in social psychology, are explored in brief
chapters in the Portraits series. J.W. Brehm writes a detailed account of Festinger in the
article, “Leon Festinger: Beyond the Obvious.” T. Blass discusses Milgram in “Stanley
Milgram: A Life of Inventiveness and Controversy.” Katz, Johnson, and Nichols
provide a comprehensive account of Floyd Allport in “Floyd Henry Allport: Founder of
Social Psychology As a Behavioral Science.” Last, Clark McCauley and Paul Rozin
write about the work of Soloman Asch in their report: “Solomon Asch: Scientist and
Humanist.”
Week 15
Most histories of science have had the tendency to ignore the important roles that
women have played in the development of their discipline. Happily, recent work has
begun to correct this glaring defect. For an overview of the contributions of women in
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psychology I shall read Untold Lives: The First Generation of American Women
Psychologists, published by Scarborough, an associate professor of psychology at State
University of New York, and her collaborator Furumoto, a professor of psychology at
Wellesley.
Next, I will explore the lives of two of the first women psychologists through
Alexandra Rutherford’s, “Mother of Behavior Therapy and Beyond: Mary Cover Jones
and the Study of the ‘Whole Child’”, and Furumoto’s “From Paired Associates to a
Psychology of Self: The Intellectual Odyssey of Mary Whiton Calkins.” Each of these
appears in the Portraits series.
Conclusion
The study of science should have something to do with the study of individuals—
real people who reside in the real world. As Horace Judson states, “ . . . scientists
understand very well [that] personality has always been an inseparable part of their styles
of enquiry, a potent if unacknowledged factor in their results. Indeed, no art or popular
entertainment is so carefully built as is science upon the individual talents, preferences,
and habits of its leaders.” This study grant allows me to do the focused reading of
biographical and psychobiographical accounts of many of the most important figures in
the history of psychology. The knowledge gained will enhance every course I teach. I
will use the material to develop a more comprehensive introduction to general
psychology, life span psychology, and the psychology of personality. First impressions
matter. The richer and more detailed the introduction, the more likely that students will
be engaged and excited about pursuing knowledge, participating in learning. I also
anticipate collaborating on the development of a learning community organized around a
theme of the process of discovery. The readings for this study grant would certainly be
excellent preparation for such an endeavor.
Professionally, I will benefit by becoming a better teacher, more informed, more
excited about psychology as an example of the broader topic of the history of science. I
anticipate taking advantage of opportunities to present pieces of what I have learned both
locally, at Psi Beta and at the Seniors Active in Learning (S.A.I.L.) visiting lecture series,
and nationally at conferences specific to this field. This is an entirely new world of
information for me—at this rather late date in my professional career. But, as
Michelangelo said at 87, “I am still learning.” Thus, this study grant is not only about the
history of psychology through biography, but also the history of the development of
knowledge. As I did the initial work necessary to prepare this grant proposal, I
recognized how much there is to gain from understanding something of the way scientific
inquiry unfolds. This endeavor really is personal, not just business as usual.
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Bibliography
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A History of Psychology in Autobiography (Vol. V, pp. 3-25). New York:
Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Anderson, J. W. (2005). “The Psychobiographical Study of Psychologists.” In W. T.
Schultz (Ed.), Handbook of Psychobiography (pp. 203-209). Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Bair, D. (2003). Jung: A Biography. Boston: Little, Brown and Company.
Barenbaum, N. B. (2005). “Four, Two, or One? Gordon Allport and the Unique
Personality.” In W. T. Schultz (Ed.), Handbook of Psychobiography (pp. 223 –
239). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Barenbaum, N. B. (2006). “Henry A. Murray: Personology as Biography, Science,
and Art.” In D. A. Dewsbury, L. T. Benjamin, Jr., & M. Wertheimer (Eds.),
Portraits of Pioneers in Psychology (Vol. VI, chapter 11). Washington, D.C:
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Bjork, D. W. (1993). B. F. Skinner: A Life. New York: BasicBooks, a Division of
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Blass, T. (1996). “Stanley Milgram: A Life of Inventiveness and Controversy.” In G. A.
Kimble, C. A. Boneau, & M. Wertheimer, (Eds.), Portraits of Pioneers in
Psychology (Vol. II, pp. 315-331). Washington, D.C: American Psychological
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Blum, D. (2002). Love at Goon Park: Harry Harlow and the Science of Affection.
New York: Berkley Publishing Group.
Brehm, J. W. (1998). “Leon Festinger: Beyond the Obvious.” In G. A. Kimble & M.
Wertheimer, (Eds.), Portraits of Pioneers in Psychology (Vol. III, pp. 329-344).
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Buckley, K. W. (1989). Mechanical Man: John Broadus Watson and the Beginnings of
Behaviorism. New York: The Guilford Press.
Dewsbury, D. A. (2006). Monkey Farm: A History of the Yerkes Laboratories of Primate
Biology, Orange Park, Florida, 1930-1965. Lewisburg, PA: Bucknell University
Press.
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Friedman, L. J. (1999). Identity’s Architect: A Biography of Erik H. Erikson. New York:
Scribner.
Furumoto, L. (1991). “From ‘Paired Associates’ to a Psychology of Self: The Intellectual
Odyssey of Mary Whiton Calkins.” In G. A. Kimble, M. Wertheimer, & C. L.
White, (Eds.), Portraits of Pioneers in Psychology, (Vol. I, pp. 57-72).
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Hoffman, E. (1988). The Right to Be Human: A Biography of Abraham Maslow.
Los Angeles, CA: Jeremy P. Tarcher, Inc.
Katz, D., Johnson, B. T., & Nichols, D. R. (1998). “Floyd Henry Allport: Founder of
Social Psychology As a Behavorial Science.” In G. A. Kimble & M. Wertheimer,
(Eds.), Portraits of Pioneers in Psychology, (Vol. III, pp. 122-142). Washington,
D.C: American Psychological Association.
Lakin, M. (1998). “Carl Rogers and the Culture of Psychotherapy.” In G. A. Kimble &
M. Wertheimer, (Eds.), Portraits of Pioneers in Psychology (Vol. III, pp. 245258). Washington, D.C: American Psychological Association.
McCauley, C. & Rozin, P. (2003). “Solomon Asch: Scientist and Humanist.” In G. A.
Kimble, & M. Wertheimer, (Eds.), Portraits of Pioneers in Psychology (Vol. V,
pp. 249-261). Washington, D.C: American Psychological Association.
Murray, H. A. (1967). “Henry A. Murray”. In Boring, E. G. & Lindzey, G. (Eds.), A
History of Psychology in Autobiography (Vol. 5, pp. xxx-xxx). New York:
Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Runyan, W. M. (2005). “Evolving Conceptions of Psychobiography and the Study of
Lives: Encounters With Psychoanalysis, Personality Psychology, and Historical
Science.” In W. T. Schultz, (Ed.), Handbook of Psychobiography (pp. 19-41).
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Rutherford, A. (2006). “Mother of Behavior Therapy and Beyond: Mary Cover
Jones and the Study of the ‘Whole Child’.” In D. A. Dewsbury, L. T. Benjamin,
Jr., & M. Wertheimer, (Eds.), Portraits of Pioneers in Psychology (Vol. VI,
chapter 12). Washington, D.C: American Psychological Association.
Scarborough, E. & Furumoto, L. (1989). Untold Lives: The First Generation of
American Women Psychologists. New York: Columbia University Press.
Schultz, W. T. (2005). “Introducing Psychobiography”. In W. T. Schultz, (Ed.),
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Handbook of Psychobiography (pp.3-18). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Zigler, E. & Gilman, E. (1998). “The Legacy of Jean Piaget.” In G. A.
Kimble & M. Wertheimer, (Eds.), Portraits of Pioneers in Psychology (Vol. III,
pp. 145-160). Washington, D.C: American Psychological Association.
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