Decent Work
and
International Labour Migration from Bangladesh
Tasneem Siddiqui
University of Dhaka
INTRODUCTION
The annual growth rate of global migrant population has increased from 1.2
percent during the period 1965 to 1975 to 3 percent in early 2000 (Abella
2002). Among all kinds of migration, movement of workers is the most
dominant. Close to 80% of the total migrant population are workers.
Increased movement of labour is indicative of increased employment
opportunity in the global market. In recent time migration has enabled a
section of people to attain productive, self-actualizing and creative work but
for many others it has not been successful in ensuring acceptable quality of
job. Instead, migration has resulted in inhumane work conditions where basic
labour rights of the workers are not respected.
Bangladesh is one of the major labour sending countries of the world. Each
year a large number of people voluntarily migrate overseas for long-term and
short-term employment. This paper attempts to assess the current state and
future potential of short-term international migration in creating decent work
opportunities for migrants of Bangladesh.
METHODOLOGY
Over the last five years, some important empirical research works have been
conducted on international migration. This paper relies on the findings of
some of these works1. It surveyed several conference, seminar and workshop
proceedings2. The paper is also based on interviews of officials of BMET and
Paper
presented at National Policy Dialogue: "Globalisation, Decent Work and Poverty
Reduction: Policy Alternatives" under Decent Work Pilot Programme of Bangladesh on 27-28
April, 2004 at Dhaka Sheraton Hotel, Dhaka, Bangladesh.
1
Syed Refaat Ahmed, Forlorn Migrants: An International Legal Regime for Undocumented Migrant Workers, UPL,
2000; Tasneem Siddiqui, Transcending Boundaries: Labour Migration of Women from Bangladesh, UPL, 2001;
INSTRAW and IOM, Temporary Labour Migration of Women: Case Studies of Bangladesh and Sri Lanka, 2000;
Tasneem Siddiqui edited Beyond the Maze: Streamlining Labour Recruitment Process in Bangladesh, RMMRU,
2002. Tasneem Siddiqui and C R Abrar, Contribution of Returnees: An Analytical Survey of Post Return Experience,
June 2000 UNDP and IOM ; Tasneem Siddiqui, Migrant Workers’ Remittances and Micro-finance in Bangladesh,
May 2001 ILO; Therese Blanchet, Beyond the boundaries: A critical Look at Women Labour Migration April 2002
USAID. Tasneem Siddiqui 2003 Institutionalizing Diaspora Linkage: The Bangladeshis in the UK and the US, GoB
and IOM. Tasneem Siddiqui and J Sikdar, Working Condition of Bangladeshi Factory Workers in the Middle Eastern
Countries RMMRU and WARBE 2004, Commissioned by the Solidarity Center, Sri Lanka.
2
Over the last few years a number of conference, seminars and workshops have been organised on international
labour migration. These include: workshop on National Responsibility towards the Migrant Workers, organised by
RMMRU, December 1997; conference on Temporary Migrant Workers of Bangladesh: Towards Developing a
National Plan of Action, organised by RMMRU in collaboration with the Bangladesh National Women Lawyers’
Association, April 1999; consultative meeting on the Need for the Ratification of International Convention on the
Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of their Families by RMMRU, February 2000; symposium on Short-term
Labour Migration of Women from Bangladesh, by RMMRU, November 2000; workshop on Remittance and Microfinance in Bangladesh, by ILO, May 2001; three two-day Awareness Campaign Workshops on Labour Migration
Process for Community Leaders and Activists by RMMRU, April, November 2001 and May 2002; National
Consultation Workshop organised by IOM, November 2002; Regional Conference on Migration, Development and
Pro-Poor Policy Choices, jointly organised by DFID, UK and RMMRU, June 2003 in Dhaka.
1
members of migrant workers’ associations and the outcome of stakeholder
meetings with government, employers and trade unions.
CONCEPTUAL FRAME WORK
Decent Work
The overarching goal of ILO is to improve situation of human being in the
world of work. In recent times, decent work has emerged as the core concept
of ILO in achieving this goal (ILO, 1999, 2001). To ILO, decent work means
productive work in which rights are protected and generates an adequate
income, with adequate social protection. In other words, it refers to a situation
that promotes opportunities for men and women to obtain decent and
productive work in the condition of freedom, equality, security and human
dignity. The concept of decent work stands on four pillars. These are access
to employment, promotion of rights at work, social protection, and social
dialogue.
Employment is generally seen as the means of sustaining life and of meeting
basic human needs. But it is also an activity through which individuals affirm
their own identity, receives satisfaction and makes fullest development of their
potentials and skills, thereby making great contribution to common well-being.
Therefore, employment is not to be seen only as access to any job, rather
access to “full job of acceptable quality, productive in nature and freely
chosen”. All those who work have rights at work. Every worker enjoys certain
rights irrespective of his or her type of employment, whether in organised or
not, in formal or informal economy, at home, in community or in the voluntary
sector. Social protection refers to protection from vulnerabilities and
contingencies that take people out of work. This includes old age, sickness,
unemployment and loss of livelihood. Social dialogue is a process through
which employer and employee resolve their differences and ensure social
equity. It is means by which rights are defended, employment promoted and
work secured.
Decent work concept is relevant for all countries. However, depending on the
stage of development decent work standards may vary between countries at
any given time. Decent work is also gaining currency as development and
poverty reduction goals. In the millennium summit of 2000 the UN Secretary
General identified Decent Work for young people as one of the eight priority
ways of attacking poverty (UN 2000). Pope John Paul II supported a call for
global coalition for decent work. On behalf of the non-aligned movement,
President Tom Mbeki of South Africa affirmed that “decent standard of living,
adequate nutrition, health care, education and decent work for all are common
goals for both the South and the North”3. The UNDP Human Development
Report of 2000 identified freedom for decent work without exploitation as one
of the seven types of basic freedoms.
3
Sighted in ILO 2001 page-12.
2
Migration
In this paper short-term international labour migration is defined as voluntary
movement of people from one country to another for a certain period to
achieve a better life or to earn a better livelihood. Employment is a major
avenue through which migrants aspire to attain a better living. In the light of
the four pillars, employment, right at work, social protection and social
dialogue; the scope of voluntary international migration in creating decent
work can be analysed.
The first indicator therefore may be access to full employment, to earn a
reasonable income for maintenance of decent living and flourishing of creative
energy of individuals. The second indicator would be that rights that are
recognized for individuals at work and the extent to which he/she enjoys those
rights in practice. The third indicator would constitute of social protections that
are at place. Finally, the fourth indicator would be the available mechanisms
operational for employers and employees to negotiate and protect rights at
work.
This paper is divided into eight sections, including this introduction. Section 2
underscores the importance of labour migration to the economy of
Bangladesh. Section 3 describes different ministries and agencies involved in
managing migration. Section 4 starts the analysis of labour migration from
decent work perspective. It attempts to understand access to employment
created for the Bangladeshis through migration. Section 5 makes a
comparison of the rights provided to the migrant workers through various
international and national instruments and their enforcement at various stages
of migration - ranging from recruitment to return. Section 6 analyses the level
of social protection available to the migrants, and Section 7 highlights the
participation of trade unions and other civil society organizations in acting as
bridge between employers and employees through performing social
dialogue. Section 8 draws conclusions on major policy challenges and finally
offers some recommendations.
2. IMPORTANCE OF SHORT TERM MIGRATION
TO THE NATIONAL ECONOMY
Labour migration plays a vital role in the economy of Bangladesh. Bangladesh
has a very narrow export base. Readymade garments, frozen fish, jute,
leather and tea are the five groups of items that account for four-fifths of its
export earnings. Currently, garments manufacturing is treated as the highest
foreign exchange earning sector of the country (US $ 4.583 billion in 2003).
However, if the cost of import of raw material is adjusted, then the net earning
from migrant workers’ remittances is higher than that of the garments sector.
In 2003, net export earning from RMG should be between US$2.29-2.52
billion, whereas the earning from remittance is net US$3.063 billion. In fact,
since the 1980s, contrary to the popular belief, remittances sent by the
3
migrant workers played a much greater role in sustaining the economy of
Bangladesh than the garments sector.4
During the period of 1977-1978 to 1997-1998, annual average of contribution
of remittances was 26.5 percent (Siddiqui and Abrar, 2001). This has been
used in financing the import of capital goods and raw materials for industrial
development. In the year 1998-1999, 22 percent of the official import bill was
financed by remittances (Afsar, 2000; Murshid, 2000). The steady flow of
remittances has resolved the foreign exchange constraints, improved the
balance of payments, and helped increase the supply of national savings
(Quibria 1986). Remittances also constituted a very important source of the
country’s development budget. In certain years in the 1990s remittances’
contribution rose to more than 50 percent of the country’s development
budget. Government of Bangladesh treats Foreign aid (concessional loan and
grants) as an important resource base of the country. However, remittances
Bangladesh received last year was twice that of foreign aid.
The contribution of remittance to GDP has has also grown from a meagre 1
percent in 1977-1978 to 5.2 percent in 1982-83. During the 1990s the ratio
hovered around 4 percent. However if one takes into account the unofficial
flow of remittances, its contribution to GDP would certainly be much higher.
Murshid (2000) finds that an increase in remittance by Taka 1 would result in
an increase in national income by Tk 3.33.
Following the expiry of multi-fiber agreement (MFA), Bangladesh will face
steep competition in export of RMG. The country will cease to enjoy any
special quota. It is apprehended that Bangladesh’s RMG export will decline
sharply. This will result in loss of job of many workers and shortfall in foreign
exchange earning. Potential of retaining employment and export earning
through export of frozen fish, jute, leather and tea seems rather bleak. It is in
this context labour migration has become key sector for earning foreign
exchange and creating opportunities for employment. Therefore, the
importance of labour migration to the economy of Bangladesh can hardly be
over emphasized.
3. MANAGING MIGRATION
Labour recruitment from Bangladesh involves various ministries and agencies
of government, private recruiting agents, their local and international
intermediaries, potential migrants and their families.
MINISTRIES
The Ministry of Expatriates’ Welfare and Overseas Employment, Ministry of
Home Affairs, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Ministry of Finance and the
Ministry of Civil Aviation and Tourism are the four important ministries which
deal with international labour migration. Until 2001, Ministry of Labour and
Employment was in charge of international labour migration. The current
4
Quoted in Beyond the Maze (2002), pp. 53. Speech delivered by Professor Wahiduddin Mahmud, former Advisor to
the Interim Government in 1996, at a conference on ‘Streamlining Labour Recruitment Process in Bangladesh for
Employment Abroad’, 24 September 2001.
4
government, in responding to the demand of the expatriate Bangladeshis and
the migrant workers, created a new ministry in December 2001. The power of
implementing the rules framed in 2002 under the Emigration Ordinance 1982
and accordingly, promoting, monitoring and regulating the migration sector
are vested with the new ministry. The activities of the ministry concentrated in
two broad areas. First is to create employment in overseas and the second is
to solve problems of expatriates and ensure their welfare (GoB, 2003).
Role of foreign Missions are also extremely important in respect to migration.
The functions that Bangladesh missions abroad currently perform regarding
labour export are: (a) exploring potential labour market: (b) attestation of
documents pertaining to recruitment; (c) providing consular service to
Bangladeshi workers; and (d) ensuring welfare of migrant workers.
BUREAU OF MANPOWER, EMPLOYMENT AND TRAINING (BMET)
BMET is the executing agency of Ministry Expatriates’ Welfare and Overseas
Employment in respect to processing labour migration. BMET was created in
1976 by the government to ensure maximum benefit for labour export. Since
the promulgation of the Emigration Ordinance of 1982, it has been working as
the implementing agency of the Ordinance. Currently BMET is involved in all
kinds of functions–control and regulation of recruiting agents, collection and
analysis of labour market information, registration of job seekers for local and
foreign employment, development and implementation of training
programmes in light of specific labour needs both in national and international
labour market, materialisation of apprentice and in-plant programmes in the
existing industries, organising pre-departure briefing sessions, and resolving
legal disputes.
PRIVATE RECRUITING AGENCIES
In the 1970s the government performed functions of recruitment. Since 1981,
as part of private sector development, the private recruiting agents took over
the task. The private agencies work under a license from the government. On
their own initiative they collect information on demands and orders for foreign
employment. After taking permission from the BMET, the agencies recruit
workers as per specifications of the foreign employers and then process their
cases for deployment. Over time, the recruiting agencies became organised
under the Bangladesh Association of International Recruiting Agencies
(BAIRA). The association was formed in December 1984 with representatives
of twenty-three recruiting agencies. In 2002, the association had a
membership of around 700 agencies.
BANGLADESH OVERSEAS EMPLOYMENT SERVICES LIMITED
In 1984, the government also set up Bangladesh Overseas Employment
Services Limited (BOESL) as a limited company to take up direct recruitment
role. Since its inception up to February 1999, BOESL recruited 8,900 workers.
This constitutes 0.31 percent of the total number of those who went overseas
though the official channel (Table 3).
5
INDIVIDUAL CONTRACT
Almost 55 to 60 percent of recruitment is conducted through individual
initiatives and social networks. Usually persons already deployed in the host
counties arrange visas for their friends and relatives through their own
contacts. Sometimes these visas are sold to the interested parties. The cost
of migration and illicit practices are less when work visas are procured
through individual migrants working abroad (Siddiqui 2002).
Now we have some idea about the agencies involved in managing migration.
Following three sections will provide an assessment of short-term labour
migrants from the perspective of four pillars of decent work.
5. ACCESS TO EMPLOYMENT
This section describes nature and extent of employment created through
short-term international migration. It starts with a discussion on total number
of employment created by overseas migration. This is followed by
identification of countries of destination, type of employment, gender
distribution of the migrants and flow of remittance through them.
EXTENT OF EMPLOYMENT
BMET5 data show that from 1976 to July 2003, the total number of
Bangladeshis working abroad as short-term migrants stands at more than
three million (Table 1). It indicates a yearly average flow (1991–2002) of
around 214,098. It also shows that the highest number of people migrating
from Bangladesh was in the year 1999 (268,182). The large number of
Bangladeshis is also believed to have gone to the Middle East through
irregular process. This means that short-term migration has created
employment of large number of Bangladeshis.
MAIN FLOW
Currently, Bangladesh sends short-term migrants to Saudi Arabia, UAE,
Kuwait, Qatar, Oman, Iraq, Libya, Bahrain, Iran, Malaysia, South Korea,
Singapore, Hong Kong and Brunei are some of the major countries of
destination. Saudi Arabia alone accounts for nearly one half of the total
number of workers who migrated from Bangladesh. Labour market of
Bangladeshi workers is not static. During the 1970s Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Iran
and Libya were some of the major destination countries. While the position of
Saudi Arabia remains at the top, Malaysia and UAE became important
receivers. Malaysia used to be the second largest employer of Bangladeshi
workers. However, since the financial crisis of 1997, Bangladeshis migrating
to Malaysia dropped drastically (see Table 1). Now UAE has taken over its
place.
5
BMET, among other things, maintains record of migrants.
6
TYPE OF EMPLOYMENT
BMET has classified short-term migrants to Middle East and South East Asia
into four categories: professional, skilled, semi-skilled, and unskilled. Doctors,
engineers, teachers and nurses are considered as professional workers.
Manufacturing or garments workers, drivers, computer operators and
electricians are considered as skilled, while tailors and masons as semiskilled. Housemaids, agri-labourer, hotel boy and menial labourers, ie,
cleaners, cart loader, carton pickers are considered as unskilled workers.
Table 2 shows the percentage share of different skill category of migrants
from 1976 to 2003. Only a small proportion of migrants are professionals
(4.40%). 31% of them are skilled, 16% semi-skilled and 47% are unskilled
workers.
SEX RATIO
BMET data also shows that Bangladeshi workers are predominantly men.
From 1991 to 2003 altogether 2,754,693 persons have migrated overseas for
employment. Among them only 17512 were women (Table 4). During the
period 1991 to 2003, women constituted less than 1% of the total migrants
from Bangladesh. During 1991- 95, women constituted 0.98% of the total
migrant flow. In 1997 it came down to 0.76%. The figure of 1999 more or less
suggests the stemming of the flow of female migration from Bangladesh.
However, the figure rose to .67% in 2003. IOM INSTRAW (2000) and Siddiqui
(2001) estimated that the number of female migrants might be 10 to 50 times
more than the above official figure.6 There is a government ban on migration
of unskilled and semi-skilled women. Women of the unskilled and semiskilled categories migrate through unofficial channels. Their number is not
accounted in any statistics.
AGE AND EDUCATIONAL LEVEL
Database of BMET is also not segregated according to age and educational
level. Different micro studies conducted in migrant prone areas have shown
that most of the migrants were young (15 to 30 years of age) when they first
migrated (Siddiqui and Abrar, 2000; Afsar, 2000; Murshid, 2000) and a
substantial majority were either illiterate or possessed educational
background from class one to SSC.
FLOW OF REMITTANCE
The Bangladesh Bank7 documents remittance flows to Bangladesh from all
over the world. It shows that the remittances sent by the overseas wage
earners have grown over time. It has increased from a paltry figure of US$
23.71m in 1976 to US$ 2617.92m in 2002 (Table 5). Nonetheless, the yearly
growth rate of remittance is much less than the growth rate of the total
number of migrant workers.8 Throughout the last twenty-five years, the
6
This information is based on interviews of recruiting agents who process undocumented migration.
It is the central bank of the country.
8
In 1991, the flow of migrants increased 41.72 percent, whereas remittances grew only 1.56 percent compared to
the previous year. Similarly, in 1994, the number of people who migrated overseas grew at a rate of 23.79 percent
whereas remittances grew only 14.31 percent during that time. In the year 1997 the number of migrants increased 79
7
7
remittance flows broadly indicate an average yearly increase of around 10
percent. The most important reason behind such gap in migrant and
remittance flows is that in recent times Bangladesh has exported more
unskilled and semi-skilled migrants whose wages are rather low compared to
those of previous skilled and professional ones. Wage rates have also fallen
drastically over the past decade (Siddiqui and Abrar, 2001).
One half of the total remittance came from one country, i.e., Saudi Arabia.
Over the years, the US has become the second largest remittance sending
country, Kuwait and the UAE being the third and fourth. Short-term migrants
use different methods in sending remittance involving both official and
unofficial channels. Officially, transfer of remittance takes place through
demand draft issued by a bank or an exchange house; travelers’ checks;
telegraphic transfer; postal order; account transfer; automatic teller machine
(ATM) facilities; electronic transfer and in kind.
CREATION OF DOMESTIC JOBS
Along with direct employment, migration has also contributed to the creation
of employment indirectly. Recent studies (Siddiqui and Abrar 2001, Murshid
2000) have shown that the family members of migrants have used a section
of their remittances in generating income and employment. Siddiqui and
Abrar’s work finds that 100 families of Tangail and Chitagong spent 11.24% of
the remittance in agricultural land purchase, 2.24% in releasing or taking
mortgage of land for cultivation, 5% was invested in micro and small
enterprises and another 3.5% was utilised in savings, bonds and insurance.
7.19% of the total remittance went into financing migration of other household
members (Table 6). Besides, capacity of buying consumable items of the
migrant families helps sustain local small businesses and producers.
Demand for better management of migration has created jobs in the public
sector as well. A new ministry has been created with a state minister,
secretary and other associated staff. 48 skill-training centers, and Bureau of
Manpower Employment and Training are some major agencies creating jobs
in the public sector. The movement of the migrants also has relevance in
determining the size of the Ministry of Civil Aviation, Customs and Immigration
Departments. Migrants also constitute a majority of the customers of Biman
Bangladesh airlines. The presence of airlines of the Gulf and Southeast Asian
countries has also created jobs for a large number of people. A powerful
private sector has emerged centering around the recruitment industry. Private
recruiting agencies, their agents and sub-agents, travel agencies, medical
centers, inter state transportation owners and workers, all earn their livelihood
by taking part in processing migration9.
SECTION SUMMARY
The study reveals that short-term migration has been extremely successful in
creating a large number of jobs for Bangladeshis. Along with employment of
workers in the overseas, it also created jobs within Bangladesh. In the public
percent compared to 1996 and remittance flow increased 12. 52 percent. In case of 1998, growth in migrants was 29
percent while growth in remittances was 4.86 percent.
9
There are 700 licensed recruiting agencies, 10,000 sub-agents and around 1350 travel agencies.
8
sector a few agencies and a Ministry has been created to manage migration.
Facilitation of migration has created jobs in the private sector as well.
Recruiting agencies, their agents and sub-agents, travel agencies and
medical centers.
Analysis of nature of overseas job shows that market of Bangladeshi labour is
changing all the time. New countries of destinations have emerged. In the
early years of short-term migration, skilled and professionals used to migrate
more. Now Bangladesh has created a niche in the unskilled and semi-skilled
market. Over the years, remittances have increased in absolute terms,
however, per capita remittances has declined. Remittances sent by the
migrants have a major impact on the national economy.
4. RIGHT AT WORK
There are three sources of rights at work for the short-term migrants of
Bangladesh. These are, international instruments, laws of the countries of
destinations and Bangladesh, and bilateral agreements between Bangladesh
and the receiving countries. In this section, the sources of right at work will be
elaborated. This is followed by an assessment of the rights enjoyed by
Bangladeshi migrants in practice.
SOURCES OF RIGHTS
International Instruments
ILO is the oldest organization dealing with migration of labour. The first
session of the International Labour Conference in 1919 highlighted the issue
of equality of treatment between nationals and migrant workers, coordination
of migration policies between states on the one hand and between
government, employers and workers organization on the other (ILO 2001).
The most important among the instruments framed by ILO regarding migrant
workers are the Migration to Employment Convention (Revised) 1949 (No. 97)
and the Migrant Workers (Supplementary Provisions) Convention, 1975 (No.
143) and the Migrant Workers Recommendations (No. 151). Convention No.
97 came into force in 1952 and Convention No. 143 in the year 1978.
The 1990 UN International Convention on the Protection of Rights of All
Migrant Workers and Their Families (ICMW) is the most comprehensive
instruments concerning the migrant workers. It ensures rights to both regular
and irregular, male and female migrants. It upholds that migrants are both
social and economic being. It is important to note that none of the labour
receiving countries of Bangladesh has ratified the ILO Conventions or the UN
Convention on migration. Bangladesh also did not ratify the ILO Conventions.
It has signed the UN convention but did not ratify it yet. Therefore, the migrant
workers of Bangladesh cannot receive protection through these instruments.
National instruments
9
In order to manage and provide better protection to the migrants different
measures have been undertaken by the government of Bangladesh. It has
promulgated new ordinance, statutory regulatory orders, framed rules etc.
The Emigration Ordinance, 1982
In 1982 GoB promulgated an Emigration Ordinance. The new Ordinance is
the key regulatory instrument in respect to migration. The Ordinance only
allowed persons with valid travel documents to emigrate. A letter of
appointment or work permit from a foreign employer or an employment or
emigration visa from a foreign government is considered to be a valid
document (Sec 7/3/a). A person who is selected by a foreign employer
through an organisation or a recruiting agent recognised by the government
under an agreement between two governments will also be allowed to
emigrate (Sec 7/3/b). The Ordinance also empowers the government not to
allow emigration of persons of a particular occupation, profession, vocation or
qualification in the public interest (Sec 8/1). Under the Ordinance, the
government is authorised to grant licenses to individuals and companies who
wished to be engaged in recruitment for overseas employment (Sec 10). The
Ordinance empowers the government to cancel and suspend licenses and
forfeit security deposit if it is satisfied that the licensee’s conduct has been
improper or is in violation of the law or prescribed Code of Conduct. However,
such actions could only be taken after the licensee was given an opportunity
to explain his position (Sec.14/1). Illegal emigrations are punishable for a term
of up to one-year imprisonment with a fine not exceeding Tk. 5000. It also
contains provisions for penalising unlawful recruitment efforts (Sec 20). Under
the Ordinance, the recruiting agencies are prohibited to charge higher than
the prescribed amount of fees for their services (Sec 23). The Ordinance has
provisions for penalising individuals who, in breach of contract with foreign
employers, abandon their employment (Sec.24).
Statutory and Regulatory Orders
On 11 April 1983 the Government by a notification10 of the Labour and
Manpower Ministry set up four Special Courts in each of the divisions of the
country (Dhaka, Chittagong, Khulna and Rajshahi). Subsequently on 25
March 1985 by another Order11 the DG of BMET, Managers of Employment
Exchanges and Assistant Directors of District Employment and Manpower
Offices were authorised to lodge complaints to the Special Courts.
Migration of women
In 1981 the then government imposed ban on migration of all categories of
female workers other than the professionals through a circular. In1987the ban
was replaced by imposition of restriction on migration of women of unskilled
and semi-skilled categories. In1997 again a ban was imposed on all category
of woman workers, including the professionals. It was again changed in the
same year from ban to restriction and excluded the professionals from such
restriction. In 2003, current government has eased migration of unskilled and
semi-skilled women who are more than 35 years of age. Those who are less
than 35, are still not allowed to migrate on their own.
10
11
No. SRO 129-L/83/LMVIII/!(11)83
No. SRO. 146-1/L/LM/S-VII/M-17/83
10
Rules framed
In December 2002 the current government framed three rules under the 1982
Ordinance. These are: Emigration Rules, Rules for Conduct and Licensing
Recruiting Agencies, and Rules for Wage Earners’ Welfare Fund.
Bilateral agreements and memorandum of understanding
In the absence of ratification of international instruments by the receiving
countries and Bangladesh, bilateral agreements or memorandum of
understanding are important instruments through which protection of rights of
migrants can be ensured. Other important labour sending countries also laid
great emphasis on signing such agreements with the labour receiving
countries. Successive Bangladesh governments also sent high-level
delegations to various labour receiving states to negotiate such agreements.
Experiences in this regard show that there is a general reticence of the labour
receiving countries to sign any bilateral agreement and memorandum of
understanding that have legal bindings. In this context, the government of
Bangladesh developed minimum set of standards for sending labour. When
understanding is reached with any country for sending labour, the Bangladesh
government then hands over a set of standards with the implicit
understanding that the receiving country will honour it. But this does not place
the country concerned under any legal obligation.
In the past, Bangladesh had signed agreements with Iraq, Libya, Qatar and
Malaysia on sending labour. In these instances the GoB handed over the
expected minimum set of standard to governments of those countries. For the
first time the government of Bangladesh has signed a MoU with Malaysia in
2003. Under the MoU Malaysia will take 50,000 workers over the next couple
of years. Along with the number of workers to be taken over the stipulated
period the agreement also lays down rights at work, (i.e, wage scales, working
and living conditions); level of social protection (i.e., provident fund, gratuity,
medical care and compensation); and access to instruments of social
dialogue (freedom of association).
Following the Asian financial crisis the Malaysian government imposed a ban
on receiving labour. After the financial crisis, it lifted the ban and began
receiving labour from certain countries. Bangladesh did not figure in the list of
countries that Malaysia announced from those they would take labour in the
next five years. The new country included in the list was Nepal. Malaysia was
an important labour market for Bangladesh and Bangladesh did not want to
lose this market. By undertaking major efforts at various tiers it succeeded to
resume sending labour to Malaysia. The new terms stipulating higher wages
were negotiated under which Malaysia began to take labour. However, it
subjects them to certain stiff conditions that include ban on changing of jobs,
marrying local women etc. The condition also obliges Bangladesh government
to repatriate them if they are in breach of the contract.
ENFORCEMENT OF RIGHTS AT WORK
11
Migration process has become extremely complex over the years. This
complexity is continuously eroding the scope of enjoyment of rights at work by
the migrants. Lack of ratification of international instruments and bilateral
agreements further compounds the problems. In the following sub-section
problems associated with establishment of rights at work at three stages of
migration is discussed.
Pre Departure
Procurement of Work Permit
Procurement of work visa, recruitment of worker and receiving of emigration
clearance are important steps in processing migration. Bangladesh mostly
participates in the low-skilled and unskilled labour market. In recent years it is
facing tough competition from the newly emerging labour sending countries
like Nepal, Cambodia and Indonesia. Such competition among the labour
sending countries is resulting in continuous lowering of standards of terms
and conditions of work. Moreover, unemployment rates have increased in
some of the labour receiving countries. This led to the formulation of policy for
indigenisation of the labour force. To discourage dependence on overseas
labour, some of these countries have introduced a levy to be paid by the
employer when they recruit foreign workers. These governments however did
not raise the wage rate for encouraging the locals to take up the unskilled
jobs. Therefore, locals do not find it attractive and the need for importing
labour remains in certain types of work. As there is competition among the
sending countries for these jobs the employers could conveniently shift the
charge to the recruiting agencies of the sending countries. Now not only the
recruiting agencies of the sending countries do not receive any commission
for supplying labour, they have to purchase the visa from the employers by
paying fee that the employers are required to pay to the government12.
Buying and selling of visa itself has become a business for a group of people.
A nexus of interest has developed among high level state functionaries of
receiving countries, their recruiting agents, a group of expatriate Bangladeshis
and a section of Bangladeshi recruiting agents. It has become extremely
difficult to secure visa through what were previously taken to be regular
channels. Now this nexus is involved in visa transaction through irregular
practices. The visas are then put into auction to other agents who have less
access to visas. It has become extremely difficult to take actions against this
group of people who are often highly placed socially and politically. 13
System of Dalals (Informal Agents)
12
Lion Nazrul Islam, E.C member BAIRA, 2002
Statement of the representative of BAIRA at the Interagency Meeting organised by the Ministry of Labour on 12
August 2001 for the study on commissioned by the Ministry on Streamlining Labour Recruitment Process in
Bangladesh.
13
12
Recruiting agencies that purchase visas on their turn keep their margin and
sell them to individual migrants. Almost all recruiting agencies are based in
the capital city, Dhaka. It is not financially viable for them to have offices all
over the country. In this situation they recruit through a host of agents and
sub-agents. These informal agents perform two most important functions, i.e.,
recruitment of workers and financial transactions. The sole operation of
recruitment at the grass-roots is conducted verbally, even payments are made
without receipt. The dalal system has not been institutionalized. They are not
formally registered with the recruiting agents they serve and do not possess
any formal identification documents. This has created a situation where both
recruiting agents or their sub-agents can commit fraud and evade
responsibility. In this process a good number of those who wish to migrate are
cheated and lose much of their assets while processing migration.
The 1982 Ordinance empowered the government to cancel and suspend
licenses and forfeit security deposit if it is satisfied that the licensee’s conduct
is improper or is in violation of the law and the prescribed code of conduct. In
the absence of any document, it is not possible on the part of the government
to take action. In 2001, the then interim government prepared a strategy
document. It prescribed recruitment of migrants through establishment of a
data-base, or by registering the dalals with the recruiting agents. These policy
prescriptions are yet to be made operational.
Issuance of Passport
Studies have shown that a large number of the migrants fall into low literacy
category. In many cases they rely on the recruiting agents for issuance of
their passports. The recruiting agents usually process a large number of
passports at any given time. In some instances migrants do not even sign the
passport application form. The employees of recruiting agents sign the forms
on their behalf. Often the migrants find themselves into trouble in the receiving
country, when their signatures do not match with the signatures in the
passports. Some of the recruiting agents or the subagents commits fraud in
the procuring the passports. There are occasions when a visa is sold to a
worker other than the one to whom it was issued. The person or his/her
father’s name does not match with the one in the passport. For all practical
purpose the migrant becomes an undocumented worker.
Lack of Access to Information
Lack of access to information prior to migration put migrants into vulnerable
situations. When a person is not aware of his or her rights, it becomes almost
impossible for them to assert these rights. While processing migration, they
do not have access to names of licensed recruiting agents neither do they
realize the importance of keeping papers. Before embarking on short-term
contract migration, it is of immense importance that a migrant worker has at
his or her disposal specific information about the destination countries, and
his/her rights and duties under the legal regime of the receiving countries,
cultural sensitivities and physical environment of the receiving countries. The
migrant worker is either oblivious to these issues or all information he or she
possesses on these issues are derived from verbal interaction with the dalals.
The BMET conducts briefing programmes for workers recruited for four
13
countries. These are Saudi Arabia, Malaysia, Kuwait and South Korea. These
briefing programmes lasts only for two hours and its coverage of issues are
also limited.
Although there are instruments and agencies in operation, the migrants right
to decent entry to overseas job has been found to be difficult to achieve. The
process of recruitment, ranging from procurement of visa to sending workers
overseas, needs to be streamlined.
In the country of Destination
Decent work entails certain basic conditions at work. These are decent wage,
working hours and accommodation. Right to relinquish job, or to change
work, freedom of movement, right to have a balance between work and
family, right to leisure, all are parts of decent work.
Wage
A study14 is currently being conducted which looks into work condition of
Bangladeshi factory workers in the Middle Eastern countries. It is based on
interview of 100 recently returned migrants. The respondents had earlier
migrated to seven countries: Saudi Arabia, UAE, Kuwait, Qatar, Bahrain,
Jordan and Oman. Out of 100, 40 went to Saudi Arabia. They worked in
different types of factories ranging from garments, construction, plastic,
leather processing, welding, tiles, printing press, glass, water purification,
packaging and gold smith. The average wage of male migrants who went to
Saudi Arabia was Tk 10873 and for female migrants it was Tk 5425. Twenty
respondents went to UAE. Majority of them worked in the garments sectors.
The average wage of the males was Tk 6721 and for females it was Tk 5803.
16 went to Kuwait and they worked in garments, food processing and furniture
factories. In Kuwait the average monthly wage of male and female migrants
were Tk. 19000 and Tk. 6861 respectively. In Qatar, Bahrain, Jordan Oman,
these migrants mostly worked in garments factories. The average salary of
the male was around Tk 10000 and for female it was around Tk 6000. This
gives an idea of the wage structure of the skilled and semi skilled migrants.
Payment of wage
The study also looks into nature of payment to workers. Out of the 100
interviews 56 stated that they received their salaries regularly without any
delay. The rest 43 however experienced delay in payment of wage. The
experience of delay varied from 10 days to 180 days. In an extreme case one
person in UAE did not receive any salary although she worked in a garments
factory for one year.
Overtime
The same study (Siddiqui and Sikder 2004), also threw light on provision of
overtime in case of the factory workers. Nature of jobs was such that 59
interviewees had to work overtime on a regular basis. 44 of them worked up
to 5 hours overtime and 15 of them even worked up to eight hours. Of the 41
who did not do overtime, only 13 mentioned that either their work did not
‘Work Condition of Bangladeshi Factory Workers in the Middle-Eastern Countries’ by Tasneem Siddiqui and
Jalaluddin Sikdar, commissioned by Solidarity Center, Sri Lanka.
14
14
entail overtime or they chose not to work overtime and the rest 28 reported
that they stayed for longer period at work but their labour was not counted as
overtime. This was because they were given set targets to complete in a day.
That target was hard to reach within stipulated 8-hour work time. Therefore, to
complete their daily work they had to stay longer hours as a matter of routine.
When the migrants worked overtime during holidays 10 of them were paid
less than their basic salaries and 21 of them were paid equal to their basic
salaries as overtime. 13 of them received one and half times and only 7
received twice their basic salaries as overtime. Officially in most of the
countries where Bangladeshis migrate, there was provision for payment of
overtime. The rate for overtime work was 1.5 times of the normal pay during
working days and two times during weekends.
Holiday
Officially the interviewees had to work for six days and enjoy a day’s break
every week. Usually weekly holiday was on Friday. However, as many as 27
interviewees mentioned that they had to work in most of the holidays. Usually
they could enjoy weekend holiday only once or twice a month.
The above study gives an idea about wage, overtime, holiday condition of
factory workers in the Gulf countries. Situation of unskilled workers of course
differed significantly from this. Rahim (2002) and Reza (2002) threw light on
work conditions of unskilled and semiskilled workers in the Gulf region. In
Saudi Arabia, during the early 1990s the wage rate of unskilled worker was
between rials 600-800, now that has fallen to rials 250-400 (Rahim, 2002). In
the case of Kuwait, the monthly salary of unskilled workers ranged from KD 8
to KD 25 (Salim Reza, 2002). A survey of the list of complaints by the
returnee migrants to BMET shows that the highest number of complaints was
related to non-payment of wages.
Accommodation
Big companies and formal sectors provide accommodation to their employees
in labour camps in the outskirts of the cities. In Singapore in a typical situation
a large group of 20 – 25 workers are accommodated in small houses. Those
who work in cleaning companies, or those who are on free visa, or selfemployed, arrange their own accommodations. In most cases employers
provided accommodation to the women garments workers. Women who
worked in factories lived in hostels either within the factory premises or
outside. Heat was a major problem for some female migrants. In UAE women
garment factory labourers share their rooms with at least 18 co-workers.
(Afsar,2000). Some women who worked as domestic workers were satisfied
with their dwelling condition. They were given separate rooms and wardrobes
to keep their belongings. Some others reported that they did not enjoy any
privacy at all (Siddiqui, 2001). They were made to sleep in kitchens.
Food
In the factories generally employers provided the food. In the first few months
most of the workers had problem with regard to food. The garment or other
factory workers faced the problem more than the others. Food is usually
served on the preference of the majority of workers. In most of the factories
15
where Bangladeshi female migrants work, Sri Lankan and South Indian food
were served. Few respondents cooked their own food once in a while
(Siddiqui and Sikder). Some of the domestic workers also faced problem with
food. In many cases female heads used to keep strict control over food. Some
were served with stale food. Some however stated that food was abundant
and they had the liberty to eat as much food as they had wanted. In order to
solve food problem, some employers made efforts to buy items which would
allow the domestic workers to cook their own food (Siddiqui 2001).
Job Change
Those who work at the low skill end receive much lower wages than the
national minimum rate. This encourages other employers of the receiving
country to try to lure them away with a nominally higher wage rate. To reduce
the scope of this kind of job change, the employers withhold all forms of
documentation such as job contract, travel documents and passports from the
migrant worker. In their negotiations with the Government of Bangladesh, the
receiving countries ensure that the occupational mobility of the labourers they
are hiring is minimal. The 1982 ordinance treats returning of overseas workers
before finishing the contract as a punishable offence. Under such
circumstances the workers’ power to assert rights in the labour market is
restrained in many ways. Workers who do not have documents in his or her
possession have major problems to seek legal redress when conditions of
contracts are not honoured by employers. Lack of possession of documents
also curtails workers’ rights to move freely in the city of employment.
Particularly in Malaysia, workers are harassed routinely by the law
enforcement agencies in case of minor offence if they fail to produce any form
of identification.
Contract substitution is another right curtailing measure practiced by some
employers. In this case the workers are made to sign a second contract with
reduced wage, living and working conditions once they reach the country of
destination. On some occasions, workers are given a different job than that
stipulated in the contract. In Malaysia some of the workers end up working on
plantations while their original contracts were to work for factories. In Saudi
Arabia workers are often hired as cooks and security guards and are then
sent to work as agricultural labourer. Because of extreme hardships faced
working on the plantation and agricultural sector, a good number flee these
jobs to seek other types of employment. Through the network of Bangladeshi
workers, some of the migrants manage to access jobs with better terms and
conditions. As they desert jobs for which they had obtained visas, they
become undocumented workers, becoming vulnerable to many more forms of
exploitation.
Majority of unskilled and semi-skilled Bangladeshi workers did not have any
knowledge about the labour laws of the countries where they migrated. As a
result it is easy for employers to violate existing laws, in terms of wages,
working and living conditions.
SECTION SUMMARY
16
This section shows that Institutional arrangements to ensure right at work for
the Bangladeshi workers are poor. Neither Bangladesh, nor her labour
receiving countries has ratified the international instruments on the rights of
migrant workers. Successive governments of Bangladesh governments found
it difficult to sign memorandum of understanding with the receiving countries.
At national level, since 1976, various laws have been framed. Nun the less
presence of these laws could not reduce exploitation of potential migrants
even in accessing work.
Compared to unskilled workers job condition of formal sector factory workers
fared relatively better. However, there remains a gulf of difference between
the wages of male and female migrants employed as factory workers. Female
workers received much lower wage than their male counterparts. The salary
of unskilled workers had fallen drastically both in the Gulf region and the
Southeast Asia. For a good number of workers pament of wage was not
regular. Freedom of choice to move from one job to another is restricted to
both skilled and unskilled workers.
5. SOCIAL PROTECTION
Decent work provides for certain assurance against vulnerabilities when
persons are out of work. Such assurances have been termed as social
protection. This includes protection of income during old age to maintain
subsistence, during sudden loss of livelihood due to closure of organizations
or retrenchment and protection against loss of income due to sickness,
accidents and death. Assurance of treatment during sickness and following
accidents are also part of decent work package. This section makes an
evaluation of different social protection measures available to migrant workers
at overseas employment.
IN DESTINATION COUNTRIES
Income Protection
Protection of income during old age for the migrants is not a new idea. The
Nepali Gurkhas who served in the British Army enjoyed retirement benefits
while being on their own villages. Currently as well short-term migrants also
enjoy certain benefits depending on the type of job they perform and the
terms laid out in the job contracts. Professional and skilled workers working in
the service sectors, government and banking enjoy various entitlement
packages i.e,. superannuation, gratuity and provident fund. However, such
benefits are not equivalent to those that the nationals of those countries enjoy.
Moreover, benefit structures also differ between Asian migrants and western
migrants. Asian migrants enjoy less privilege than their western counterparts.
Unskilled and semi-skilled workers take part both in informal and formal
sectors. In case of formal sector the benefits are more structured. For
example in Malaysia, a part of the salary is deducted of those who work in
manufacturing industries. At the end of the contract period, the person
concerned receives the amount.
17
Health care
Access to health care is also part of social protection system. Health care
provided to the workers in the destination points of course vary from country
to country. In Saudi Arabia the necessary primary health care services are
available in the major cities, under the government policy entitled “health for
all”, irrespective of the workers’ legal status (Mannan 2001). In the UAE and
Bahrain as well migrants can receive services from the general hospitals.
However, the costs of medicine and tests have to be borne by the migrants
themselves. Some companies and factories have their own authorized
medical service providers. Workers go through annual medical check up. In
other cases if their supervisors recommend then the employer bear the costs
of medical service. In Malaysia and Singapore health care is covered under
job contract. But In the Republic of Korea the cost of health care is borne by
the migrants. Accidents and unnatural deaths are covered through
compensation packages.
IN BANGLADESH
In 1990, on the basis of the Emigration Ordinance of 1982, the Government of
Bangladesh created a fund for ensuring welfare of the wage earners. The
Wage Earner’s Welfare Fund is constituted with subscriptions from the
migrant workers, interest earned from the deposit of licenses of recruiting
agencies, 10% surcharge of the fees collected through Bangladesh missions
abroad, and personal and institutional contributions. The bulk of the fund was
raised from the subscription of the migrant workers. They are required to pay
a fee of Tk. 100 per person under group visa, Tk. 300 for individual visa that
have the attestation of the Bangladesh missions in the country concerned and
Tk. 800 for individual unattested visa as subscription to the Welfare Fund. The
Fund was created with eight specific objectives: (a) establishment of a hostel
cum briefing center; (b) organisation of an orientation and briefing
programme; (c) establishment of a welfare desk at the airport; (d) transfer of
body of deceased migrant workers; (e) providing assistance to sick, disabled
and stranded migrant workers, (f) providing financial help to the families of
deceased migrant workers; (g) providing legal assistance to the migrant
workers through the embassies, and (h) establishment of a recreation club
and information centre under the auspices of the Bangladesh missions
abroad. The government through another Circular added two elements to the
list of the objectives. These are establishment of hospitals and keeping
reserve seats in existing hospitals for migrant workers and their families and
providing education facilities to the children of the migrant workers. The
Circular also stated that if needed the Fund could also be disbursed to
schools where the children of migrant workers were studying.
ENFORCEMENT
At destination countries
Although some form of social protection mechanisms are present in the labour
receiving countries, migrants go through lot of hardship in materializing them.
Provident fund of the workers in Malaysia in many cases remains with the
employer. They are meant to receive those once their contracts are over.
18
Time constraints do not always allow them to complete all the paper work and
withdraw the amount. Tenaganita, a human rights organization of Malaysia,
informs that a large amount of benefits has remained unclaimed or unpaid in
hands of the employers of Bangladeshi workers. In both the Gulf and South
East Asian countries, migrants are subjected to mandatory HIV/AIDS test on
annual basis. If they are found positive, employers do not take any
responsibility of treatment and the workers are deported home. Women
workers also go through pregnancy tests. Again, if found positive they are
sent back home or have abort. Poor access to health care and unhealthy
living and work conditions are reflected in diseases such as jaundice, gastric,
skin diseases and tuberculoses. Migrants are also employed in hazardous
and risky jobs. In many occasions work result in accidents and in some cases,
to death. Complaints were noted that enough safety measures are not
ensured in construction sites, heavy machine operating factories or in the
factories where chemicals are used. Receiving compensation can also be a
painstaking process. In case of accidental death, workers’ family is entitled to
compensation. In Saudi Arabia it can be up to rial 100,000. So far the officials
of Bangladeshi embassy or consulates negotiated such compensations. Since
2001, changes in the law in the country require that a local lawyer has to be
employed and a relative of the deceased has to be present at the court.
Otherwise compensation cannot be provided (Rahim, 2002).
In the labour receiving countries disputes can be taken to labour courts for
settlement. Reza (2002) informs that in Saudi Arabia migrants have taken
employers to the court with the help of the embassy. The labour courts
summons the employers, but it is the responsibility plaintiff to produce the
employer before the court. However, police often regrets to produce the
employer. Under the circumstances, very often the cases remain pending for
a long time. Since October 2001 to June 2003 Bangladeshi missions abroad
collected and handed over to the affected families an amount of Tk.
21,68,60,682 as salary due and death compensation of 902 migrant workers.
(GOB 2003).
IN BANGLADESH
One of the major programmes financed by the Wage Earners welfare Fund is
pre-departure briefing of migrant workers. The briefing session runs for two
hours and BMET observes that increasingly a higher percentage of migrants
are availing this training. With the Wage Earners Welfare Fund government is
constructing a multistoried building for migrant workers. To provide one stop
service to the migrant workers a different channel has opened at the arrival
lounge of national airport. Two welfare desks have been set up at both exit
and arrival lounges. A bus service has been introduced at airport for the
migrant workers. Currently in case of death of migrant worker his/her family
receives a one time grant of Tk 20,000 from the Wage Earners’ Welfare Fund.
SECTION SUMMARY
Short-term migrants enjoy benefits in certain jobs that are redeemable at the
end of the contract period. The professionals, the skilled workers and semi-
19
skilled workers, working in manufacturing industry usually receive such
benefits. Informal sector workers like cleaners, grocery store workers,
domestic workers, and vendors do not have access to such benefits. In most
of the middle eastern countries primary health care services are available free
of cost in the public sector of major cities. However, costs of medicine and
tests have to be borne by the workers or their employers. At the national level
the wage earners welfare fund has been created with subscription from
migrants to provide welfare services. Creation of the fund is an innovative
approach of the government to provide certain social protection to the
migrants. Nonetheless, use of the fund needs to be made more transparent.
6. SOCIAL DIALOGUE
Social dialogue is a process through which employers and employees resolve
their differences to ensure social equity. Collective bargaining is the
mechanism through which employees/workers assert their rights. Two types
of institutions are operational, trade unions and associations. Trade unions
are the institutions through which wage and other work conditions are
negotiated and associations are the bodies that are used for fulfilling their
cultural and social needs.
TRADE UNION
Trade Unions have been in existence in Bangladesh for a long time. There
are at least about a score of trade unions that are active. A study (Siddiqui,
Malik and Abrar 1999) on trade union and migrant workers show that these
organizations are yet to link themselves in any major way with migrant
workers’ issue. The leaders of main trade unions of the country were
interviewed for the study.15
The study found that trade union movement in Bangladesh was not well
informed of the migrant worker issue. Therefore manifestos and programmes
of action of none of trade unions had any reference to migrant workers.
However, the trade unions surveyed felt strongly about exploitation of migrant
workers of Bangladesh. A number of trade union federating bodies made
representation to the government following newspaper reports on the plight of
Bangladeshi migrant workers in Malaysia following economic crisis in the
region. None of the unions have any exclusive support service for them.
There are some basic conceptual problems with regard to involvement of
trade unions with the migrants. Trade unions are membership-based
organizations. They can legitimately represent those who are their members.
It is difficult to locate outgoing migrant workers and convince them to become
members of trade unions. Besides migrant workers reside in another country
where the Bangladeshi trade unions do not have any access. The scope for
trade union activism is limited in majority of the Bangladeshi labour receiving
15
The organizations interviewed are: Trade Union Centre (TUC), Jatiya Sramik Federation, Bangladesh Shangjukta
Sramik Federation, Bangladesh Free Trade Union congress, Bangladesh Sramik Kallyan Federation, Bangladesh
Jatiyatabadi Sramik Dal, Jatiya sramik Jote, Jatiya sramik League, Bangladesh Trade Union Federation, Bangladesh
Independent Garments Union Federation, Samajtantrik Sramik Front, Bangladesh Jatiya Sramik League and
Bangladesh Institute of Labour Studies.
20
countries of the Gulf region and the Southeast Asia. Trade union is absent in
Saudi Arabia. Kuwait, Qatar, Bahrain, Malaysia, and Singapore, have trade
unions. But Bangladeshis cannot become members of those organizations.
Some trade unions of Bangladesh have contacts with trade unions of
Republic of Korea and Malaysia.
The gradual shrinking of the formal sector the world over has thrown new
challenges to the trade union movement. Under the circumstances, in order to
ensure its organizational sustainability trade union movement needs to
innovatively increase its scope of work. It has to bring under its rubric the
informal sector. It is in this context migrants can be an important area for work
diversification. Through their international affiliates such as the World Trade
Union Congress, World Federation of Trade Unions and International
Confederation of Free Trade Unions trade unions of Bangladesh can pursue
the migrants’ issue at international fora.
Within the country, the trade union movement can play an important role in
urging the government to design and implement national policies for the
protection and promotion of migrant workers’ rights. By mobilizing their
organizational structure, they can disseminate information about the improper
practice of the recruiting agencies, wage and conditions of employment
overseas so that potential migrants from among the ranks of the organised
sector can make informed choices in their decision to migrate. Likewise, trade
unions can also make these workers aware about their rights and obligations
under national and international labour standards of the receiving country.
Migrant workers often bring in specialized skills. In the absence of any data
base for returning migrants, trade unions can take the initiative to link up the
concerned worker with a potential recruiter of his/her expertise. Such activities
go beyond their traditional role of collective bargaining, yet, they can ensure
better choices of employment, better work and living conditions abroad, and
better reintegration.
MIGRANTS ASSOCIATIONS AT DESTINATION
In most of the labour receiving countries migrants have organised themselves
into different associations. There is a wide range of associations. Most of the
associations are formed by the Bangladeshi communities residing in a
particular geographical location of a receiving country (state, district and
city).16 Associations are also formed on the basis of district, thana, union and
village of the origin of migrants.17 Sometimes associations are also formed by
different professional groups,18 however, this trend is not visible among the
labour migrants.
Associations organize cultural programmes and observe various national days
of Bangladesh. They also provide various kinds of support services to the
community members, in finding suitable accommodation to the new comers,
in introducing them to markets that carry Bangladeshi food and other products
16
Bangladesh Society of the UAE.
Chittagong Samity of Sharjah, Patia Samity of Dubai.
18
Association of Bangladesh Engineers in Saudi Arabia
17
21
etc. These services give the migrants a sense of belonging to a larger
Bangladeshi entity. Social interaction among Bangladeshis do help sharing of
work experiences and learning from each other about do’s and don’ts and
cultural sensitivities of the countries concerned. The Siddiqui and Abrar
(2001) study found that the migrants gain access to easy methods to send
remittances through the social networks.
ASSOCIATIONS OF RETURNEE MIGRANTS IN BANGLADESH
A section of returnee migrants have formed organizations. Over the last few
years three such organizations have emerged: the Welfare Association of
Bangladeshi Returnee Employees (WARBE), the Bangladesh Migrant Centre
(BMC) and Bangladesh Women Migrants’ Association (BWMA). WARBE was
formed in 1997. The association strives to become the spokesperson of the
migrant workers, particularly with regard to realizing their rights. Since its
inception, WARBE has played an important role in drawing public opinion to
the migrant workers’ contribution and plight. It has also consistently
demanded for bringing about transparency in the use of Wage Earners’
Welfare Fund. It has also demanded inclusion of representatives of returnee
workers in the management of the fund.
The BMC is the only organization of Bangladeshi migrant workers that is
operational both in Bangladesh as well as in a receiving country, the Republic
of Korea. It was established in the Korean industrial city of Ansan. It provides
support to the Bangladeshi migrant workers in Korea. BMC has close
association with the Joint Committee of Migrant Workers in Korea (JCMK) and
the Ansan Migrant Shelter. The Centre has been successful in facilitating
recruitment of returnee migrants from Korea with the Korean companies
operating in Export Processing Zones of Bangladesh.
BWMA is organizing the female migrant workers of Tongi, Gazipur and Dhaka
city. It is involved in a campaign for lifting the restriction from migration of
unskilled women below age of 35.
SECTION SUMMARY
Discussion above shows that the scope for Bangladeshi migrants to join trade
unions in the receiving countries is limited. This means the mechanisms for
social dialogue are almost non-existent. In most of the countries migrants
have developed their own associations. These associations provide effective
service with regard to settling down in new socio-cultural milieu of the host
countries. They also become an important source of information for the
migrants and to some extent fulfill the cultural and social needs of the
migrants. The returnee migrants associations that are operating in
Bangladesh have been playing an important role with regard to rights of the
migrant workers. They are very much focused on rights issues. With their first
hand knowledge, they can provide very effective service to the out going
22
workers and the returnees. They need support to build their institutional
capacity.
Trade unions can play an important role in ensuring rights of the migrants in
processing migration before departure. They can also serve the workers by
developing collaborative programmes with the trade unions of the receiving countries.
7. MAJOR CHALLENGES AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The paper underscores that labour migration is a major employment
generating sector for Bangladesh and its contribution is critical to the
economy. Migration has also been identified as one of the potential sectors
for creating employment and earning foreign exchange in the post-MFA
phase. However, there are some major challenges that need to be addressed.
The challenges that were identified in this paper are presented below.
CHALLENGES
Employment Opportunities
The GoB has a policy to promote short-term international migration. It
however does not have any planned programme for accessing the ever
transforming international labour market. Systemic methods for collecting
information on labour needs in the receiving countries and training of human
resources accordingly are not in place.
Bangladeshi workers are mainly operating in the semi skilled and unskilled
end of the job market. Bangladesh is facing competition from the newly
emerging labour sending countries. Due to unhealthy competition, wages and
other conditions of work of the semi skilled and unskilled workers are
declining. Among other things, this has resulted in decrease in per capita
remittance.
The existing education curricula of Bangladesh have very little vocational
component. This is a major obstacle in promoting skilled migration. Besides,
educational background of those who are participating in the semi skilled and
unskilled job market is rather poor.
Right at Work
Access to Mobility and Challenges at Pre-departure Phase
Although the current government has attempted to ease female migration
from Bangladesh, still men and women do not enjoy equal access to
participate in the international labour market.
1982 Ordinance has major shortcomings in making the recruitment industry
accountable. Potential migrants face fraudulence in almost every stage of
processing migration. Irregularity in the process of migration has resulted in
increase of undocumented migration from Bangladesh.
23
Challenges at Destination
One of the major challenges in respect to international labour migration is
ensuring the rights of migrants in the country of destination. Bangladesh and
its labour receiving countries did not ratify the relevant UN and ILO
conventions. Bilateral agreements and memoranda of understanding are also
not in place with most of the countries. Institutional capacity building of the
foreign missions to provide services to the Bangladeshi workers is another
issue that needs to be addressed.
Scope of availing social protection instruments in the country of residence is
rather limited for unskilled and semi-skilled workers. Major challenge for the
GoB in this respect is how to ensure enforcement of social protection
measures in the country of destination.
Bangladeshi trade unions have practical difficulties in working as institution of
collective bargaining in a country of destination. The migrant workers’
associations have emerged both within Bangladesh and in the countries of
destination. However, they lack institutional capacity to pursue advocacy with
respect to establishing their voting rights and voice in the parliament. Their
representation is also absent in the management of wage earners’ welfare
fund which has been created through their subscription.
RECOMMENDATIONS
For increasing access to employment
The government needs to commit adequate resources to migration sector.
The Ministry of EW&OE should propose allocation of resources equivalent to
the value of 5% of the remittances in order to organize services for the
migrant workers.
Many labour receiving countries have projection plans of development work
and concomitant labour needs. Following the example of the Phillippines,
these projection plans need to be collected and analysed on a routine basis.
Accordingly human resources of Bangladesh have to be trained and
marketed.
Bangladesh missions in Saudi Arabia, Malaysia, UAE and Kuwait should try to
draw the attention of authorities to the negative consequences of work visa
manipulation on both parties and urge them to take necessary steps. Ministry
of EW&OE has to take necessary legal and administrative actions against
identified Bangladeshi procurers and middlemen engaged in visa trade.
To ensure equal access of man and woman to overseas employment,
government restrictions on migration on unskilled and semi-skilled women
below the age of 35 should be rescinded.
To increase access to employment through migration, costs of migration have
to be reduced, and access to credit on low interest also needs to be created.
A bank may be established by allocating resources from the Wage Earners'
24
Welfare Fund. This bank will give loan to the poor at reasonable rate of
interest by keeping mortgage on the land or other properties. Wage Earners'
Welfare Fund is a contributory fund of the migrant workers, therefore, their
demands should be appreciated by the government.19
The existing training institutes of BMET need to be upgraded to increase
skilled migration. BMET also needs to extend their training outreach through
joint ventures with NGOs and private training institutes. In this respect BMET
needs to disseminate information on labour market to the organizations that
provide training and NGOs. To ensure access of poor, both men and women
to such training, special scholarship programmes have to be designed. All
these require major resource allocation.
Vocational training should be incorporated in mainstream primary and
secondary level curricula. Chapters on migration should be incorporated in
textbooks. To increase the communication skills English should be introduced
as a second language from the first grade.
Enhancing Right at Work
The 1982 Ordinance needs to be replaced by a rights based legislation
reflecting the 1990 UN convention and other relevant ILO conventions.
Bangladesh government has signed the UN Convention on the Protection of
the Rights of all Migrant Workers and Members of their Families. As a labour
sending country, it is in Bangladesh’s interest to accede to the UN Convention
and other ILO instruments immediately and frame necessary enabling
national legislation.
Following the recommendation of the Interim Government of 2001, an
advisory committee should immediately be formed. The committee may act as
inter-ministerial/inter-agency watchdog with legal authority to monitor the
management of migration process.
In order to reduce fraudulent practices experienced by the migrants before
departure, either employment exchange bureau has to be created or dalal
system has to be brought under regulation. Information on safe migration
process has to be disseminated through mass media and intervention at the
grassroots.
The license fee of private recruiting agents needs to be increased from Tk
600,000 to at least Tk 3,000,000. Renewal of license should be made
contingent on performance. BMET should renew licenses of those recruiting
agencies that are able to process at least 50 cases in the preceding years.
Currently, only concerned government functionaries can lodge complaints
against recruiting agents for violation of the provisions of the 1982 Ordinance.
This has to change so that the migrant workers have the right to seek redress
directly.
Secretary General, Welfare Association of Repatriated Bangladeshi Employees, at the Stakeholders’ Meeting, 20
March 2003.
19
25
Before embarking on short-term contract migration, migrant workers should
receive pre-departure orientation training. Information about the destination
country, general job condition, rights and duties under the legal regime of the
country concerned and under international law should be disseminated
through such training. The government may consider not providing these
trainings itself, rather encourage selected specialised agencies, NGOs, and
migrant support groups to impart residential, pre-departure orientation training
in different migrant prone areas in a decetralised manner.
BMET should concentrate on regulation and monitoring of international labour
migration sector, rather than implementing specific programmes.
The role of foreign missions in labour receiving countries has to be redefined.
Protection of the rights of migrant workers should be considered as priority
concern. Establishment of a migrant workers resource centre (MWRC) in
major receiving countries may be considered by the government within the
premise and under the administrative jurisdiction of Bangladesh missions.
Bank officials should be regularly trained, updated and motivated about the
importance of migrant remittance and to make them customer friendly. At
macro-level some policy changes are necessary. The Bangladesh Bank’s
policy of not allowing private banks opening overseas branches in cities
where nationalised banks have their branches needs to be reconsidered as
well. Given the constraints of opening new branches of nationalised
commercial and private banks and considering the existence of 1200 of both
Grameen Bank and Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee (BRAC)
offices, the latter two may be encouraged to get involved in remittance
transfer process (Siddiqui 2001).
To ensure continuous employment and earning upon return the migrants
should be informed about the need for them to save. To encourage small
savers, proper incentive programmes need to be undertaken. Bonds, shares
and mutual funds at attractive rates may be offered. They also need to be
informed about various forms of saving instruments offered by the
government, non-government and private agencies. In this regard, existing
legal requirements may be relaxed so that select Micro Finance institutions
can mobilise savings of the migrants without providing them credit.
BMET needs to encourage NGOs and private sector to offer special
programmes for economic reintegration of the returnees. This may include
linkage with formal banking sector, credit agencies for soft loans, land
allotment on moderate terms, insurance schemes and access to schemes
organised under wage earners’ welfare fund.
Increasing Social Protection
Social protection measures in respect to health, security and accidents need
to be specified in the job contracts of semi-skilled and unskilled workers. The
pre-departure orientation training should explain all such entitlements to the
migrants in detail.
26
The Bangladesh missions are to inform the authorities of the receiving
countries about the difficulties faced by the claimants in view of the stringent
conditions that have been put in place in certain countries in respect to claims
of compensation. The issue needs to pursued along with other labour sending
countries.
The GoB also needs to negotiate with the receiving countries about
simplifying the procedure of receiving benefits that fall due at the end of the
contract period so that the migrant can begin to process the claim well in time
and collect the amount before his/her departure for home.
Handouts on health services available in the receiving countries have to be
prepared in Bangla and disseminated through the missions and various
associations of migrant workers in those countries. Information also needs to
be disseminated on HIV/AIDS.
The current practice of forcible repatriation of migrant workers in case of
contracting disease such HIV/AIDS needs to be discontinued. The sending
countries may jointly try to convince the receiving countries that the cost of
medical care should be borne by employers when such diseases are
contracted in the destination country.
Enhancing the Scope of Social Dialogue
Expert bodies and civil society organizations may organize consultation
meetings with local trade unions to familiarize them with migrant workers
issues particularly on the exploitation of workers within Bangladesh during
migration processing phase and on nature of violation of the human rights and
labour rights of migrant workers in receiving countries. In this regard a linkage
should be established between trade union and migrant workers association
so that they can complement each other.
Trade unions should innovatively overcome the membership problem in
serving migrants and make concerted efforts to develop link with the trade
unions of the receiving countries. Trade unions may campaign in the
international fora for the membership of migrants in the trade unions of the
receiving countries.
Returnee migrants associations have performed extremely well. In order to
create greater impact of their work, their institutional capacity has to be
enhanced through programme support.
Government should consider the issue of exercising voting rights of the
migrants with great care. Political parties should take the returnee migrants’
representation into consideration while providing nomination for national
elections.
27
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RMMRU, Dhaka.
Ahmed, Syed Refaat 2000 Forlorn Migrants: An International Legal Regime
for Undocumented Migrant Workers, The University Press Limited (UPL),
Dhaka.
Akram, S M 2002 ‘Migrant Workers’ Rights and Duties in Destination
Countries’, in RMMRU published Module on Labour Migration Process for
Awareness Campaign through Community Leaders and Activists, RMMRU,
Dhaka.
Akram, S M, R Rashid and R Titumir 2003 ‘Assessment of Migrant Workers’
Vulnerability to HIV/AIDS’, HASAB and RMMRU (mimeo).
Afsar, Rita, Mohammad Yunus and Shamsul Islam 2000 ‘Are Migrants
Chasing after the Golden Deer: A Study on Cost Benefit Analysis of Overseas
Migration by Bangladeshi Labour’, IOM, (mimeo).
Asian Migrant Centre 2001 Asian Migrant year Book, Migrant Forum in Asia,
Hong Kong.
Asian Migrant Centre 2000 Asian Migrant year Book, Migrant Forum in Asia,
Hong Kong.
Blanchet, T 2002 ‘Beyond Boundaries: A Critical Look at Women Labour
Migration and the Trafficking Within’, USAID, (mimeo).
BMET 2002 ‘Recommendations Made by the Honourable Advisor of the
Ministry of Labour and Employment to Reduce the Cost of Migration and
Increase Wage in a Meeting with BAIRA on 22 July 2001’, pp. 91-100, in
Tasneem Siddiqui edited Beyond the Maze: Streaming Labour Recruitment
Process in Bangladesh, RMMRU, Dhaka.
GoB 2002 Statistical Pocketbook: Bangladesh 2001, Bangladesh Bureau of
Statistics.
GoB 1998 Labour Force Survey, Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics.
GoB 1982 The Emigration Ordinance 1982 Dhaka Law Report.
GoB 2003 Annual Report-2002 Ministry of Expatriate welfare and overseas
Employment.
Hossain, I M, Iqbal A Khan and Janet Seeley 2003 ‘Surviving on their feet:
charting the mobile livelihoods of the poor in rural Bangladesh’, paper
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Policy, held at the University of Manchester, 7 – 9 April 2003.
International Labour Office (ILO) 1999 Decent Work, International Labour
Conference, 87th session, Geneva.
ILO 2000 ‘Making the Best of Globalization’ concept paper presented at the
workshop on Making the Best of Globalization: Migrant Worker Remittances
and Micro-finance organised by ILO, Geneva, November.
ILO 2001 Reducing the Decent Work Deficit: A Global Challenge, Geneva
ILO 2002 Migrant Workers, Labour Education 2002/4, No. 129, Geneva.
28
ILO 2003 Decent Work in Denmark: Employment, Social Efficiency and
Economic Security, Geneva.
International Organization for Migration (IOM) 2000 World Migration Report
2000, Geneva.
IOM 2003 World Migration Report 2003, Geneva.
IOM and UNDP 2002 Proceedings of National Consultation Workshop on
Labour Migration Process in Bangladesh. Dhaka.
INSTRAW and IOM 2000 Temporary Labour Migration of Women: Case
Studies of Bangladesh and Sri Lanka, Santa Domingo.
Mahbub ul Huq Human Development Centre (MHHDC) 2001 Human
Development in South Asia, University Press Ltd.
Mahmood, R A 1996 ‘Immigration Dynamics in Bangladesh: Level, Pattern
and Implications’, paper presented for the Asiatic Society of Bangladesh,
Dhaka.
Mahmood, R A 1998 ‘Globalization, International Migration and Human
Development: Linkage and Implications’ prepared for UNDP (Unpublished).
Malik, Shahdeen and C R Abrar 2000 ‘Recruitment and Placement: Planning
and Process’, IOM/UNDP, (Mimeo).
Mannan, M A 2001 ‘Bangladeshi Migrants in Saudi Lobour Market: an
Empirical Analysis’ RMMRU Dhaka.
Murshid, K A S, Kazi Iqbal and Meherun Ahmed 2000 ‘A Study on Remittance
Inflows and Utilization’, IOM, Dhaka (mimeo).
Quibria, M G 1986 ‘Migrant Workers and Remittances: Issues for Asian
Developing Countries’, Asian Development Review, Vol. 4.
Rahim, A B M 2002 ‘Future of Labour Export to Saudi Arabia’, in Tasneem
Siddiqui edited Beyond the Maze: Streaming Labour Recruitment Process in
Bangladesh, RMMRU, Dhaka, pp. 104-107.
Reza, S 2002 ‘Labour Situation in Kuwait’, pp. 120-126, in Tasneem Siddiqui
edited Beyond the Maze: Streaming Labour Recruitment Process in
Bangladesh, RMMRU, Dhaka.Shamim, I 2000 ‘Trafficking in Women and
Children: A Human Rights Concern’, in C R Abrar edited On the Margin:
Refugees, Migrants and Minorities, RMMRU, Dhaka.
Siddiqui, T 2001 Transcending Boundaries: Labour Migration of Women from
Bangladesh, UPL, Dhaka.
Siddiqui, T (edited) 2002 Beyond the Maze: Streamlining Labour Recruitment
Process in Bangladesh, RMMRU, Dhaka.
Siddiqui, T and C R Abrar 2000 ‘Contribution of Returnees: An Analytical
Survey of Post-return Experience’, IOM/UNDP .
Siddiqui, T and C R Abrar 2001 ‘Migrant Workers’ Remittances and Microfinance Institutions’, ILO (Mimeo).
Siddiqui, T 2003 ‘Institutionalising Re-bonding: Bangladeshi Diaspora in UK
and US’, Ministry of Expatriates’ Welfare and Overseas Employment of GoB
and IOM, Dhaka (Mimeo).
Siddiqui, T 2003 ‘Migration as Livelihood Option of the Poor’, paper presented
at the DFID-RMMRU organised conference on Migration, Development and
Pro-Poor Policy Choices, held at Dhaka, June.
Siddiqui, T, S Malik and C R Abrar 1999 Labour Migration from Bangladesh
and the Trade Unions, ILO (Mimeo).
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) 1995 World Development
Report, UNDP, New York.
29
UNDP 1999 Human Development Index, UNDP, New York.
WARBE 2001 ‘Migrant Workers’ Rights and Duties in Destination Countries’, in
RMMRU published Module on Labour Migration Process for Awareness Campaign
through Community Leaders and Activists, RMMRU, Dhaka.
Zamir, Z B, 1998 ‘ Socio-Economic Conditions of the Migrant Workers: A Case
Study of Bangladeshi Workers in Selangor, Malaysia (Mimeo).
30
Table:1 Destination wise Percentage Distribution of Migrants from Bangladesh (1976- Sept. 2003)
Country
Year
1976
1977
1978
1997
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
Jan- Sept
Total
K.S.A Kuwait
U.A.E
Qatar
Iraq
Libya Bahrain Oman Malaysia Korea S.
3.56
8.77
14.08
26.44
28.91
23.99
25.96
21.83
35.97
47.79
39.67
53.09
40.55
39.27
55.37
51.36
49.51
43.51
49.05
44.79
34.35
46.10
59.3
69.26
64.94
72.63
72.47
10.56
8.36
9.16
9.38
12.26
9.79
11.54
17.36
9.92
9.5
14.98
12.91
9.58
12.19
5.74
19.4
18.27
10.8
8
9.33
9.94
9.14
9.51
8.35
0.27
2.83
7
32.68
37
32.93
20.69
16.12
11.5
10.93
11.17
9.14
10.73
12.8
13.45
19.73
14.93
8
5.83
6.9
6.47
8.08
7.83
11.25
23.68
14.49
12.06
15.28
8.6
11.29
20.06
14.38
5.71
5.65
4.84
4.07
9.96
12.76
4.81
6.12
7.06
7.96
10.85
8.32
7.39
2.56
1.73
1
0.33
0.04
0.05
0.81
2.54
2.09
0.64
0.12
0.25
9.64
7.87
6.37
9.65
6.41
23.58
20.55
8.33
8.29
6.5
6.89
5.2
6.15
2.53
2.6
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2.84
4.57
10.5
8.04
9.9
7.46
3.3
3.73
5.97
1.95
4.53
3.07
4.05
1.58
0.45
0.76
0.86
0.74
1
0.59
0.93
0.84
0.47
0.65
0.45
0.24
0.7
5.5
5.53
3.34
3.38
4.49
2.5
3.25
4.18
4.06
3.82
3.78
2.78
4.8
4.75
4.4
2.36
3.09
2.21
2.27
1.6
1.78
2.17
2.62
1.73
2.08
2.31
2.38
1.86
9.49
12.61
15.42
15.78
13.18
13.14
18.76
18.42
11.86
9.11
0.59
3.26
15.17
13.47
15.67
13.73
6.49
3.47
11.17
4.11
2.59
1.79
1.51
2.36
2.41
1.74
0.01
0
0
0.04
0
0
0.77
0
0
0.39
1.33
1.11
5.6
27.79
25.67
18.76
31.47
1.23
0.21
0
7.74
2.6
0.04
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.84
1.77
1.3
0.38
0.22
0.56
0.44
0.83
0.01
66.85
51.78
7.88
9.46
15.55
12.16
0.04
2.58
0
1.85
1.28
1.44
2.76
2.64
1.6
6.42
0
7.19
0.09
0.37
Source: Prepared from BMET data 2003
31
0
0
0.1
Table 2: Skill Wise Percentage Distribution of Migrants from Bangladesh (1976- Sept.
2003)
Year Professional
1976
9.33
1977
11.23
1978
15.15
1979
14.26
1980
6.59
1981
6.98
1982
6.21
1983
3.08
1984
4.66
1985
3.31
1986
3.22
1987
3.00
1988
3.92
1989
5.23
1990
5.78
1991
6.13
1992
6.05
1993
4.54
1994
4.50
1995
3.39
1996
1.51
1997
1.64
1998
3.58
1999
3.00
2000
4.79
2001
3.14
2002
6.41
2003 (Jan-Sep)
6.09
Total
4.40
Skilled Semi-skilled Unskilled
Total
29.16
8.92
52.59
6087
41.00
3.12
44.66
15725
35.91
4.60
44.34
22809
28.60
6.88
50.26
24495
40.60
7.79
45.02
30073
40.21
4.39
48.42
55787
32.84
5.21
55.74
62762
31.98
8.61
56.33
59220
30.30
9.67
55.37
56714
36.33
10.07
50.30
77694
38.30
13.49
44.99
68658
32.21
13.00
51.79
74017
37.12
15.99
43.09
68121
38.16
17.36
39.24 101724
34.30
20.03
39.88 103814
31.87
22.16
39.84 147131
26.94
16.47
50.54 188124
29.31
27.06
39.09 244508
32.76
24.97
37.77 186326
31.94
17.09
47.58 187543
30.37
16.38
51.74 211714
28.22
18.85
51.29 231077
27.91
19.27
49.23 267667
36.71
16.76
43.53 268182
44.73
11.88
38.60 222686
22.62
16.25
57.99 188965
24.98
15.99
52.61 225256
29.53
11.93
52.45 185523
31.80
16.66
47.14 3582402
Note: 150000 Bangladeshi workers legalised in Malaysia during 1997
Source: Prepared from BMET data 2003.
32
Table: 3 Agency Wise Percentage Distribution of Migrants from Bangladesh
Year
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
Jan-Sept
Total
BMET
BOESL Recruiting Agent Individual Total
86.73
0.00
4.67
8.61
6087
36.43
0.00
7.45
56.12
15725
27.01
0.00
8.74
64.25
22809
28.40
0.00
12.11
59.49
24495
19.00
0.00
25.85
55.15
30073
10.89
0.00
39.83
49.29
55787
7.14
0.00
39.74
53.12
62762
1.23
0.00
44.44
54.32
59220
0.00
0.28
57.23
42.49
56714
0.00
1.57
50.71
47.72
77694
0.00
2.76
40.58
56.66
68658
0.00
0.46
45.69
53.85
74017
0.00
0.70
50.08
49.22
68121
0.00
0.70
35.89
63.42
101724
0.00
0.42
38.78
60.80
103814
0.00
0.10
44.10
55.80
147131
0.02
0.29
31.76
67.93
188124
0.21
0.23
52.95
46.61
244508
0.13
0.10
51.18
48.60
186326
0.04
0.34
40.60
60.65
187543
0.00
0.19
56.05
43.76
211714
0.01
0.14
37.13
62.72
231077
0.00
0.16
31.87
67.98
267667
0.00
0.12
41.27
58.62
268182
0.00
0.24
41.08
58.69
222686
0.00
0.08
40.57
59.35
188965
0.00
0.10
37.47
62.43
225256
0.00
0.22
33.93
65.86
185523
1.17
0.28
41.10
57.45
Source: Prepared from BMET data 2003.
33
3582402
Table 4 Number and Percentage of Women Migrants in Comparison to Total Flow (1991-2003)
Year
1991-1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003(JanSep)
Total
Women Migrants
Number
% of Total
9308
0.98
1567
0.74
1762
0.76
939
0.35
366
0.14
454
0.20
659
0.35
1217
0.54
1240
0.67
Total Number
Male and Female
953632
211714
231077
267667
268182
222686
188965
225256
185523
17512
2754693
0.64
Source: Prepared from manually consolidated figures provided by BMET 2003.
Table 5: Percentage of increase/decrease in number of migrants and remittance over the
previous year
Year
Number of Increase/Decrease Remittance Increase/ Decrease
migrants
(us $
%
%
million)
1976
6,087
23.71
1977
15,725
158.33
82.79
249.18
1978
22,809
45.04
106.90
29.12
1979
24,495
7.39
172.06
60.95
1980
30,073
22.77
301.33
75.13
1981
55,787
85.51
304.88
1.18
1982
62,762
12.5
490.77
60.97
1983
59,220
5.64
627.51
27.86
1984
56,714
-4.23
500.00
20.32
1985
77,694
36.99
500.00
0
1986
68,658
-11.63
576.20
15.24
1987
74,017
7.8
747.60
29.74
1988
68,121
-7.97
763.90
2.18
1989
101,724
49.33
757.84
-0.79
1990
103,814
2.05
781.54
3.12
1991
147,131
41.72
769.30
-1.56
1992
188,124
27.86
901.97
17.24
1993
244,508
29.97
1,009.09
11.87
1994
186,326
-23.79
1,153.54
14.31
1995
187,543
0.65
1,201.52
4.16
1996
211,714
12.89
1,355.34
12.79
1997
231,077
9.14
1,525.03
12.52
1998
267,667
29.76
1,599.24
4.86
1999
268,182
0.19
1,806.63
12.96
2000
222,686
-16.96
1,954.95
8.21
2001
188,965
-15.14
2,071.03
5.94
2002
225,256
19.20
2,847.79
37.50
Total
2,909,972
18058.74
Source: Prepared from BMET data, 2003
34
Table 6: Utilisation of Remittance by 100 households
Use
Food & Clothe
Medical Treatment
Child Education
Agricultural land purchase
Home Stead land purchase
Home constriction/repair
Release of Mortgaged land
Taking Mortgage of land
Repayment of loan (for migration)
Repayment of loan (other purpose)
Investment in Business
Savings/Fixed deposit
Insurance
Social Ceremonies
Gift/donation to relatives
Send relative for pilgrimage
Community development activities
Sending family member abroad
Furniture
Others
Total
Source: Siddiqui and Abrar, 2001.
In taka
4466280
703800
600940
2455400
210000
3280000
490000
435000
2304600
757500
1039200
670000
72140
1980000
205000
200000
20520
1571000
151300
227000
21839680
35
%
2.45
3.22
2.75
11.24
0.96
15.02
2.24
1.99
10.55
3.47
4.76
3.07
0.33
9.07
0.94
0.92
0.09
7.19
0.69
1.04
100.00