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Contents
Table of Contents
Chapter 1 Introduction to Psychology and Research Methods
Section 1: Introduction to Psychology
Section 2: Influence of Research on Psychology
Section 3: Experimental Research
Section 4: Types of Research
Chapter 2 Biopsychology
Section 1: Mind Body Connection
Section 2: Neurotransmitters
Section 3: The Brain and Nervous System
Chapter 3 Personality Development
Section 1: Introduction to Development, Personality, and Stage
Theories
Section 2: Motor and Cognitive Development
Section 3: Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development
Section 4: Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual Development
Section 5: Freud's Structural and Topographical Model
Section 6: Freud's Ego Defense Mechanisms
Section 7: Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development
Chapter 4 Learning and Behavioural Psychology
Section 1: Introduction to Learning Theory and Behavioural Psychology
Section 2: Classical and Operant Conditioning
Section 3: Reinforcement and Reinforcement Schedules
Chapter 5 Sensation and Perception
Section 1: Introduction
Section 2: Sensation
Section 3: Perception
Chapter 6 Memory, Intelligence and States of Mind
Section 1: Introduction
Section 2: Memory and Forgetting
Section 3: Intelligence
Section 4: Relaxation and Hypnosis
Chapter 7 Motivation and Emotion
Section 1: Introduction
Section 2: Motivation
Section 3: Emotion
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Chapter 8 Social Psychology
Section 1: Introduction to Social Psychology
Section 2: Our View of Self and Others
Section 3: Obedience and Power
Section 4: The Role of Groups
Chapter 9 Psychopathology
Section 1: Introduction and History of Mental Illness
Section 2: Classifying Psychopathology
Section 3: Psychiatric Disorders
Section 4: Stigma, Stereotyping, and the Mentally Ill
Chapter
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Psychotherapy
Section 1: Introduction
Section 2: Types of Psychotherapy
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Chapter 1: Introduction to Psychology and Research Methods
Section 1: Introduction to Psychology
How to Learn Psychology
We all use the principles of psychology everyday and probably don’t even realize it. When we
spank our child for doing something wrong, we are utilizing the learning principle of
punishment. When we get nervous right before we have to give that big speech, we are
activating our autonomic nervous system. When we talk to ourselves in our heads, telling
ourselves to "calm down," "work harder," or "give up," we are utilizing cognitive approaches to
change our behaviours and emotions.
This text is designed to give you a general idea of what psychology is, how information is
developed, what we have learned about ourselves, and how psychology is applied to help
improve people’s lives. The chapters are organized so that you can get a better idea of how
psychology works; from basic theories and principles, through research, understanding and
explaining results, to the actual application of psychological techniques.
This text is not designed to make you a psychologist. It is written in a general format so that
you can gain a better idea of all of the major concepts in psychology. If you were to major in
psychology as an undergraduate, each chapter would be a separate course. And, to get your
doctorate, which is required to be called a psychologist in most states, you would take an
additional five to seven years further studying the concepts in this text.
You will learn a lot, however, and hopefully you will increase not only your knowledge base,
but also your interest in the principles of psychology. This website provides a great deal of
information about the applications of psychology in a self-help format, as do many other very
helpful and professional sites. Read on…learn…and improve your understanding of your
greatest asset…the human mind.
What is Psychology
Psychology is the study of cognitions, emotions, and behaviour. Psychologists are involved in
a variety of tasks. Many spend their careers designing and performing research to better
understand how people behave in specific situations, how and why we think the way we do,
and how emotions develop and what impact they have on our interactions with others. These
are the research psychologists who often work in research organizations or universities.
Industrial-organizational psychologists work with businesses and organizations to help them
become more productive, effective, and efficient, and to assist them in working with their
employees and their customers. Practitioners, typically counseling and clinical psychologists,
work with individuals, couples, families, and small groups to help them feel less depressed,
less anxious, become more productive or motivated, and overcome issues which prevent
them from living up to their potential.
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The study of psychology has five basic goals:
1. Describe – The first goal is to observe behaviour and describe, often in minute detail, what
was observed as objectively as possible
2. Explain – While descriptions come from observable data, psychologists must go beyond
what is obvious and explain their observations. In other words, why did the subject do what he
or she did?
3. Predict – Once we know what happens, and why it happens, we can begin to speculate
what will happen in the future. There’s an old saying, which very often holds true: "the best
predictor of future behaviour is past behaviour."
4. Control – Once we know what happens, why it happens and what is likely to happen in the
future, we can excerpt control over it. In other words, if we know you choose abusive partners
because your father was abusive, we can assume you will choose another abusive partner,
and can therefore intervene to change this negative behaviour.
5. Improve – Not only do psychologists attempt to control behaviour, they want to do so in a
positive manner, they want to improve a person’s life, not make it worse. This is not always
the case, but it should always be the intention.
Chapter 1: Introduction to Psychology and Research Methods
Section 2: Influence of Research on Psychology
Influence of Research on Psychology
Psychology is not an absolute science and is often referred to as a 'Social Science' or a 'Soft
Science.' This is because it deals with human thoughts, feelings, and behaviour, and as we
are all aware, humans are not always predictable and reliable. Instead, we interact with our
environment in ways that alter how we behave, how we think, and how we feel. Change one
thing and the domino effect can change everything else.
Nevertheless, research plays an extremely important role in psychology. Research helps us
understand what makes people think, feel, and act in certain ways; allows us to categorize
psychological disorders in order to understand the symptoms and impact on the individual
and society; helps us to understand how intimate relationships, development, schools, family,
peers, and religion affect us as individuals and as a society; and helps us to develop effective
treatments to improve the quality of life of individuals and groups.
In this sense, psychological research is typically used for the following:
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2.
3.
Study development and external factors and the role they play on individuals' mental
health
Study people with specific psychological disorders, symptoms, or characteristics
Develop tests to measure specific psychological phenomenon
4. Develop treatment approaches to improve individuals' mental health
In the following sections, you will learn about how research is conducted and the different
types of research methods used to gather information
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Chapter 2: Biopsychology
Section 1: Mind Body Connection
Mind Body Connection
Most experts in the field of psychology and biology agree that the mind and the body are
connected in more complex ways than we can even comprehend. Research constantly shows
us that the way we think affects the way we behave, the way we feel, and the way our bodies
respond. The opposite is also true, physical illness, physical exhilaration, exercising, insomnia
all affect the way we feel and behave, but also the way we think about ourselves and the
world.
Since most of this online text is devoted to the way our mind works (as opposed to our brain),
this chapter will focus on the brain, the nervous system, and how these physiological
components of our being interact, respond to, and influence our psychological health.
Chapter 2: Biopsychology
Section 2: Neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters
A Neuron is a specialized nerve cell that receives, processes, and transmits information to
other cells in the body. We have a fixed number of neurons, which means they do not
regenerate. About 10,000 neurons die everyday, but since we start out with between ten and
100 billion (Hooper & Teresi, 1987), we only lose about 2% over our lifetime.Information
comes into the neuron through the Dendrites from other neurons. It then continues to the Cell
Body – (soma) which is the main part of the neuron, which contains the nucleus and
maintains the life sustaining functions of the neuron. The soma processes information and
then passes it along the Axon. At the end of the axon are bulb-like structures called Terminal
Buttons that pass the information on to glands, muscles, or other neurons.
Anatomy of a Neuron
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Information is carried by biochemical substances called neurotransmitters, which we will talk
about in more detail shortly. The terminal buttons and the dendrites of other neurons do not
touch, but instead pass the information containing neurotransmitters through a Synapse.
Once the neurotransmitter leaves the axon, and passes through the synapse, it is caught on
the dendrite by what are termed Receptor Sites.
Neurotransmitters have been studied quite a bit in relation to psychology and human
behaviour. What we have found is that several neurotransmitters play a role in the way we
behave, learn, the way we feel, and sleep. And, some play a role in mental illnesses. The
following are those neurotransmitters which play a significant role in our mental health.
Acetylcholine – involved in voluntary movement, learning, memory, and sleep
§ Too much acetylcholine is associated with depression, and too little in the hippocampus has
been associated with dementia.
Dopamine – correlated with movement, attention, and learning
§ Too much dopamine has been associated with schizophrenia, and too little is associated
with some forms of depression as well as the muscular rigidity and tremors found in
Parkinson’s disease.
Norepinephrine – associated with eating, alertness
§ Too little norepinephrine has been associated with depression, while an excess has been
associated with schizophrenia.
Epinephrine – involved in energy, and glucose metabolism
§ Too little epinephrine has been associated with depression.
Serotonin – plays a role in mood, sleep, appetite, and impulsive and aggressive behaviour
§ Too little serotonin is associated with depression and some anxiety disorders, especially
obsessive-compulsive disorder. Some antidepressant medications increase the availability of
serotonin at the receptor sites.
GABA (Gamma-Amino Butyric Acid) – inhibits excitation and anxiety
§ Too little GABA is associated with anxiety and anxiety disorders. Some antianxiety
medication increases GABA at the receptor sites.
Endorphins – involved in pain relief and feelings of pleasure and contentedness
Please note that these associations are merely correlations, and do not necessarily
demonstrate any cause and effect relationship. We don’t know what other variables may be
affecting both the neurotransmitter and the mental illness, and we don’t know if the change in
the neurotransmitter causes the illness, or the illness causes the change in the
neurotransmitter.
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Chapter 2: Biopsychology
Section 3: The Brain and Nervous System
The Brain and Nervous System
The nervous system is broken down into two major systems: Central Nervous System and
Peripheral Nervous System. We’ll discuss the Central Nervous System first.
The Central Nervous System consists of the brain and the spinal cord. The Cerebral
Cortex, which is involved in a variety of higher cognitive, emotional, sensory, and motor
functions is more developed in humans than any other animal. It is what we see when we
picture a human brain, the grey matter with a multitude of folds covering the cerebrum. The
brain is divided into two symmetrical hemispheres: left (language, the ‘rational’ half of the
brain, associated with analytical thinking and logical abilities) and right (more involved with
musical and artistic abilities). The brain is also divided into four lobes:
o Frontal – (motor cortex) motor behaviour, expressive language, higher level cognitive
processes, and orientation to person, place, time, and situation
o Parietal – (somatosensory Cortex) involved in the processing of touch, pressure,
temperature, and pain
o Occipital – (visual cortex) interpretation of visual information
o Temporal – (auditory cortex) receptive language (understanding language), as well as
memory and emotion
Typically the brain and spinal cord act together, but there are some actions, such as those
associated with pain, where the spinal cord acts even before the information enters the brain
for processing. The spinal cord consists of the Brainstem which is involved in life sustaining
functions. Damage to the brainstem is very often fatal. Other parts of the brainstem include
the Medulla Oblongata, which controls heartbeat, breathing, blood pressure, digestion;
Reticular Activating System (Reticular Formation), involved in arousal and attention, sleep
and wakefulness, and control of reflexes; Pons – regulates states of arousal, including sleep
and dreaming.
Cerebellum – balance, smooth movement, and posture
Thalamus – "central switching station" – relays incoming sensory information (except
olfactory) to the brain
Hypothalamus – controls the autonomic nervous system, and therefore maintains the body’s
homeostasis, which we will discuss later (controls body temperature, metabolism, and
appetite. Translates extreme emotions into physical responses.
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Limbic System – emotional expression, particularly the emotional component of behaviour,
memory, and motivation
Amygdala – attaches emotional significance to information and mediates both defensive and
aggressive behaviour
Hippocampus – involved more in memory, and the transfer of information from short-term to
long-term memory
The Peripheral Nervous System is divided into two sub-systems. The Somatic Nervous
System – primary function is to regulate the actions of the skeletal muscles. Often thought of
as mediating voluntary activity. The other sub-system, called the Autonomic Nervous
System, regulates primarily involuntary activity such as heart rate, breathing, blood pressure,
and digestion. Although these activities are considered involuntary, they can be altered either
through specific events or through changing our perceptions about a specific experience.
This system is further broken down into two complimentary systems: Sympathetic and
Parasympathetic Nervous Systems.
The Sympathetic Nervous System controls what has been called the "Fight or Flight"
phenomenon because of its control over the necessary bodily changes needed when we are
faced with a situation where we may need to defend ourselves or escape. Imagine walking
down a dark street at night by yourself. Suddenly you hear what you suspect are footsteps
approaching you rapidly. What happens?
Your Sympathetic Nervous System kicks in to prepare your body: your heart rate quickens to
get more blood to the muscles, your breathing becomes faster and deeper to increase your
oxygen, blood flow is diverted from the organs so digestion is reduced and the skin gets cold
and clammy and rerouted so to speak to the muscles, and your pupils dilate for better vision.
In an instant, your body is prepared to either defend or escape.
Now imagine that the footsteps belong to a good friend who catches up to you and offers to
walk you home. You feel relief instantly, but your body takes longer to adjust. In order to
return everything to normal, the Parasympathetic Nervous System kicks in. This system is
slow acting, unlike its counterpart, and may take several minutes or even longer to get your
body back to where it was before the scare.
These two subsystems are at work constantly shifting your body to more prepared states and
more relaxed states. Every time a potentially threatening experience occurs (e.g., someone
slams on their breaks in front of you, you hear a noise in your house at night, you hear a loud
bang, a stranger taps you on the shoulder unexpectedly), your body reacts. The constant
shifting of control between these two systems keeps your body ready for your current
situation.
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Chapter 3: Personality Development
Section 1: Introduction to Development, Personality, and Stage Theories
Introduction to Development, Personality, and Stage Theories
When discussing any type of development, most theorist break it down into specific stages.
These stages are typically progressive. In other words, you must pass through one stage
before you can get to the next. Think about how you learned to run; first you had to learn to
crawl, then you could learn to walk, and finally you could develop the skills needed to run.
Without the first two stages, running would be impossibility.
In this chapter we will discuss the most prominent stage theories in regard to motor and
cognitive, social development, development, and moral development. Most of these stage
theories are progressive, although in some, such as Erikson's psychosocial and Freud's
psychosexual, a person can fail to complete the stage while still continuing. This failure,
however, will result in difficulties later in life according to the theories. The following offers an
overview of development according to the principles of psychology.
Chapter 3: Personality Development
Section 2: Motor and Cognitive Development
Motor Development in Infancy and Childhood
Most infants develop motor abilities in the same order and at approximately the same age. In
this sense, most agree that these abilities are genetically pre-programmed within all infants.
The environment does play a role in the development, with an enriched environment often
reducing the learning time and an impoverished one doing the opposite.
The following chart delineates the development of infants in sequential order. The ages
shown are averages and it is normal for these to vary by a month or two in either direction.
2 months – able to lift head up on his own
3 months – can roll over
4 months – can sit propped up without falling over
6 months – is able to sit up without support
7 months – begins to stand while holding on to things for support
9 months – can begin to walk, still using support
10 months – is able to momentarily stand on her own without support
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11 months – can stand alone with more confidence
12 months – begin walking alone without support
14 months – can walk backward without support
17 months – can walk up steps with little or no support
18 months – able to manipulate objects with feet while walking, such as kicking a ball
Cognitive Development in Children
Probably the most cited theory in the cognitive development in children is Jean Piaget (18961980). As with all stage theories, Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development maintains that
children go through specific stages as their intellect and ability to see relationships matures.
These stages are completed in a fixed order with all children, even those in other countries.
The age range, however can vary from child to child.
Sensorimotor Stage. This stage occurs between the ages of birth and two years of age, as
infants begin to understand the information entering their sense and their ability to interact
with the world. During this stage, the child learns to manipulate objects although they fail to
understand the permanency of these objects if they are not within their current sensory
perception. In other words, once an object is removed from the child’s view, he or she is
unable to understand that the object still exists.
The major achievement during this stage is that of Object Permanency, or the ability to
understand that these objects do in fact continue to exist. This includes his ability to
understand that when mom leaves the room, she will eventually return, resulting in an
increased sense of safety and security. Object Permanency occurs during the end of this
stage and represents the child’s ability to maintain a mental image of the object (or person)
without the actual perception.
Preoperational Stage. The second stage begins after Object Permanency is achieved and
occurs between the ages of two to seven years of age. During this stage, the development of
language occurs at a rapid pace. Children learn how to interact with their environment in a
more complex manner through the use of words and images. This stage is marked by
Egocentrism, or the child’s belief that everyone sees the world the same way that she does.
The fail to understand the differences in perception and believe that inanimate objects have
the same perceptions they do, such as seeing things, feeling, hearing and their sense of
touch.
A second important factor in this stage is that of Conservation, which is the ability to
understand that quantity does not change if the shape changes. In other words, if a short and
wide glass of water is poured into a tall and thin glass. Children in this stage will perceive the
taller glass as having more water due only because of it’s height. This is due to the children’s
inability to understand reversibility and to focus on only one aspect of a stimulus (called
centration), such as height, as opposed to understanding other aspects, such as glass width.
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Concrete Operations Stage. Occurring between ages 7 and about 12, the third stage of
cognitive development is marked by a gradual decrease in centristic thought and the
increased ability to focus on more than one aspect of a stimulus. They can understand the
concept of grouping, knowing that a small dog and a large dog are still both dogs, or that
pennies, quarters, and dollar bills are part of the bigger concept of money.
They can only apply this new understanding to concrete objects ( those they have actually
experienced). In other words, imagined objects or those they have not seen, heard, or
touched, continue to remain somewhat mystical to these children, and abstract thinking has
yet to develop.
Formal Operations Stage. In the final stage of cognitive development (from age 12 and
beyond), children begin to develop a more abstract view of the world. They are able to apply
reversibility and conservation to both real and imagined situations. They also develop an
increased understanding of the world and the idea of cause and effect. By the teenage years,
they are able to develop their own theories about the world. This stage is achieved by most
children, although failure to do so has been associated with lower intelligence.
Chapter 3: Personality Development
Section 3: Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development
Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development
Like Piaget, Erik Erikson (1902-1994) maintained that children develop in a predetermined
order. Instead of focusing on cognitive development, however, he was interested in how
children socialize and how this affects their sense of self. Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial
Development has eight distinct stage, each with two possible outcomes. According to the
theory, successful completion of each stage results in a healthy personality and successful
interactions with others. Failure to successfully complete a stage can result in a reduced
ability to complete further stages and therefore a more unhealthy personality and sense of
self. These stages, however, can be resolved successfully at a later time.
Trust Versus Mistrust. From ages birth to one year, children begin to learn the ability to trust
others based upon the consistency of their caregiver(s). If trust develops successfully, the
child gains confidence and security in the world around him and is able to feel secure even
when threatened. Unsuccessful completion of this stage can result in an inability to trust, and
therefore an sense of fear about the inconsistent world. It may result in anxiety, heightened
insecurities, and an over feeling of mistrust in the world around them.
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt. Between the ages of one and three, children begin to
assert their independence, by walking away from their mother, picking which toy to play with,
and making choices about what they like to wear, to eat, etc. If children in this stage are
encouraged and supported in their increased independence, they become more confident and
secure in their own ability to survive in the world.
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If children are criticized, overly controlled, or not given the opportunity to assert themselves,
they begin to feel inadequate in their ability to survive, and may then become overly
dependent upon others, lack self-esteem, and feel a sense of shame or doubt in their own
abilities.
Initiative vs. Guilt. Around age three and continuing to age six, children assert themselves
more frequently. They begin to plan activities, make up games, and initiate activities with
others. If given this opportunity, children develop a sense of initiative, and feel secure in their
ability to lead others and make decisions. Conversely, if this tendency is squelched, either
through criticism or control, children develop a sense of guilt. They may feel like a nuisance to
others and will therefore remain followers, lacking in self-initiative.
Industry vs. Inferiority. From age six years to puberty, children begin to develop a sense of
pride in their accomplishments. They initiate projects, see them through to completion, and
feel good about what they have achieved. During this time, teachers play an increased role in
the child’s development. If children are encouraged and reinforced for their initiative, they
begin to feel industrious and feel confident in their ability to achieve goals. If this initiative is
not encouraged, if it is restricted by parents or teacher, then the child begins to feel inferior,
doubting his own abilities and therefore may not reach his potential.
Identity vs. Role Confusion. During adolescence, the transition from childhood to adulthood
is most important. Children are becoming more independent, and begin to look at the future in
terms of career, relationships, families, housing, etc. During this period, they explore
possibilities and begin to form their own identity based upon the outcome of their explorations.
This sense of who they are can be hindered, which results in a sense of confusion ("I don’t
know what I want to be when I grow up") about themselves and their role in the world.
Intimacy vs. Isolation. Occurring in Young adulthood, we begin to share ourselves more
intimately with others. We explore relationships leading toward longer term commitments with
someone other than a family member. Successful completion can lead to comfortable
relationships and a sense of commitment, safety, and care within a relationship. Avoiding
intimacy, fearing commitment and relationships can lead to isolation, loneliness, and
sometimes depression.
Generativity vs. Stagnation. During middle adulthood, we establish our careers, settle down
within a relationship, begin our own families and develop a sense of being a part of the bigger
picture. We give back to society through raising our children, being productive at work, and
becoming involved in community activities and organizations. By failing to achieve these
objectives, we become stagnant and feel unproductive.
Ego Integrity vs. Despair. As we grow older and become senior citizens, we tend to slow
down our productivity, and explore life as a retired person. It is during this time that we
contemplate our accomplishments and are able to develop integrity if we see ourselves as
leading a successful life. If we see our lives as unproductive, feel guilt about our pasts, or feel
that we did not accomplish our life goals, we become dissatisfied with life and develop
despair, often leading to depression and hopelessness.
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Chapter 3: Personality Development
Section 4: Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual Development
Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual Development
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) is probably the most well known theorist when it comes to the
development of personality. Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual Development are, like other
stage theories, completed in a predetermined sequence and can result in either successful
completion or a healthy personality or can result in failure, leading to an unhealthy
personality. This theory is probably the most well known as well as the most controversial, as
Freud believed that we develop through stages based upon a particular erogenous zone.
During each stage, an unsuccessful completion means that a child becomes fixated on that
particular erogenous zone and either over– or under-indulges once he or she becomes an
adult.
Oral Stage (Birth to 18 months). During the oral stage, the child if focused on oral pleasures
(sucking). Too much or too little gratification can result in an Oral Fixation or Oral Personality
which is evidenced by a preoccupation with oral activities. This type of personality may have a
stronger tendency to smoke, drink alcohol, over eat, or bite his or her nails. Personality wise,
these individuals may become overly dependent upon others, gullible, and perpetual
followers. On the other hand, they may also fight these urges and develop pessimism and
aggression toward others.
Anal Stage (18 months to three years). The child’s focus of pleasure in this stage is on
eliminating and retaining faeces. Through society’s pressure, mainly via parents, the child has
to learn to control anal stimulation. In terms of personality, after effects of an anal fixation
during this stage can result in an obsession with cleanliness, perfection, and control (anal
retentive). On the opposite end of the spectrum, they may become messy and disorganized
(anal expulsive).
Phallic Stage (ages three to six). The pleasure zone switches to the genitals. Freud believed
that during this stage boy develop unconscious sexual desires for their mother. Because of
this, he becomes rivals with his father and sees him as competition for the mother’s affection.
During this time, boys also develop a fear that their father will punish them for these feelings,
such as by castrating them. This group of feelings is known as Oedipus Complex ( after the
Greek Mythology figure who accidentally killed his father and married his mother).
Later it was added that girls go through a similar situation, developing unconscious sexual
attraction to their father. Although Freud Strongly disagreed with this, it has been termed the
Electra Complex by more recent psychoanalysts.
According to Freud, out of fear of castration and due to the strong competition of his father,
boys eventually decide to identify with him rather than fight him. By identifying with his father,
the boy develops masculine characteristics and identifies himself as a male, and represses
his sexual feelings toward his mother. A fixation at this stage could result in sexual deviancies
(both overindulging and avoidance) and weak or confused sexual identity according to
psychoanalysts.
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Latency Stage (age six to puberty). It’s during this stage that sexual urges remain repressed
and children interact and play mostly with same sex peers.
Genital Stage (puberty on). The final stage of psychosexual development begins at the start
of puberty when sexual urges are once again awakened. Through the lessons learned during
the previous stages, adolescents direct their sexual urges onto opposite sex peers, with the
primary focus of pleasure is the genitals.
Chapter 3: Personality Development
Section 5: Freud's Structural and Topographical Model
Freud's Structural and Topographical Models of Personality
Sigmund Freud's Theory is quite complex and although his writings on psychosexual
development set the groundwork for how our personalities developed, it was only one of five
parts to his overall theory of personality. He also believed that different driving forces develop
during these stages which play an important role in how we interact with the world.
Structural Model (id, ego, superego)
According to Freud, we are born with our Id. The id is an important part of our personality
because as newborns, it allows us to get our basic needs met. Freud believed that the id is
based on our pleasure principle. In other words, the id wants whatever feels good at the time,
with no consideration for the reality of the situation. When a child is hungry, the id wants
food, and therefore the child cries. When the child needs to be changed, the id cries. When
the child is uncomfortable, in pain, too hot, too cold, or just wants attention, the id speaks up
until his or her needs are met.
The id doesn't care about reality, about the needs of anyone else, only its own satisfaction. If
you think about it, babies are not real considerate of their parents' wishes. They have no care
for time, whether their parents are sleeping, relaxing, eating dinner, or bathing. When the id
wants something, nothing else is important.
Within the next three years, as the child interacts more and more with the world, the second
part of the personality begins to develop. Freud called this part the Ego. The ego is based
on the reality principle. The ego understands that other people have needs and desires and
that sometimes being impulsive or selfish can hurt us in the long run. Its the ego's job to meet
the needs of the id, while taking into consideration the reality of the situation.
By the age of five, or the end of the phallic stage of development, the Superego develops.
The Superego is the moral part of us and develops due to the moral and ethical restraints
placed on us by our caregivers. Many equate the superego with the conscience as it dictates
our belief of right and wrong.
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In a healthy person, according to Freud, the ego is the strongest so that it can satisfy the
needs of the id, not upset the superego, and still take into consideration the reality of every
situation. Not an easy job by any means, but if the id gets too strong, impulses and self
gratification take over the person's life. If the superego becomes to strong, the person would
be driven by rigid morals, would be judgmental and unbending in his or her interactions with
the world. You'll learn how the ego maintains control as you continue to read.
Topographical Model
Freud believed that the majority of what we experience in our lives, the underlying emotions,
beliefs, feelings, and impulses are not available to us at a conscious level. He believed that
most of what drives us is buried in our unconscious. If you remember the Oedipus and
Electra Complex, they were both pushed down into the unconscious, out of our awareness
due to the extreme anxiety they caused. While buried there, however, they continue to
impact us dramatically according to Freud.
The role of the unconscious is only one part of the model. Freud also believed that everything
we are aware of is stored in our conscious. Our conscious makes up a very small part of
who we are. In other words, at any given time, we are only aware of a very small part of what
makes up our personality; most of what we are is buried and inaccessible.
The final part is the preconscious or subconscious. This is the part of us that we can access
if prompted, but is not in our active conscious. Its right below the surface, but still buried
somewhat unless we search for it. Information such as our telephone number, some
childhood memories, or the name of your best childhood friend is stored in the preconscious.
Because the unconscious is so large, and because we are only aware of the very small
conscious at any given time, this theory has been likened to an iceberg, where the vast
majority is buried beneath the water's surface. The water, by the way, would represent
everything that we are not aware of, have not experienced, and that has not been integrated
into our personalities, referred to as the nonconscious.
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Chapter 3: Personality Development
Section 6: Freud's Ego Defense Mechanisms
Ego Defense Mechanisms
We stated earlier that the ego's job was to satisfy the id's impulses, not offend the moralistic
character of the superego, while still taking into consideration the reality of the situation. We
also stated that this was not an easy job. Think of the id as the 'devil on your shoulder' and
the superego as the 'angel of your shoulder.' We don't want either one to get too strong so
we talk to both of them, hear their perspective and then make a decision. This decision is the
ego talking, the one looking for that healthy balance.
Before we can talk more about this, we need to understand what drives the id, ego, and
superego. According to Freud, we only have two drives; sex and aggression. In other words,
everything we do is motivated by one of these two drives.
Sex, also called Eros or the Life force, represents our drive to live, prosper, and produce
offspring. Aggression, also called Thanatos or our Death force, represents our need to stay
alive and stave off threats to our existence, our power, and our prosperity.
Now the ego has a difficult time satisfying both the id and the superego, but it doesn't have to
do so without help. The ego has some tools it can use in its job as the mediator, tools that
help defend the ego. These are called Ego Defense Mechanisms or Defenses. When the
ego has a difficult time making both the id and the superego happy, it will employ one or more
of these defenses:
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DEFENSE
DESCRIPTION
EXAMPLE
denial
arguing against an
anxiety provoking
stimuli by stating it
doesn't exist
denying that your physician's
diagnosis of cancer is correct and
seeking a second opinion
displacement
taking out impulses
on a less threatening
target
slamming a door instead of hitting
as person, yelling at your spouse
after an argument with your boss
intellectualization
avoiding
unacceptable
emotions by focusing
on the intellectual
aspects
focusing on the details of a funeral
as opposed to the sadness and
grief
projection
placing unacceptable
impulses in yourself
onto someone else
when losing an argument, you state
"You're just Stupid;" homophobia
rationalization
supplying a logical or
rational reason as
opposed to the real
reason
stating that you were fired because
you didn't kiss up the boss, when
the real reason was your poor
performance
reaction
formation
taking the opposite
belief because the
true belief causes
anxiety
having a bias against a particular
race or culture and then embracing
that race or culture to the extreme
regression
returning to a
previous stage of
development
sitting in a corner and crying after
hearing bad news; throwing a
temper tantrum when you don't get
your way
repression
pulling into the
unconscious
forgetting sexual abuse from your
childhood due to the trauma and
anxiety
sublimation
acting out
unacceptable
impulses in a socially
acceptable way
sublimating your aggressive
impulses toward a career as a
boxer; becoming a surgeon
because of your desire to cut; lifting
weights to release 'pent up' energy
suppression
pushing into the
unconscious
trying to forget something that
causes you anxiety
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Ego defenses are not necessarily unhealthy as you can see by the examples above. In face,
the lack of these defenses, or the inability to use them effectively can often lead to problems
in life. However, we sometimes employ the defenses at the wrong time or overuse them,
which can be equally destructive.
Chapter 3: Personality Development
Section 7: Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development
Although it has been questioned as to whether it applied equally to different genders and
different cultures, Kohlberg’s (1973) stages of moral development is the most widely cited. It
breaks our development of morality into three levels, each of which is divided further into two
stages:
Preconventional Level (up to age nine):
~Self Focused Morality~
1. Morality is defined as obeying rules and avoiding negative consequences. Children in this
stage see rules set, typically by parents, as defining moral law.
2. That which satisfies the child’s needs is seen as good and moral.
Conventional Level (age nine to adolescence):
~Other Focused Morality~
3. Children begin to understand what is expected of them by their parents, teacher, etc.
Morality is seen as achieving these expectations.
4. Fulfilling obligations as well as following expectations are seen as moral law for children in
this stage.
Postconventional Level (adulthood):
~Higher Focused Morality~
5. As adults, we begin to understand that people have different opinions about morality and
that rules and laws vary from group to group and culture to culture. Morality is seen as
upholding the values of your group or culture.
6. Understanding your own personal beliefs allow adults to judge themselves and others
based upon higher levels of morality. In this stage what is right and wrong is based upon the
circumstances surrounding an action. Basics of morality are the foundation with independent
thought playing an important role.
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Chapter 4: Learning Theory and Behavioural Psychology
Section 1: Introduction to Learning Theory and Behavioural Psychology
Introduction to Learning Theory and Behavioural Psychology
Learning can be defined as the process leading to relatively permanent behavioural change
or potential behavioural change. In other words, as we learn, we alter the way we perceive
our environment, the way we interpret the incoming stimuli, and therefore the way we interact,
or behave. John B. Watson (1878-1958) was the first to study how the process of learning
affects our behaviour, and he formed the school of thought known as Behaviourism. The
central idea behind behaviourism is that only observable behaviours are worthy of research
since other abstraction such as a person’s mood or thoughts are too subjective. This belief
was dominant in psychological research in the United Stated for a good 50 years.
Perhaps the most well known Behaviourist is B. F. Skinner (1904-1990). Skinner followed
much of Watson’s research and findings, but believed that internal states could influence
behaviour just as external stimuli. He is considered to be a Radical Behaviourist because of
this belief, although nowadays it is believed that both internal and external stimuli influence
our behaviour.
Behavioural Psychology is basically interested in how our behaviour results from the stimuli
both in the environment and within ourselves. They study, often in minute detail, the
behaviours we exhibit while controlling for as many other variables as possible. Often a
grueling process, but results have helped us learn a great deal about our behaviours, the
effect our environment has on us, how we learn new behaviours, and what motivates us to
change or remain the same.
Chapter 4: Learning Theory and Behavioural Psychology
Section 2: Classical and Operant Conditioning
Classical and Operant Conditioning
Classical Conditioning. One important type of learning, Classical Conditioning, was actually
discovered accidentally by Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936). Pavlov was a Russian physiologist who
discovered this phenomenon while doing research on digestion. His research was aimed at
better understanding the digestive patterns in dogs.
During his experiments, he would put meat powder in the mouths of dogs who had tubes
inserted into various organs to measure bodily responses. What he discovered was that the
dogs began to salivate before the meat powder was presented to them. Then, the dogs began
to salivate as soon as the person feeding them would enter the room. He soon began to gain
interest in this phenomenon and abandoned his digestion research in favour of his now
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famous Classical Conditioning study.
Basically, the findings support the idea that we develop responses to certain stimuli that are
not naturally occurring. When we touch a hot stove, our reflex pulls our hand back. It does this
instinctually, no learning involved. It is merely a survival instinct. But why now do some
people, after getting burned, pull their hands back even when the stove is not turned on?
Pavlov discovered that we make associations which cause us to generalize our response to
one stimuli onto a neutral stimuli it is paired with. In other words, hot burner = ouch, stove =
burner, therefore, stove = ouch.
Pavlov began pairing a bell sound with the meat powder and found that even when the meat
powder was not presented, the dog would eventually begin to salivate after hearing the bell.
Since the meat powder naturally results in salivation, these two variables are called the
unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and the unconditioned response (UCR), respectively. The
bell and salivation are not naturally occurring; the dog was conditioned to respond to the bell.
Therefore, the bell is considered the conditioned stimulus (CS), and the salivation to the
bell, the conditioned response (CR).
Many of our behaviours today are shaped by the pairing of stimuli. Have you ever noticed that
certain stimuli, such as the smell of a cologne or perfume, a certain song, a specific day of the
year, results in fairly intense emotions? It's not that the smell or the song are the cause of the
emotion, but rather what that smell or song has been paired with...perhaps an ex-boyfriend or
ex-girlfriend, the death of a loved one, or maybe the day you met you current husband or wife.
We make these associations all the time and often don’t realize the power that these
connections or pairings have on us. But, in fact, we have been classically conditioned.
Operant Conditioning. Another type of learning, very similar to that discussed above, is
called Operant Conditioning. The term "Operant" refers to how an organism operates on the
environment, and hence, operant conditioning comes from how we respond to what is
presented to us in our environment. It can be thought of as learning due to the natural
consequences of our actions.
Let's explain that a little further. The classic study of Operant Conditioning involved a cat who
was placed in a box with only one way out; a specific area of the box had to be pressed in
order for the door to open. The cat initially tries to get out of the box because freedom is
reinforcing. In its attempt to escape, the area of the box is triggered and the door opens. The
cat is now free. Once placed in the box again, the cat will naturally try to remember what it did
to escape the previous time and will once again find the area to press. The more the cat is
placed back in the box, the quicker it will press that area for its freedom. It has learned,
through natural consequences, how to gain the reinforcing freedom.
We learn this way every day in our lives. Imagine the last time you made a mistake; you most
likely remember that mistake and do things differently when the situation comes up again. In
that sense, you’ve learned to act differently based on the natural consequences of your
previous actions. The same holds true for positive actions. If something you did results in a
positive outcome, you are likely to do that same activity again.
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Chapter 4: Learning Theory and Behavioural Psychology
Section 3: Reinforcement and Reinforcement Schedules
Reinforcement
The term reinforce means to strengthen, and is used in psychology to refer to anything
stimulus which strengthens or increases the probability of a specific response. For example, if
you want your dog to sit on command, you may give him a treat every time he sits for you.
The dog will eventually come to understand that sitting when told to will result in a treat. This
treat is reinforcing because he likes it and will result in him sitting when instructed to do so.
This is a simple description of a reinforcer (Skinner, 1938), the treat, which increases the
response, sitting. We all apply reinforcers everyday, most of the time without even realizing
we are doing it. You may tell your child "good job" after he or she cleans their room; perhaps
you tell your partner how good he or she look when they dress up; or maybe you got a raise
at work after doing a great job on a project. All of these things increase the probability that the
same response will be repeated.
There are four types of reinforcement: positive, negative, punishment, and extinction. We’ll
discuss each of these and give examples.
Positive Reinforcement. The examples above describe what is referred to as positive
reinforcement. Think of it as adding something in order to increase a response. For example,
adding a treat will increase the response of sitting; adding praise will increase the chances of
your child cleaning his or her room. The most common types of positive reinforcement or
praise and rewards, and most of us have experienced this as both the giver and receiver.
Negative Reinforcement. Think of negative reinforcement as taking something negative
away in order to increase a response. Imagine a teenager who is nagged by his mother to
take out the garbage week after week. After complaining to his friends about the nagging, he
finally one day performs the task and to his amazement, the nagging stops. The elimination
of this negative stimulus is reinforcing and will likely increase the chances that he will take out
the garbage next week.
Punishment. Punishment refers to adding something aversive in order to decrease a
behaviour. The most common example of this is disciplining (e.g. spanking) a child for
misbehaving. The reason we do this is because the child begins to associate being punished
with the negative behaviour. The punishment is not liked and therefore to avoid it, he or she
will stop behaving in that manner.
Extinction. When you remove something in order to decrease a behaviour, this is called
extinction. You are taking something away so that a response is decreased.
Research has found positive reinforcement is the most powerful of any of these. Adding a
positive to increase a response not only works better, but allows both parties to focus on the
positive aspects of the situation. Punishment, when applied immediately following the
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negative behaviour can be effective, but results in extinction when it is not applied
consistently. Punishment can also invoke other negative responses such as anger and
resentment.
Reinforcement Schedules
Know that we understand the four types of reinforcement, we need to understand how and
when these are applied (Ferster & Skinner, 1957). For example, do we apply the positive
reinforcement every time a child does something positive? Do we punish a child every time he
does something negative? To answer these questions, you need to understand the schedules
of reinforcement.
Applying one of the four types of reinforcement every time the behaviour occurs (getting a
raise after every successful project or getting spanked after every negative behaviour) is
called a Continuous Schedule. Its continuous because the application occurs after every
project, behaviour, etc. This is the best approach when using punishment. Inconsistencies in
the punishment of children often results in confusion and resentment. A problem with this
schedule is that we are not always present when a behaviour occurs or may not be able to
apply the punishment.
There are two types of continuous schedules:
Fixed Ratio. A fixed ratio schedule refers to applying the reinforcement after a specific
number of behaviours. Spanking a child if you have to ask him three times to clean his room
is an example. The problem is that the child (or anyone for that matter) will begin to realize
that he can get away with two requests before he has to act. Therefore, the behaviour does
not tend to change until right before the preset number.
Fixed Interval. Applying the reinforcer after a specific amount of time is referred to as a fixed
interval schedule. An example might be getting a raise every year and not in between. A
major problem with this schedule is that people tend to improve their performance right before
the time period expires so as to "look good" when the review comes around.
When reinforcement is applied on an irregular basis, they are called variable schedules.
Variable Ratio. This refers to applying a reinforcer after a variable number of responses.
Variable ratio schedules have been found to work best under many circumstances and
knowing an example will explain why. Imagine walking into a casino and heading for the slot
machines. After the third coin you put in, you get two back. Two more and you get three back.
Another five coins and you receive two more back. How difficult is it to stop playing?
Variable Interval. Reinforcing someone after a variable amount of time is the final schedule.
If you have a boss who checks your work periodically, you understand the power of this
schedule. Because you don’t know when the next ‘check-up’ might come, you have to be
working hard at all times in order to be ready.
In this sense, the variable schedules are more powerful and result in more consistent
behaviours. This may not be as true for punishment since consistency in the application is so
important, but for all other types of reinforcement they tend to result in stronger responses.
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Chapter 5: Sensation and Perception
Section 1: Introduction
Introduction to Sensation and Perception
Although intimately related, sensation and perception play two complimentary but different
roles in how we interpret our world. Sensation refers to the process of sensing our
environment through touch, taste, sight, sound, and smell. This information is sent to our
brains in raw form where perception comes into play. Perception is the way we interpret
these sensations and therefore make sense of everything around us.
This chapter will describe various theories related to these two concepts and explain the
important role they play in the field of psychology. Through this chapter, you will gain a better
idea of how our senses work and how this information is organized and interpreted.
Chapter 5: Sensation and Perception
Section 2: Sensation
Sensation
Sensation is the process by which our senses gather information and send it to the brain. A
large amount of information is being sensed at any one time such as room temperature,
brightness of the lights, someone talking, a distant train, or the smell of perfume. With all this
information coming into our senses, the majority of our world never gets recognized. We
don't notice radio waves, x-rays, or the microscopic parasites crawling on our skin. We don't
sense all the doors around us or taste every individual spice in our gourmet dinner. We only
sense those things we are able too since we don't have the sense of smell like a bloodhound
or the sense of sight like a hawk; our thresholds are different from these animals and often
even from each other.
Absolute Threshold
The absolute threshold is the point where something becomes noticeable to our senses. It is
the softest sound we can hear or the slightest touch we can feel. Anything less than this goes
unnoticed. The absolute threshold is therefore the point at which a stimuli goes from
undetectable to detectable to our senses.
Difference Threshold
Once a stimulus becomes detectable to us, how do we recognize if this stimulus changes.
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When we notice the sound of the radio in the other room, how do we notice when it becomes
louder. It's conceivable that someone could be turning it up so slightly that the difference is
undetectable. The difference threshold is the amount of change needed for us to recognize
that a change has occurred. This change is referred to as the Just Noticeable Difference.
This difference is not absolute, however. Imagine holding a five pound weight and one pound
was added. Most of us would notice this difference. But what if we were holding a fifty pound
weight? Would we notice if another pound were added? The reason many of us would not is
because the change required to detect a difference has to represent a percentage. In the first
scenario, one pound would increase the weight by 20%, in the second, that same weight
would add only an additional 2%. This theory, named after its original observer, is referred to
as Weber's Law.
Signal Detection Theory
Have you ever been in a crowded room with lots of people talking? Situations like that can
make it difficult to focus on any particular stimulus, like the conversation we are having with a
friend. We are often faced with the daunting task of focusing our attention on certain things
while at the same time attempting to ignore the flood of information entering our senses.
When we do this, we are making a determination as to what is important to sense and what is
background noise. This concept is referred to as signal detection because we attempt detect
what we want to focus on and ignore or minimize everything else.
Sensory Adaptation
The last concept refers to stimuli which has become redundant or remains unchanged for an
extended period of time. Ever wonder why we notice certain smells or sounds right away and
then after a while they fade into the background? Once we adapt to the perfume or the
ticking of the clock, we stop recognizing it. This process of becoming less sensitive to
unchanging stimulus is referred to as sensory adaptation, after all, if it doesn't change, why do
we need to constantly sense it?
Chapter 5: Sensation and Perception
Section 3: Perception
Perception
As mentioned in the introduction, perception refers to interpretation of what we take in through
our senses. The way we perceive our environment is what makes us different from other
animals and different from each other. In this section, we will discuss the various theories on
how our sensation are organized and interpreted, and therefore, how we make sense of what
we see, hear, taste, touch, and smell.
Gestalt Principles of Grouping
The German word "Gestalt" roughly translates to "whole" or "form," and the Gestalt
psychologist's sincerely believed that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. In order
25
to interpret what we receive through our senses, they theorized that we attempt to organize
this information into certain groups. This allows us to interpret the information completely
without unneeded repetition. For example, when you see one dot, you perceive it as such,
but when you see five dots together, you group them together by saying a "row of dots."
Without this tendency to group our perceptions, that same row would be seen as "dot, dot,
dot, dot, dot," taking both longer to process and reducing our perceptive ability. The Gestalt
principles of grouping include four types: similarity, proximity, continuity, and closure.
Similarity refers to our tendency to group things together based upon how similar to each
other they are. In the first figure above, we tend to see two rows of red dots and two rows of
black dots. The dots are grouped according to similar colour. In the next figure, we tend to
perceive three columns of two lines each rather than six different lines. The lines are grouped
together because of how close they are to each other, or their proximity to one another.
Continuity refers to our tendency to see patterns and therefore perceive things as belonging
together if they form some type of continuous pattern. In the third figure, although merely a
series of dots, it begins to look like an "X" as we perceive the upper left side as continuing all
the way to the lower right and the lower left all the way to the upper right. Finally, in the fourth
figure, we demonstrate closure, or our tendency to complete familiar objects that have gaps in
them. Even at first glance, we perceive a circle and a square.
Maintaining Perceptual Constancy
Imagine if every time an object changed we had to completely reprocess it. The next time
you walk toward a building, you would have to re-evaluate the size of the building with each
step, because we all know as we get closer, everything gets bigger. The building which once
stood only several inches is now somehow more than 50 feet tall.
Luckily, this doesn't happen. Due to our ability to maintain constancy in our perceptions, we
see that building as the same height no matter what distance it is. Perceptual constancy
refers to our ability to see things differently without having to reinterpret the object's
properties. There are typically three constancies discussed, including size, shape,
brightness.
Size constancy refers to our ability to see objects as maintaining the same size even when
our distance from them makes things appear larger or smaller. This holds true for all of our
senses. As we walk away from our radio, the song appears to get softer. We understand,
and perceive it as being just as loud as before. The difference being our distance from what
we are sensing.
Everybody has seen a plate shaped in the form of a circle. When we see that same plate
from an angle, however, it looks more like an ellipse. Shape constancy allows us to
perceive that plate as still being a circle even though the angle from which we view it appears
to distort the shape.
26
Brightness constancy refers to our ability to recognize that colour remains the same
regardless of how it looks under different levels of light. That deep blue shirt you wore to the
beach suddenly looks black when you walk indoors. Without colour constancy, we would be
constantly re-interpreting colour and would be amazed at the miraculous conversion our
clothes undertake.
Perceiving Distance
We determine distance using two different cues: monocular and binocular. Monocular cues
are those cues which can be seen using only one eye. They include size; texture, overlap,
shading, height, and clarity.
Size refers to the fact that larger images are perceived as closer to us, especially if the two
images are of the same object. The texture of objects tend to become smoother as the
object gets farther away, suggesting that more detailed textured objects are closer. Due to
overlap, those objects covering part of another object is perceived as closer. The shading or
shadows of objects can give a clue to their distance, allowing closer objects to cast longer
shadows which will overlap objects which are farther away. Objects which are closer to the
bottom of our visual field are seen as closer to us due to our perception of the horizon, where
higher (height) means farther away. Similar to texture, objects tend to get blurry as they get
farther away, therefore, clearer or more crisp images tend to be perceived as closer
(clarity).
Binocular cues refer to those depth cues in which both eyes are needed to perceive. There
are two important binocular cues; convergence and retinal disparity. Convergence refers to
the fact that the closer an object, the more inward our eyes need to turn in order to focus.
The farther our eyes converge, the closer an object appears to be. Since our eyes see two
images which are then sent to our brains for interpretation, the distance between these two
images, or their retinal disparity, provides another cue regarding the distance of the object.
Chapter 6: Memory, Intelligence, and States of Mind
Section 1: Introduction
Introduction
This chapter focuses on various states of mind, how our memory works, why we forget things,
the debate over intelligence and intelligence testing, and the power of the mind to control
states of relaxation and hypnosis. Obviously there are a lot of things, both internal and
external, that can affect our current state. Emotions, noise, stress, and of course the use of
alcohol and drugs all come to mind. All of these things should be taken into consideration
when learning about states of mind and how to control them.
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Chapter 6: Memory, Intelligence, and States of Mind
Section 2: Memory and Forgetting
Memory
Human memory, like memory in a computer, allows us to store information for later use. In
order to do this, however, both the computer and we need to master three processes involved
in memory. The first is called encoding; the process we use to transform information so that it
can be stores. For a computer this means transferring data into 1’s and 0’s. For us, it means
transforming the data into a meaningful form such as an association with an existing memory,
an image, or a sound.
Next is the actual storage, which simply means holding onto the information. For this to take
place, the computer must physically write the 1’ and 0’s onto the hard drive. It is very similar
for us because it means that a physiological change must occur for the memory to be stored.
The final process is called retrieval, which is bringing the memory out of storage and
reversing the process of encoding. In other words, return the information to a form similar to
what we stored.
The major difference between humans and computers in terms of memory has to do with how
the information is stored. For the most part, computers have only two types; permanent
storage and permanent deletion. Humans, on the other hand are more complex in that we
have three distinct memory storage capabilities (not including permanent deletion). The first
is Sensory memory, referring to the information we receive through the senses. This
memory is very brief lasting only as much as a few seconds.
Short Term Memory (STM) takes over when the information in our sensory memory is
transferred to our consciousness or our awareness (Engle, Cantor, & Carullo, 1993; Laming,
1992). This is the information that is currently active such as reading this page, talking to a
friend, or writing a paper. Short term memory can definitely last longer than sensory memory
(up to 30 seconds or so), but it still has a very limited capacity. According to research, we can
remember approximately 5 to 9 (7 +/- 2) bits of information in our short term memory at any
given time (Miller, 1956)
If STM lasts only up to 30 seconds, how do we ever get any work done? Wouldn't we start to
lose focus or concentrate about twice every minute? This argument prompted researchers to
look at a second phase of STM that is now referred to as Working Memory. Working Memory
is the process that takes place when we continually focus on material for longer than STM
alone will allow (Baddeley, 1992).
What happens when our short term memory is full and another bit of information enters?
Displacement means that the new information will push out part of the old information.
Suddenly some one says the area code for that phone number and almost instantly you forget
the last two digits of the number. We can further sharpen our short term memory skills,
28
however, by mastering chunking and using rehearsal (which allows us to visualize, hear, say,
or even see the information repeatedly and through different senses).
Finally, there is long term memory (LTM), which is most similar to the permanent storage of
a computer. Unlike the other two types, LTM is relatively permanent and practically unlimited
in terms of its storage capacity. Its been argued that we have enough space in our LTM to
memorize every phone number in the U.S. and still function normally in terms of remembering
what we do now. Obviously we don’t use even a fraction of this storage space.
There are several subcategories of LTM. First, memories for facts, life events, and information
about our environment are stored in declarative memory. This includes semantic memory,
factual knowledge like the meaning of words, concepts, and our ability to do math (Lesch &
Pollatsek, 1993, Rohrer et al., 1995) and episodic memory, memories for events and
situations (Goldringer, 1996; Kliegel & Lindberger, 1993). The second subcategory is often
not thought of as memory because it refers to internal, rather than external information. When
you brush your teeth, write your name, or scratch your eye, you do this with ease because
you previously stored these movements and can recall them with ease. This is referred to as
nondeclarative (or implicit) memory. These are memories we have stored due to extensive
practice, conditioning, or habits.
Why We Remember What We Remember
Short Term Memory. There are typically six reasons why information is stored in our short
term memory.
1. primacy effect - information that occurs first is typically remembered better than
information occurring later. When given a list of words or numbers, the first word or
number is usually remembered due to rehearsing this more than other information.
2. recency effect - often the last bit of information is remembered better because not as
much time has past; time which results in forgetting.
3. distinctiveness - if something stands out from information around it, it is often
remembered better. Any distinctive information is easier to remember than that which
is similar, usual, or mundane.
4. frequency effect - rehearsal, as stated in the first example, results in better memory.
Remember trying to memorize a formula for your math class. The more you went
over it, the better you knew it.
5. associations - when we associate or attach information to other information it
becomes easier to remember. Many of us use this strategy in our professions and
everyday life in the form of acronyms.
6. reconstruction - sometimes we actually fill in the blanks in our memory. In other
words, when trying to get a complete picture in our minds, we will make up the
missing parts, often without any realization that this is occurring.
Long Term Memory. Information that passes from our short term to our long term memory is
typically that which has some significance attached to it. Imagine how difficult it would be to
29
forget the day you graduated, or your first kiss. Now think about how easy it is to forget
information that has no significance; the colour of the car you parked next to at the store or
what shirt you wore last Thursday. When we process information, we attach significance to it
and information deemed important is transferred to our long term memory.
There are other reasons information is transferred. As we all know, sometimes our brains
seem full of insignificant facts. Repetition plays a role in this, as we tend to remember things
more the more they are rehearsed. Other times, information is transferred because it is
somehow attached to something significant. You may remember that it was a warm day
when you bought your first car. The temperature really plays no important role, but is
attached to the memory of buying your first car.
Forgetting
You can’t talk about remembering without mentioning its counterpart. It seems that as much
as we do remember, we forget even more. Forgetting isn’t really all that bad, and is in
actuality, a pretty natural phenomenon. Imagine if you remembered every minute detail of
every minute or every hour, of every day during your entire life, no matter how good, bad, or
insignificant. Now imagine trying to sift through it all for the important stuff like where you left
your keys.
There are many reasons we forget things and often these reasons overlap. Like in the
example above, some information never makes it to LTM. Other times, the information gets
there, but is lost before it can attach itself to our LTM. Other reasons include decay, which
means that information that is not used for an extended period of time decays or fades away
over time. It is possible that we are physiologically preprogrammed to eventually erase data
that no longer appears pertinent to us.
Failing to remember something doesn’t mean the information is gone forever though.
Sometimes the information is there but for various reasons we can’t access it. This could be
caused by distractions going on around us or possibly due to an error of association (e.g.,
believing something about the data which is not correct causing you to attempt to retrieve
information that is not there). There is also the phenomenon of repression, which means that
we purposefully (albeit subconsciously) push a memory out of reach because we do not want
to remember the associated feelings. This is often sited in cases where adults ‘forget’
incidences of sexual abuse when they were children. And finally, amnesia, which can be
psychological or physiological in origin.
Chapter 6: Memory, Intelligence, and States of Mind
Section 3: Intelligence
Intelligence
The assessment of human abilities dates back nearly 4000 years when China used written
tests to rate applicants for civil service. Two-thousand years later, during the Hans Dynasty,
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civil service type exams were used in the areas of law, military, agriculture, and geography.
In the early 1800s British diplomats observed the Chinese assessments and modified them
for use in Britain and eventually the United States for use in civil service placement.
Sir Francis Galton is a key figure in modern intelligence testing. As the first cousin of Charles
Darwin, he attempted to apply Darwin's evolutionary theory to the study of human abilities.
He postulate that intelligence was quantifiable and normally distributed. In other words, he
believed that we could assign a score to intelligence where the majority of people fall in the
average range and the percentage of the population decreases the farther from the middle
their score gets.
The first workable intelligence test was developed by French psychologist Alfred Binet. He
and his partner, Theodore Simon, were commissioned by the French government to improve
the teaching methods for developmentally disabled children. They believed that intelligence
was the key to effective teaching, and developed a strategy whereby a mental age (MA) was
determined and divided by the child's chronological age (CA). This formula, stated as
"MA/CA X 100."
Another theorist, Raymond Cattell, described intelligence as having two distinct factors. The
first he called Crystallized Intelligence, representing acquired knowledge, and second, Fluid
Intelligence, or our ability to use this knowledge.
Sternberg (1988) argued that there are a number of ways to demonstrate intelligence or
adaptive functioning. He proposed a model of intelligence referred to as the triarchic theory.
According to this model there are three types of intelligence: (1) analytical, or the ability to
solve a problem by looking at its components; (2) creative, the ability o use new or ingenious
ways to solve problems; and (3) practical, referring to street smarts or common sense. While
most IQ tests measure only analytical intelligence, they fail to include practical intelligence
which is the most understandable to most of us (Sternberg et al., 1995)
Intelligence is not something we can see or hear, or taste. We can see the results of
intelligence...sometimes. Many argue that quantifying intelligence correctly is impossible and
all that modern IQ tests do is test our knowledge and abilities. While it is true that a person
can learn to improve his or her score, this can only occur if correct responses are taught to
the person, which is highly unethical. We have also found that our individual IQ score
remains quite consistent as we get older. Some argue, however, that modern IQ tests are
prejudiced against certain ethnicities and cultures and tend to result in higher scores for
others. Where this leaves us, however, is uncertain. As of today, these IQ tests are the best
we have in our attempt to quantify the construct known as intelligence.
Chapter 6: Memory, Intelligence, and States of Mind
Section 4: Relaxation and Hypnosis
Relaxation and Hypnosis
Many internal and external factors affect how we think, feel, and behave. Although alcohol
and drugs have been studied in great detail and have been shown to have both positive and
negative effects on our state of mind, they will not be discussed in this section. For more
information about these, follow the link above.
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In this section, we are going to focus primarily on the internal factors that influence our state
of mind, particularly relaxation and hypnosis. These two terms are not foreign to most of us,
but they can be highly misunderstood. Let's explore the concept of relaxation first.
Relaxation
When studied in psychology, relaxation refers to a focusing on the mind and a relaxing of the
body's muscles. Research has shown that being too tense and/or living with too much stress
has a significant negative impact on our lives. It can lead to physical illnesses such as high
blood pressure, ulcers, fatigue, and headaches and many psychological issues, including
inappropriate or misdirected emotions, confusion, difficulty concentrating, and burn-out.
People utilize relaxation, in combination with stress management, to improve their quality of
life, reduce the physical components of stress, and improve their psychological functioning.
There are different forms of relaxation, including breathing exercises, deep muscle relaxation,
progressive muscle relaxation, imagery, meditation, and yoga. Although each of these has
different components, the main goal in each is to relax the body's muscles and focus the
mind. Since the body and the mind cannot be separated, most agree that both of these
components must be present for any relaxation technique to work.
Hypnosis
Hypnosis is very similar to relaxation in that the same two components of physical and mental
must be addressed together. Most professionals agree that hypnosis is a very deep state of
relaxation where your mind is more focused and the connection between your thoughts,
emotions, and behaviours are more clear. Hypnosis is not magical; it can not cause you to do
anything against your judgment or ethical beliefs; it can not make you 'cluck like a chicken.'
What it can do it help you to focus on specific areas of your life with more clarity and teach
you how to do this in a positive manner.
A hypnotherapist is typically a licensed professional who uses hypnosis as part of a
treatment regimen for certain psychological disorders. It is rarely used as the primary
treatment, but instead is most beneficial when used with relaxation and talk-therapy for a
more rounded therapeutic approach. A hypnotist is a non-clinical term usually referring to an
unlicensed individual who perform various forms of hypnosis for entertainment purposes. The
two are quite different, the former is therapeutic and the latter is not designed to be so.
Most people are able to be hypnotized, although many factors play a role in your individual
susceptibility. These factors include your belief in hypnosis, your trust for the therapist, your
sense of safety, ability to concentrate and focus your mind, and the absence of external
factors such as noise, uncomfortable temperature, and physical comfort. The key to
successful hypnosis is your ability to focus on your body and mind and to trust and believe in
your therapist. Without these hypnosis will not work, at least not to the fullest therapeutic
value.
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Chapter 7: Motivation and Emotion
Section 1: Introduction
Introduction
What drives you to want to learn about psychology? Why did you choose your career? Your
partner? Where you would live? Are your drives different from other people or do we all
share the same goals in life?
This chapter will discuss the various theories related to motivation and emotion. You will
learn the different views on motivation, from those deemed instinctual, internal, and those
viewed as external. You will also be presented with the theories of emotion, an abstract
concept which has yet to have an agreed upon definition.
Chapter 7: Motivation and Emotion
Section 2: Motivation
Motivation
Ever wonder why some people seem to be very successful, highly motivated individuals?
Where does the energy, the drive, or the direction come from? Motivation is an area of
psychology that has gotten a great deal of attention, especially in the recent years. The
reason is because we all want to be successful, we all want direction and drive, and we all
want to be seen as motivated.
There are several distinct theories of motivation we will discuss in this section. Some include
basic biological forces, while others seem to transcend concrete explanation. Let's talk about
the five major theories of motivation.
Instinct Theory
Instinct theory is derived from our biological make-up. We've all seen spider's webs and
perhaps even witnessed a spider in the tedious job of creating its home and trap. We've all
seen birds in their nests, feeding their young or painstakingly placing the twigs in place to
form their new home. How do spiders know how to spin webs? How do birds now how to
build nests?
The answer is biology. All creatures are born with specific innate knowledge about how to
survive. Animals are born with the capacity and often times knowledge of how to survive by
spinning webs, building nests, avoiding danger, and reproducing. These innate tendencies
are preprogrammed at birth, they are in our genes, and even if the spider never saw a web
before, never witnessed its creation, it would still know how to create one.
Humans have the same types of innate tendencies. Babies are born with a unique ability that
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allows them to survive; they are born with the ability to cry. Without this, how would others
know when to feed the baby, know when he needed changing, or when she wanted attention
and affection? Crying allows a human infant to survive.
We are also born with particular reflexes which promote survival. The most important of
these include sucking, swallowing, coughing, blinking. Newborns can perform physical
movements to avoid pain; they will turn their head if touched on their cheek and search for a
nipple (rooting reflex); and they will grasp an object that touches the palm of their hands.
Drive Reduction Theory
According to Clark Hull (1943, 1952), humans have internal biological needs which motivate
us to perform a certain way. These needs, or drives, are defined by Hull as internal states of
arousal or tension which must be reduced. A prime example would be the internal feelings of
hunger or thirst, which motivates us to eat. According to this theory, we are driven to reduce
these drives so that we may maintain a sense of internal calmness.
Arousal Theory
Similar to Hull's Drive Reduction Theory, Arousal theory states that we are driven to maintain
a certain level of arousal in order to feel comfortable. Arousal refers to a state of emotional,
intellectual, and physical activity. It is different from the above theory, however, because it
doesn't rely on only a reduction of tension, but a balanced amount. It also does better to
explain why people climb mountains, go to school, or watch sad movies.
Psychoanalytic Theory
Remember Sigmund Freud and his five part theory of personality. As part of this theory, he
believed that humans have only two basic drives: Eros and Thanatos, or the Life and Death
drives. According to Psychoanalytic theory, everything we do, every thought we have, and
every emotion we experience has one of two goals: to help us survive or to prevent our
destruction. This is similar to instinct theory, however, Freud believed that the vast majority of
our knowledge about these drives is buried in the unconscious part of the mind.
Psychoanalytic theory therefore argues that we go to school because it will help assure our
survival in terms of improved finances, more money for healthcare, or even an improved
ability to find a spouse. We move to better school districts to improve our children's ability to
survive and continue our family tree. We demand safety in our cars, toys, and in our homes.
We want criminal locked away, and we want to be protected against poisons, terrorists, and
any thing else that could lead to our destruction. According to this theory, everything we do,
everything we are can be traced back to the two basic drives
Humanistic Theory
Although discussed last, humanistic theory is perhaps the most well know theory of
motivation. According to this theory, humans are driven to achieve their maximum potential
and will always do so unless obstacles are placed in their way. These obstacles include
hunger, thirst, financial problems, safety issues, or anything else that takes our focus away
from maximum psychological growth.
The best way to describe this theory is to utilize the famous pyramid developed by Abraham
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Maslow (1970) called the Hierarchy of Needs. Maslow believed that humans have specific
needs that must be met and that if lower level needs go unmet, we can not possible strive for
higher level needs.
The Hierarchy of Needs shows that at the lower level, we must focus on basic issues such as
food, sleep, and safety. Without food, without sleep, how could we possible focus on the
higher level needs such as respect, education, and recognition?
Throughout our lives, we work toward achieving the top of the pyramid, self actualization, or
the realization of all of our potential. As we move up the pyramid, however, things get in the
way which slow us down and often knock us backward. Imagine working toward the respect
and recognition of your colleagues and suddenly finding yourself out of work and homeless.
Suddenly, you are forced backward and can no longer focus your attention on your work due
to the need for finding food and shelter for you and your family.
According to Maslow, nobody has ever reached the peak of his pyramid. We all may strive
for it and some may even get close, but no one has achieved full self-actualization. Selfactualization means a complete understanding of who you are, a sense of completeness, of
being the best person you could possibly be. To have achieved this goal is to stop living, for
what is there to strive for if you have learned everything about yourself, if you have
experienced all that you can, and if there is no way left for you to grow emotionally,
intellectually, or spiritually.
Chapter 7: Motivation and Emotion
Section 3: Emotion
Emotion
What is emotion? A feeling? Then what is a feeling? These terms are difficult to define and
even more difficult to understand completely. People have been attempting to understand
this phenomenon for thousands of years, and will most likely debate for a thousand more.
This section will present the various theories related to the acquisition of emotion.
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The mainstream definition of emotion refers to a feeling state involving thoughts, physiological
changes, and an outward expression or behaviour.
But what comes first? The thought? The physiological arousal? The behaviour? Or does
emotion exist in a vacuum, whether or not these other components are present? There are
five theories which attempt to understand why we experience emotion.
James-Lange Theory
The James-Lange theory of emotion argues that an event causes physiological arousal first
and then we interpret this arousal. Only after our interpretation of the arousal can we
experience emotion. If the arousal is not noticed or is not given any thought, then we will not
experience any emotion based on this event.
EXAMPLE: You are walking down a dark alley late at night. You hear footsteps behind you
and you begin to tremble, your heart beats faster, and your breathing deepens. You notice
these physiological changes and interpret them as your body's preparation for a fearful
situation. You then experience fear.
Cannon-Bard Theory
The Cannon-Bard theory argues that we experience physiological arousal and emotional at
the same time, but gives no attention to the role of thoughts or outward behaviour.
EXAMPLE: You are walking down a dark alley late at night. You hear footsteps behind you
and you begin to tremble, your heart beats faster, and your breathing deepens. At the same
time as these physiological changes occur you also experience the emotion of fear.
Schachter-Singer Theory
According to this theory, an event causes physiological arousal first. You must then identify a
reason for this arousal and then you are able to experience and label the emotion.
EXAMPLE: You are walking down a dark alley late at night. You hear footsteps behind you
and you begin to tremble, your heart beats faster, and your breathing deepens. Upon noticing
this arousal you realize that is comes from the fact that you are walking down a dark alley by
yourself. This behaviour is dangerous and therefore you feel the emotion of fear.
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Lazarus Theory
Lazarus Theory states that a thought must come before any emotion or physiological
arousal. In other words, you must first think about your situation before you can experience
an emotion.
EXAMPLE: You are walking down a dark alley late at night. You hear footsteps behind you
and you think it may be a mugger so you begin to tremble, your heart beats faster, and your
breathing deepens and at the same time experience fear.
Facial Feedback Theory
According to the facial feedback theory, emotion is the experience of changes in our facial
muscles. In other words, when we smile, we then experience pleasure, or happiness. When
we frown, we then experience sadness. it is the changes in our facial muscles that cue our
brains and provide the basis of our emotions. Just as there are an unlimited number of
muscle configurations in our face, so to are there a seemingly unlimited number of emotions.
EXAMPLE: You are walking down a dark alley late at night. You hear footsteps behind you
and your eyes widen, your teeth clench and your brain interprets these facial changes as the
expression of fear. Therefore you experience the emotion of fear.
Chapter 8: Social Psychology
Section 1: Introduction to Social Psychology
Introduction to Social Psychology
Everybody has heard of peer pressure, but most people argue that they are not affected by it,
or at least not affected as 'most people.' The truth is, we are all affected by the people we
interact with, many of whom we don't even know personally. Our social environments play a
significant role in how we view ourselves, and conversely, how we see ourselves impacts our
view of the world.
This chapter will discuss the various aspects of social psychology and the role these play in
our everyday lives. We will emphasize the interaction between our view of self and others,
the role of power in social interactions, and how groups, or the people with whom we interact,
affect our decision making process.
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Chapter 8: Social Psychology
Section 2: Our View of Self and Others
Our View of Self and Others
The way we look at ourselves plays an important role in how we see the world. The way we
see the world plays an important role in how we see ourselves. In this sense, our view of self
and others is an ever-changing circle of influence. We know that those who are happy see
more positive aspects of the world than those who are depressed. We also know that living in
an abusive household or an overly restrictive environment can both lead to depression. This
section will explore the social areas of attribution (how we interpret those around us) and
attraction (what we seek in a friend or partner).
Attribution Theory
We tend to explain our own behaviour and the behaviour of others by assigning attributes to
these behaviour. An attribute is an inference about the cause of a behaviour. According to
the Attribution Theory, we tend to explain our own behaviour and the behaviour of others by
assigning attributes to these behaviour.
There are basically two sources for our behaviour; those influenced by Situational (external)
factors and those influenced by Dispositional (internal) factors. Imagine walking into your
boss's office and he immediately tells you, in an angry tone, not to bother him. An external
explanation of this behaviour might be, "He's really a nice guy but the stress is overwhelming.
He needs a vacation." On the other hand, you might see the same behaviour and say, "What
a jerk, I don't know why is so angry all the time." The same behaviour is given two very
opposite explanations.
Many factors play a role in how we assign attributes to behaviours. Obviously our view of the
world, our previous experience with a particular person or situation, and our knowledge of the
behaviour play an important role. Other factors can influence our interpretation as well, and
there are two important errors or mistakes we tend make when assigning these attributes.
1. Fundamental Attribution Error. This refers to the tendency to over estimate the internal
and underestimate the external factors when explaining the behaviours of others. This may
be a result of our tendency to pay more attention to the situation rather than to the individual
(Heider, 1958) and is especially true when we know little about the other person. For
example, the last time you were driving and got cut off did you say to yourself "What an idiot"
(or something similar), or did you say "She must be having a rough day." Chances are that
this behaviour was assigned mostly internal attributes and you didn't give a second thought to
what external factors are playing a role in her driving behaviour.
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2. Self-Serving Bias. We tend to equate successes to internal and failures to external
attributes (Miller & Ross, 1975). Imagine getting a promotion. Most of us will feel that this
success is due to hard work, intelligence, dedication, and similar internal factors. But if you
are fired, well obviously your boss wouldn't know a good thing if it were staring her in the
face. This bias is true for most people, but for those who are depressed, have low selfesteem, or view themselves negatively, the bias is typically opposite. For these people, a
success may mean that a multitude of negatives have been overlooked or that luck was the
primary reason. For failures, the depressed individual will likely see their own negative
qualities, such as stupidity, as being the primary factor.
Attraction
Why are we attracted to certain people and not others? Why do our friends tend to be very
similar to each other? And what causes us to decide on a mate? Many of these questions
relate to social psychology in that society's influence and our own beliefs and traits play an
important role. Research has found five reasons why we choose our friends.:
1. Proximity - The vast majority of our friends live close to where we live, or at least
where we lived during the time period the friendship developed (Nahemow & Lawton,
1975). Obviously friendships develop after getting to know someone, and this
closeness provides the easiest way to accomplish this goal. Having assigned seats
in a class or group setting would result in more friends who's last name started with
the same letter as yours (Segal, 1974).
2. Association - We tend to associate our opinions about other people with our current
state. In other words, if you meet someone during a class you really enjoy, they may
get more 'likeability points' then if you met them during that class you can't stand.
3. Similarity - On the other hand, imagine that person above agrees with you this
particular class is the worse they have taken. The agreement or similarity between
the two of you would likely result in more attractiveness (Neimeyer & Mitchell, 1988)
4. Reciprocal Liking - Simply put, we tend to like those better who also like us
back. This may be a result of the feeling we get about ourselves knowing that we are
likable. When we feel good when we are around somebody, we tend to report a
higher level of attraction toward that person (Forgas, 1992; Zajonc & McIntosh, 1992)
5. Physical Attractiveness - Physical attraction plays a role in who we choose as
friends, although not as much so as in who we choose as a mate. Nonetheless, we
tend to choose people who we believe to be attractive and who are close to how we
see our own physical attractiveness.
This last statement brings up an important factor in how we determine our friends and
partner. Ever wonder why very attractive people tend to 'hang around' other very attractive
people? Or why wealthy men seem to end up with physically attractive, perhaps even much
younger, women? There is some truth to these stereotypical scenarios because we tend to
assign "social assets" or "attraction points" to everyone we meet.
These points are divided into categories such as physical attractiveness, sense of humour,
education, and wealth. If we view education as very important, we may assign more points to
this category making it more likely that our friends or our mate will have more education. If
we view wealth as more important then we will be more likely to find a mate who has more
money.
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We rate ourselves on these same categories and, at least at some level, know our score. We
tend to then pick friends and partners who have a similar score that we do. Hence an
attractive person hangs with other attractive people; or a wealthy older man gets the beautiful
younger woman. Think about your friends and how you would rate them in these categories
to find out what is important to you.
Chapter 8: Social Psychology
Section 3: Obedience and Power
Obedience and Power
Why do we obey some people and not others? Why are you able to influence your friends?
What attributes cause a person to be more influential? These questions are paramount in
understanding social order. The answers to these questions also play an important role in
many professions, such as sales and marketing and of course politics.
Lets start with a closer look at what 'power' is. Power is typically thought of has having a
certain attribute which gives one person more influence over another. This attribute could be
intelligence or experience, it could be job title, or perhaps money. According to most social
psychologists, there are five types of power: coercive, reward, legitimate, expert, and referent.
Coercive power means the power punish. Parents are said to have coercive power because
they can place their child in time-out, for example; bosses have coercive power because they
can fire an employee or assign an employee a less pleasing job. Reward power is almost
the opposite; it is the power to reward. In that sense parents and bosses have this type of
power as well, as do many others in our lives. Legitimate power refers to the power granted
by some authority, such as the power a police officer has due to the local or state government
or the power a professor has due to the rules of a college or university.
Expert power results from experience or education. Those individuals with more knowledge
tend to have more power in situations where that knowledge is important. For instance, the
physician will have more power in a medical emergency than the plumber. But, when the
pipes explode and the house is being flooded, the physician is not the person to call. Finally,
referent power refers to admiration or respect. When we look up to people because of their
accomplishments, their attitude, or any other personal attribute, we tend to give them more
power over us. Imagine being asked to do something by your "hero" or your favorite movie
star; we are very likely to comply out of admiration or respect.
Using Power to Influence Others
Now that we know what power is and how people get it, lets talk about how this power is used
to influence others. Most of us know that liking and agreeing tend to go together. We agree
with our friends about many issues, especially the bigger ones, and often disagree with our
opponents. Also, beliefs and behaviours tend to go together. For instance, most people who
believe stealing is very immoral would not steal, most who believe littering is wrong, do not
litter.
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What's interesting about this latter concept is what happens when our belief and our
behaviour do not correspond. You might think that we would change the way we act, but in
the real world, we tend to change our belief about a topic before we would change our
behaviour. The person who believes littering is wrong, after throwing a soda can from their
car window, might say to himself, "It was only one time," or "look at all the other trash on the
freeway." in this sense, his belief has changed; littering is now okay if it is only done once or
if others have littered first.
To equate this with influencing others, we see that if we can change the way a person
behaves, we can change the way they think or feel. Imagine the car salesman who is able to
convince the potential buyer that this new car is the one he wants to buy. The sales man
might try to use many different techniques, but one is the 'test drive.' The theory behind this
is that if the person's actions include driving the car, they are more likely to change their belief
about the car.
There are other variables associated with influencing others or attitude change. Lets take a
look first at what attributes the source or the talker help her influence others. First of all is
power, as discussed above. The more types of power and the stronger each of these is, the
more influential she will be. Second, a person must be believable in order to influence us.
The source must therefore be trustworthy, after all, if we don't believe someone, they're going
to have a much more difficult time changing our minds. Finally, attractiveness plays a role in
how influence us. We tend to be influenced more by attractive people, including physical and
social attractiveness, likeability, demeanor, and dress.
The target or listener plays a role in how he will be influenced as well. Those with low selfesteem and/or high self-doubt tend to be more influenced that others. The more we doubt our
own ability, the more we look to others for guidance or input. Other factors such as age, IQ,
gender, or social status do not appear to play a significant role in how we are influenced by
others.
Finally, lets look at the relationship between the source and the target. First of all, there
needs to be some similarity between the two people. If the target or listener does not feel any
similarity with the talker, he is much less likely to accept what she is saying. After all, we
have nothing in common so what could she possible know about my life. The more similar
the two, the greater the influential ability. Second, there needs to be a moderate discrepancy
in attitude. If the difference between the two is too large, changing the listener's attitude or
belief will be too difficult. If the difference is too small, then no significant change will take
place at all. The difference must be great enough that a change is possible but small enough
that the listener is open to the change.
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Chapter 8: Social Psychology
Section 4: The Role of Groups
The Role of Groups
Do you think you act differently when alone than when other people are around? The answer
to this question is typically a resounding 'yes.' We are concerned with our social image or
how other people see us; some more than others, but very few people see no difference in
their behaviour. This section will discuss various theories relating to our behaviour in group
settings or when others are present.
Social Facilitation
Lets start with one of the most simple theory related to social psychology. When alone, we
tend to be more relaxed, less concerned with the outward expression of our behaviour, and
are basically 'ourselves.' Add just one other person, even if we don't know that person, our
behaviour tends to change, and not always for the better. Research has found that when
others are present, our level of arousal is increased (Zajonc, 1965). In other words, we are
suddenly more aware of what's going on around us. Because of this, we tend to perform
better at tasks that are well learned or simple (Guerin, 1993). When completing a difficult or
new task, however, our performance level decreases and we tend to do more poorly.
This phenomenon is called Social Facilitation (Guerin, 1993) , and as we try harder due to the
presence of others, our performance actually decreases for difficult or unlearned tasks. Think
about learning to play basketball for the first time. If you are alone, you will likely be more
relaxed, and better able to concentrate. When others are watching you, however, you are
more likely to be self-conscious, and therefore make more mistakes. Professional basketball
players, however, because the task is so well learned, perform better when others are
watching and they are able demonstrate their confidence and ability.
Group Think and Group Polarization
If you've ever been involved in a group decision making process, you've probably seen one of
two things happen: either the group agrees on all of the major issues, or there is significant
dissent that splits the group. If the group is cohesive; if they agree on most issues, they tend
to stifle dissent because group harmony is the anticipated outcome (Janis, 1972). When we
all agree, and are happy with that agreement, we typically do not want to hear opposing
arguments. This phenomenon is referred to as Group Think. It can lead to impulsive
decisions and a failure to identify and/or consider all sides of an argument. Some classic
examples of group decisions going bad include lynch mobs, actions of the Ku Klux Klan,
discrimination among hate groups, and mass riots.
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Similar to this, Group Polarization refers to a groups tendency to talk itself into extreme
positions. In this case, a group gets so focused and energized about a decision that it creates
an internal fuel, so to speak, which pushes itself forward faster than originally intended.
Imagine a group of protesters, all agreeing and deciding to picket. You can see how this
could get out of hand because opposing views (Group Think) are not considered and the
push to move forward for the cause is fuelled internally (Group Polarization).
Social Loafing
Another phenomenon that occurs in groups is referred to as Social Loafing. This theory
states that as a group gets larger, the individual contribution decreases disproportionate to
the group size (Everett, Smith, & Williams, 1992; Hardy & Latane, 1986; Ingham et al., 1974)
. This is due to the diffusion of responsibility created as the size of the group increases.
Imagine being assigned a project to complete by yourself. Most likely you would complete
100% of it. Now if two people are involved, the percentage will typically not be 50/50. As
more people are added to the group, you will end up with a small percentage doing a large
portion of the work and a large percentage doing a much smaller proportion.
Bystander Effect
This last phenomenon is an unfortunate reality which has been observed far to many times in
groups and in larger cities. We've all heard stories of people getting mugged, or beaten, or
raped in broad daylight while people around offered no assistance. We have found that the
internal push to help a person in need decreases as the group gets larger, very similar to
Social Loafing. In this instance, however, people tend to be followers and will only get
involved if they witness another person getting involved. What results is a group of people
witnessing a crime and wondering why nobody is helping. This does not occur if you are the
only person witnessing the crime. If nobody else is around, a person will tend to help the
victim. The more people, however, the less likely someone will offer assistance.
Chapter 9: Psychopathology
Section 1: Introduction and History of Mental Illness
Introduction and History of Mental Illness
Our earliest explanation of what we now refer to as psychopathology involved the possession
by evil spirits and demons. Many believed, even as late as the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries that the bizarre behaviour associated with mental illness could only be an act of the
devil himself. To remedy this, many individuals suffering from mental illness were tortured in
an attempt to drive out the demon. Most people know of the witch trials where many women
were brutally murdered due to a false belief of possession. When the torturous methods
failed to return the person to sanity, they were typically deemed eternally possessed and were
executed.
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By the eighteenth century we began to look at mental illness differently. It was during this
time period that "madness" began to be seen as an illness beyond the control of the person
rather than the act of a demon. Because of this, thousands of people confined to dungeons
of daily torture were released to asylums where medical forms of treatment began to be
investigated.
Today, the medical model continues to be a driving force in the diagnosing and treatment of
psychopathology, although research has shown the powerful effects that psychology has on a
person's behaviour, emotion, and cognitions. This chapter will discuss the various ways
mental illness is classified as well as the effects of mental illness on the individual and
society.
Chapter 9: Psychopathology
Section 2: Classifying Psychopathology
Classifying Psychopathology
Mental illness is classified today according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders, Fourth Edition (DSM IV), published by the American Psychiatric Association
(1994). The DSM uses a multiaxial or multidimensional approach to diagnosing because
rarely do other factors in a person's life not impact their mental health. It assesses five
dimensions as described below:
Axis I: Clinical Syndromes
 This is what we typically think of as the diagnosis (e.g., depression, schizophrenia,
social phobia)
Axis II: Developmental Disorders and Personality Disorders
 Developmental disorders include autism and mental retardation, disorders which are
typically first evident in childhood
 Personality disorders are clinical syndromes which have a more long lasting
symptoms and encompass the individual's way of interacting with the world. They
include Paranoid, Antisocial, and Borderline Personality Disorders.
Axis III: Physical Conditions which play a role in the development, continuance, or
exacerbation of Axis I and II Disorders
 Physical conditions such as brain injury or HIV/AIDS that can result in symptoms of
mental illness are included here.
Axis IV: Severity of Psychosocial Stressors
 Events in a persons life, such as death of a loved one, starting a new job, college,
unemployment, and even marriage can impact the disorders listed in Axis I and II.
These events are both listed and rated for this axis.
Axis V: Highest Level of Functioning
 On the final axis, the clinician rates the person's level of functioning both at the
present time and the highest level within the previous year. This helps the clinician
understand how the above four axes are affecting the person and what type of
changes could be expected.
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Chapter 9: Psychopathology
Section 3: Psychiatric Disorders
Psychiatric Disorders
Let's discuss the first two axes in more detail now as these are what we typically think of
when we think of mental illness or psychopathology. The DSM IV (American Psychiatric
Association, 1994) identifies 15 general areas of adult mental illness. We'll discuss each one
briefly. For more information about a specific category, open Psychiatric Disorders on the
Main Menu and follow the links provided.
1. Delirium, Dementia, Amnestic, and Other Cognitive Disorders
 The primary symptoms of these disorders include significant negative changes in the
way a person thinks and/or remembers. All of these disorders have either a medical
or substance related cause and are therefore not discussed in detail in this chapter.
2. Mental Disorders Due to a Medical Condition
 Like those above, all disorders in this category are directly related to a medical
condition. If symptoms of anxiety, depression, etc are a direct result of a medical
condition, this is the classification used.
3. Substance Related Disorders
 There are two disorders listed in this category: Substance Abuse and Substance
Dependence. Both involve the ingestion of a substance (alcohol, drug, chemical)
which alters either cognitions, emotions, or behaviour.
 Abuse refers to the use of the substance to the point that it has a negative impact on
the person's life. This can mean receiving a DUI for drinking and driving, being
arrested for public intoxication, missing work or school, getting into fights, or
struggling with relationships because of the substance.
 Dependence refers to what we typically think of as 'addicted.' This occurs when (a)
the use of the substance is increased in order to get the same effect because the
person has developed a tolerance, (b) the substance is taken more frequently and in
more dangerous situations such as drinking and driving, or (c) the person continues
to take the substance despite negative results and/or the desire to quit, or (d)
withdrawal symptoms are present when the substance is stopped, such as delirium
tremors (DTs), amnesia, anxiety, headaches, etc.
4. Schizophrenia and other Psychotic Disorders
 The major symptom of these disorders is psychosis, or delusions and hallucinations.
The major disorders include schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder.
 Schizophrenia is probably the most recognized term in the study of psychopathology,
and it is probably the most misunderstood. First of all, it does not mean that the
person has multiple personalities. The prefix 'schiz' does mean split, but it refers to a
splitting from reality. The predominant features of schizophrenia include
hallucinations and delusions and disorganized speech and behaviour, inappropriate
affect, and avolition. There is no known cure for schizophrenia and is without doubt
the most debilitating of all the mental illnesses.
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
Schizoaffective Disorder is characterized by a combination of the psychotic
symptoms such as in Schizophrenia and the mood symptoms common in Major
Depression and/or Bipolar Disorder. The symptoms are typically not as severe
although when combined together in this disorder, they can be quite debilitating as
well.
5. Mood Disorders
 The disorders in this category include those where the primary symptom is a
disturbance in mood. The disorders include Major Depression, Dysthymic Disorder,
Bipolar Disorder, and Cyclothymia.
 Major Depression (also known as depression or clinical depression) is characterized
by depressed mood, diminished interest in activities previously enjoyed, weight
disturbance, sleep disturbance, loss of energy, difficulty concentrating, and often
includes feelings of hopelessness and thoughts of suicide.
 Dysthymia is often considered a lesser, but more persistent form of depression.
Many of the symptoms are similar except to a lesser degree. Also, dysthymia, as
opposed to Major Depression is more steady rather than periods of normal feelings
and extreme lows.
 Bipolar Disorder (previously known as Manic-Depression) is characterized by periods
of extreme highs (called mania) and extreme lows as in Major Depression. Bipolar
Disorder is subtyped either I (extreme or hypermanic episodes) or II (moderate or
hypomanic episodes).
 Like Dysthymia and Major Depression, Cyclothymia is considered a lesser form of
Bipolar Disorder.
6. Anxiety Disorders
 Anxiety Disorders categorize a large number of disorders where the primary feature is
abnormal or inappropriate anxiety. The disorders in this category include Panic
Disorder, Agoraphobia, Specific Phobias, Social Phobia, Obsessive-Compulsive
Disorder, Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, and Generalized Anxiety Disorder.
 Panic Disorder is characterized by a series of panic attacks. A panic attack is an
inappropriate intense feeling of fear or discomfort including many of the following
symptoms: heart palpitations, trembling, shortness of breath, chest pain, dizziness.
These symptoms are so severe that the person may actually believe he or she is
having a heart attack. In fact, many, if not most of the diagnoses of Panic Disorder
are made by a physician in a hospital emergency room.
 Agoraphobia literally means fear of the marketplace. It refers to a series of
symptoms where the person fears, and often avoids, situations where escape or help
might not be available, such as shopping centres, grocery stores, or other public
place. Agoraphobia is often a part of panic disorder if the panic attacks are severe
enough to result in an avoidance of these types of places.
 Specific or Simple Phobia and Social Phobia represents an intense fear and often an
avoidance of a specific situation, person, place, or thing. To be diagnosed with a
phobia, the person must have suffered significant negative consequences because of
this fear and it must be disruptive to their everyday life.
 Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder is characterized by obsessions (thoughts which
seem uncontrollable) and compulsions (behaviours which act to reduce the
obsession).
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


Most people think of compulsive hand washers or people with an intense fear of dirt
or of being infected. These obsessions and compulsions are disruptive to the
person's everyday life, with sometimes hours being spent each day repeating things
which were completed successfully already such as checking, counting, cleaning, or
bathing.
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) occurs only after a person is exposed to a
traumatic event where their life or someone else's life is threatened. The most
common examples are war, natural disasters, major accidents, and severe child
abuse. Once exposed to an incident such as this, the disorder develops into an
intense fear of related situations, avoidance of these situations, reoccurring
nightmares, flashbacks, and heightened anxiety to the point that it significantly
disrupts their everyday life.
Generalized Anxiety Disorder is diagnosed when a person has extreme anxiety in
nearly every part of their life. It is not associated with just open places (as in
agoraphobia), specific situations (as in specific phobia), or a traumatic event (as in
PTSD). The anxiety must be significant enough to disrupt the person's everyday life
for a diagnosis to be made.
7. Somatoform Disorders
 Disorders in this category include those where the symptoms suggest a medical
condition but where no medical condition can be found by a physician. Major
disorders in this category include Summarization Disorder, Pain Disorder, and
Hypochondriasis.
 Somatization Disorder refers to generalized or vague symptoms such as stomach
aches, sexual pain, gastrointestinal problems, and neurological symptoms which
have no found medical cause.
 Pain Disorder refers to significant pain over an extended period of time without
medical support.
 Hypochondriasis is a disorder characterized by significant and persistent fear that one
has a serious or life-threatening illness despite medical reassurance that this is not
true.
8. Factitious Disorder
 Factitious Disorder is characterized by the intentionally produced or feigned
symptoms in order to assume the 'sick role.' These people will often ingest
medication and/or toxins to produce symptoms and there is often a great secondary
gain in being placed in the sick role and being either supported, taken care of, or
otherwise shown pity and given special rights.
9. Dissociative Disorders
 The main symptom cluster for dissociative disorders include a disruption in
consciousness, memory, identity, or perception. In other words, one of these areas is
not working correctly causing significant distress within the individual. The major
diagnoses in this category include Dissociative Amnesia, Dissociative Fugue,
Depersonalization Disorder, and Dissociative Identity Disorder.
 Dissociative Amnesia is characterized by memory gaps related to traumatic or
stressful events which are too extreme to be accounted for by normal forgetting. A
traumatic event is typically a precursor to this disorder and memory is often restored.
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
Dissociative Fugue represents an illness where an individual, after an extremely
traumatic event, abruptly moves to a new location and assumes a new identity. This
disorder is very rare and typically runs its course within a month.
 Depersonalization Disorder, occurring after an extreme stressor, includes feelings of
unreality, that your body does not belong to you, or that you are constantly in a
dreamlike state.
 Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID) is most widely known as Multiple Personality
Disorder or MPD. DID is the presence of two or more distinct personalities within an
individual. These personalities must each take control of the individual at varying
times and there is typically a gap in memory between personalities or "alters." This
disorder is quite rare and a significant trauma such as extended sexual abuse is
usually the precursor.
10. Sexual Dysfunctions, Paraphilias, and Gender Identity Disorders
 These disorders are all related to sexuality, either in terms of functioning (Sexual
Dysfunctions), distressing and often irresistible sexual urges (Paraphilias), and
gender confusion or identity (Gender Identity Disorder. It should be noted that for
these, as well as many other categories, a medical reason should always be ruled out
before making a psychological diagnosis.
 Sexual Dysfunctions include Hypoactive Sexual Desire Disorder (deficiency or
absence of sexual fantasies and desire for sexual activity), Sexual Aversion Disorder
(persistent or recurring aversion to or avoidance of sexual activity), Sexual Arousal
and Male Erectile Disorder (Inability to attain or maintain until completion of sexual
activity adequate lubrication (in women) or erection (in men) in response to sexual
excitement), Orgasmic Disorder [male] [female] (delay or absence of orgasm
following normal excitement and sexual activity), and Premature Ejaculation
(ejaculation with minimal sexual stimulation before or shortly after penetration and
before the person wishes it).
 Paraphilias include Exhibitionism (the intense urge to expose oneself to an
unsuspecting stranger), Voyeurism (the intense urge to watch an unsuspecting
person in various states of undress or sexual activity), Fetishism (intense sexual
fantasies, urges, and behaviours involving an inanimate object), Pedophilia (sexually
arousing fantasies. urges, and behaviour involving a prepubescent child), Sexual
Masochism (intense sexual fantasies, urges, and behaviour involving the act of being
beaten, humiliated, and/or bound), and Sexual Sadism (intense sexual fantasies,
urges, and behaviour involving the infliction of pain and/or humiliation on another
person).
 The final category, Gender Identity Disorder, is characterized by a strong and
persistent identification with the opposite sex and the belief that one is actually the
opposite sex due to an extreme discomfort in one's present sexual identity.
11. Eating Disorders
 Eating disorders are characterized by disturbances in eating behaviour. There are
two types: Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia Nervosa.
 Anorexia is characterized by failure to maintain body weight of at least 85% of what is
expected, fear of losing control over your weight or of becoming 'fat.' There is
typically a distorted body image, where the individual sees themselves as overweight
despite overwhelming evidence to the contrary.
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
The key characteristics of Bulimia include bingeing (the intake of large quantities of
food) and purging (elimination of the food through artificial means such as forced
vomiting, excessive use of laxatives, periods of fasting, or excessive exercise).
12. Sleep Disorders
 All sleep disorders involve abnormalities in sleep in one of two categories, dysomnias
and parasomnias.
 Dysomnias are related to the amount, quality and/or timing of sleep. Examples of
sleep disorders include insomnia (inability or reduced ability to sleep), hypersomnia
(excessive sleepiness and prolonged sleep without physical justification), and
narcolepsy (irresistible attacks of sleep).
 Parasomnias refer to sleep disturbances related to behavioural or physiological
events related to sleep. Disorders in this subcategory include nightmare disorder
(occurance of extremely frightening dreams which result in awakening and resulting
distress), sleep terror disorder (similar to nightmare disorder but the fear is more
intense and the person is often unresponsive during the episode), and sleepwalking
disorder (walking or performing tasks during sleep without recollection once
awakened).
13. Impulse Control Disorders
 Disorders in this category include the failure or extreme difficulty in controlling
impulses despite the negative consequences.
 Specific disorders include Intermittent Explosive Disorder (failure to resist aggressive
impulses resulting in serious assaults or destruction of property), Kleptomania
(stealing objects which are not needed), Pyromania (fire starting for pleasure or relief
of tension), Pathological Gambling (maladaptive gambling behaviour), and
trichotillomania (pulling out of one's own hair).
14. Adjustment Disorders
 This category consists of an inappropriate or inadequate adjustment to a life
stressor. Adjustment disorders can include depressive symptoms, anxiety symptoms,
and/or conduct or behavioural symptoms.
15. Personality Disorders
 Personality Disorders are characterized by an enduring pattern of thinking, feeling,
and behaving which is significantly different from the person's culture and results in
negative consequences. This pattern must be longstanding and inflexible for a
diagnosis to be made.
 There are ten types of personality disorders, all of which result in significant distress
and/or negative consequences within the individual: Paranoid (includes a pattern of
distrust and suspiciousness, Schizoid (pattern of detachment from social norms and a
restriction of emotions), Schizotypal (pattern of discomfort in close relationships and
eccentric thoughts and behaviours), Antisocial (pattern of disregard for the rights of
others, including violation of these rights and the failure to feel empathy), Borderline
(pattern of instability in personal relationships, including frequent bouts of clinginess
and affection and anger and resentment, often cycling between these two extremes
rapidly), Histrionic (pattern of excessive emotional behaviour and attention seeking),
Narcissistic (pattern of grandiosity, exaggerated self-worth, and need for admiration),
Avoidant (pattern of feelings of social inadequacies, low self-esteem, and
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hypersensitivity to criticism), and Obsessive-Compulsive (pattern of obsessive
cleanliness, perfection, and control).
Chapter 9: Psychopathology
Section 4: Stigma, Stereotyping, and the Mentally Ill
Stigma, Stereotyping, and the Mentally Ill
Mental illness can have a devastating effect on an individual, his or her family and friend, and
on the community in many ways. How it affects the individual is obvious, reduced ability to
care for oneself, strong negative emotions, distorted thoughts, inappropriate behaviour, and
reduced ability to maintain a relationship are only a few possible outcomes. On friends and
family, it can be a major responsibility to care for someone suffering from a mental illness, the
emotional and behavioural components of some illnesses can be very difficult at times to
understand and to deal with. Mental illness also effects the community due to the high
incidence of homelessness and unemployment in some serious disorders such as
schizophrenia.
These are the obvious effects of mental illness, but there are less obvious effects due to the
misperception of the mentally ill. Not too long ago when people heard the term mentally ill,
many thought of severe cases and associated these individuals with bizarre behaviour,
violence, and a lack of caring about themselves and the world. In this sense, people with
mental illness were almost dehumanized. They were avoided and feared.
This is changing now as people understand that mental illness effects many people in many
different ways. We as a society are starting to see that depression doesn't mean weakness,
that anxiety doesn't mean fear, and that schizophrenia doesn't mean violence. We are finally
understanding that needing help for mental or emotional reasons does not represent a
character flaw.
We are in the early stages of this enlightenment, however, and many people continue to
stereotype the mentally ill population. The effects of this are twofold. First, imagine being
labelled as weak, fearful, violent, or flawed. What would this do to your self-esteem?
Certainly nothing positive. These misguided beliefs can eventually reach the individual
suffering from a mental illness and cause a drastic shift in their belief system. They may
begin saying to themselves "Everyone can't be wrong, I must be a terrible person to let this
happen." The results are a deeper depression, increased anxiety, lower self-esteem, and
isolation, to name only a few.
Second, due to the stigma associated with mental illness, many people do not seek out help.
This is especially true for mood and anxiety disorders which, ironically, have very well
researched and successful treatments available. These two factors lay the groundwork for
the cycle of many mental illnesses to continue and to strengthen. I'm a weak person, I feel
worse about myself and can not possibly seek help because I would be ridiculed, humiliated,
and shamed.
As more politicians become aware of the truths about mental illness, as more advocacy
groups get the word out, and as more of those suffering or who have friends and family with a
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mental illness break the stereotypes and speak out, these negative effects with continue to
diminish. We've got a long way to go, but compared to the time when this was seen as
demonic possession, and even compared to a few years ago, we've already come a great
distance.
Chapter 10: Psychotherapy
Section 1: Introduction
Introduction to Psychotherapy
Treatment of mental illnesses can take various forms. They can include medication, talktherapy, a combination of both, and can last only one session or take many years to
complete. Many different types of treatment are available, but most agree that the core
components of psychotherapy remain the same. Psychotherapy consists of the following:
1. A positive, healthy relationship between a client or patient and a trained psychotherapist
2. Recognizable mental health issues, whether diagnosable or not
3. Agreement on the basic goals of treatment
4. Working together as a team to achieve these goals
With these commonalities in mind, this chapter will summarize the different types of
psychotherapy, including treatment approaches and modalities and will describe the different
professionals who perform psychotherapy.
Chapter 10: Psychotherapy
Section 2: Types of Psychotherapy
Types of Psychotherapy
Treatment Approaches.
When describing 'talk' therapy or psychotherapy, there are several factors that are common
among most types. First and foremost is empathy. It is a requirement for a successful
practitioner to be able to understand his or her client's feelings, thoughts, and behaviours.
Second, being non-judgmental is vital if the relationship and treatment are going to work.
Everybody makes mistakes, everybody does stuff they aren't proud of. If your therapist
judges you, then you don't feel safe talking about similar issues again. Finally, expertise.
The therapist must have experience with issues similar to yours, be abreast of the research,
and be adequately trained.
Aside from these commonalties, therapists approach clients from slightly different angles,
although the ultimate goal remains the same: to help the client reduce negative symptoms,
gain insight into why these symptoms occurred and work through those issues, and reduce
the emergence of the symptoms in the future. The three main branches include Cognitive,
Behavioural, and Dynamic.
Therapists who lean toward the cognitive branch will look at dysfunctions and difficulties as
arising from irrational or faulty thinking. In other words, we perceive the world in a certain way
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(which may or may not be accurate) and this results in acting and feeling a certain way.
Those who follow more behavioural models look at problems as arising from our behaviours
which we have learned to perform over years of reinforcement. The dynamic or
psychodynamic camp stem more from the teaching of Sigmund Freud and look more at
issues beginning in early childhood which then motivate us as adults at an unconscious level.
Cognitive approaches appear to work better with most types of depression, and behavioural
treatments tend to work better with phobias. Other than these two, no differences in terms of
outcome have been found to exist. Most mental health professionals nowadays are more
eclectic in that they study how to treat people using different approaches. These
professionals are sometimes referred to as integrationists.
Treatment Modalities.
Therapy is most often thought of as a one-on-one relationship between a client or patient and
a therapist. This is probably the most common example, but therapy can also take different
forms. Often times group therapy is utilized, where individuals suffering from similar
illnesses or having similar issues meet together with one or two therapists. Group sizes differ,
ranging from three or four to upwards of 15 or 20, but the goals remain the same. The power
of group is due to the need in all of us to belong, feel understood, and know that there is
hope. All of these things make group as powerful as it is. Imagine feeling alone, scared,
misunderstood, unsupported, and unsure of the future; then imagine entering a group of
people with similar issues who have demonstrated success, who can understand the feelings
you have, who support and encourage you, and who accept you as an important part of the
group. It can be overwhelming in a very positive way and continues to be the second most
utilized treatment after individual therapy.
Therapy can also take place in smaller groups consisting of a couple or a family. In this type
of treatment, the issues to be worked on are cantered around the relationship. There is often
an educational component, like other forms of therapy, such as communication training, and
couples and families are encouraged to work together as a team rather than against each
other. The therapist's job is to facilitate healthy interaction, encourage the couple or family to
gain insight into their own behaviours, and to teach the members to listen to and respect each
other.
Sometimes therapy can include more than one treatment modality. A good example of this is
the individual who suffers from depression, social anxiety, and low self-esteem. For this
person, individual therapy may be used to reduce depressive symptoms, work some on selfesteem and therefore reduce fears about social situations. Once successfully completed, this
person may be transferred to a group therapy setting where he or she can practice social
skills, feel a part of a supportive group, therefore improving self-esteem and further reducing
depression.
The treatment approach and modality are always considered, along with many other factors,
in order to provide the best possible treatment for any particular person. Sometimes more
than one is used, sometimes a combination of many of them, but together the goal remains to
improve the life of the client.