Section G1 Introducing genomics
The lessons in this section introduce students to the science of genomics before
beginning to focus on some of the wider issues surrounding how science is carried out
and the ethical issues surrounding scientific investigations such as the Human
Genome Project. The lessons should act as a brief prologue to these ideas as many of
them will be developed further in subsequent sections.
G1.1
From genes to genomes
Aims
In this lesson students should:

consider the history of the development of genomics

reflect on some of the ways that scientific knowledge is constructed

read some recent news reports relating to genes and genomics
Lesson outline
Science before DNA 5 min
Activity G1.1 A scientific revolution?
DNA sequencing
15 min
5 min
Activity G1.2 genes in the news
15 min
Resources and references
General
Students’ own GCSE notes from science lessons (or revision guides)
A selection of recent newspaper articles on current developments in genomics (see
below)
Thomas Kuhn
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions
History of genomics
http://assets.cambridge.org/97805218/00228/excerpt/9780521800228_excerpt.pdf
Genomics in the news
Sequencing of extinct cattle:
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/highlands_and_islands/8516598.stm
Review of the hype surrounding genomics:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10337585
The history of genomics
(5 min)
This opening section of the lesson provides a brief history of some of the important
ideas and scientific discoveries that developed into the science of genomics. Students
will be familiar with much of the keyword language and mechanisms from GCSE
Science but an early understanding of terms like genomes and DNA are important.
The history of the work done by Crick and Watson is interesting and could be
developed further, or at a later stage; an emphasis on human side of scientific research
here could be very informative.
Activity G1.1 A scientific revolution?
(15 min)
This activity requires students to start thinking critically about the way scientific
knowledge is constructed, the ideas of Thomas Kuhn being used as one view of this.
Students will be familiar with some of the big ideas in science from their GCSE
Science course but might need a little prompting. Some examples could be:

The change in ideas in cosmology from a Ptolemaic view to a Copernican view

The acceptance of the theory of biogenesis that all life comes from life, as
opposed to the theory of spontaneous generation

The ideas of Newton and Einstein

The acceptance of Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection
Once students have discussed some of these ideas they should reflect on the work of
Crick and Watson and consider if this is the same. Certainly, the description of DNA
opened the door to the modern genetics but these ideas emerged much more gradually
and built upon previous work as opposed to replacing it.
DNA sequencing
(5 min)
In this part of the lesson, read of the recent major ‘milestones’ in the development of
genomics; adding these to the timeline from Activity G1.1 might be useful. The
important idea to stress is that in DNA sequencing’s infancy only relatively small
sections of DNA could have their sequence determined, until the technology and
methodology was advanced enough to stitch them together to sequence the entire
genome (all the DNA of an organism). Advancement with this is increasing
exponentially (like much of science linked to technology). Students might be intrigued
to know that mitochondria (organelles inside the cell) have their own small circular
DNA molecule. This can be explained through the derivation of mitochondria from
free-living bacteria (endosymbiosis).
Activity G1.2 Genes in the news
(15 min)
The purpose of this activity is twofold: to review (or introduce) the 5W framework for
extracting and summarising information, and to draw students’ attention to some of
the many on-going developments and controversies involving genomics.
Depending on the number of different resources that you have been able to collect for
this activity, pairs or small groups of students could each be given a different item to
study and then be asked to present their summary to the rest of the class.
Further work
The work suggested here could be carried out for homework in private study time, and
might also provide starting points for project work.
G1.2
Genomics today
Aims
In this lesson students should:

discuss some of the issues surrounding the funding of scientific work

begin to consider the ethical questions and issues surrounding genomics
Lesson outline
The Human Genome Project 10 min
Activity G1.3 Money well spent?
15 min
Activity G1.4 Is all knowledge good knowledge? 15 min
Resources and references
Thomas Kuhn
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions
Indigenous People’s Council on Biocolonialism
http://www.ipcb.org/
This website provides links to the publications produced and issues addressed by the
council. It is packed with up-to-date information which is presented in an accessible
and balanced way.
Genomics research
Article on The 1000 Genomes Project:
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v467/n7319/full/nature09534.html
Wellcome Trust celebration of the HGP:
http://wellcometrust.wordpress.com/2010/06/26/happy-birthday-human-genome/
The Human Genome Project
(10 min)
Attention could be drawn to the collaborative nature of the Human Genome Project
(HGP). This was a major project. Finding funding for it took a lot of discussion. It
might be useful to consider what areas of scientific research might have suffered
funding loss to make this possible.
Students will probably be unaware that there was an ethical component to the
development of the HGP and it might be interesting to reflect a little with them as to
why this might be the case. The rest of this section of the lesson addresses the
domination of science by Western research institutions and arguments against whole
population variation studies. The ideas of Debra Harry can be supplemented with
information from the Indigenous Peoples Council on Biocolonialism (see Resources)
but she raises some important questions about the ownership of scientific information
and the privileged position that science can sometimes take, ideas which are
developed further in subsequent lessons.
Activity G1.3 Money well spent? (15 min)
In this activity students will start to consider the enormous cost of scientific research
but also the relative costing compared to other budgets. The task asks students to
develop a list of pros and cons surrounding projects like the HGP and expects them to
reflect on whether or not it is worth funding research of this type. It might be useful to
consider the benefits in terms of possible money saving in the future. For example, the
early identification of genetic disease might save the NHS millions of pounds.
Equally, interesting questions can be asked about the non-applied side of scientific
endeavour (so-called ‘blue sky’ research). It can be argued that finding out about how
things work and seeking knowledge characterises a civilised society. This is
exemplified with a speech by President John F. Kennedy when he talked about the
space race who, when asked, “Why go to the moon?” said that that you do challenging
things not because they are easy, but precisely because they are hard. And doing hard
things makes you better.
Activity G1.4 Is all knowledge good knowledge?
(15 min)
The final activity in this section is designed to encourage students to think critically
about opposing ideas and ethical positions and develop their argumentation skills.
Depending upon the group, it might be useful to provide some material from the
Indigenous Peoples Council on Biocolonialism to stimulate more careful and focused
discussion. If time allows, opening the discussion out to the entire class allows for
more ideas to be shared and reflected upon, although, of course, a discussion of this
size needs careful chairing.
Further work
The work suggested here could be carried out for homework in private study time, and
might also provide starting points for project work.
Section G2 Genetic information
G2.1Genetic disorders and choice
This lesson introduces students to the two broad categories of genetic disorder: those
caused by single genes and those associated with a combination of several genes and
environmental factors. The lesson introduces some important terms before going on to
consider whether one would want to know if they were a carrier of disease-causing
genetic variants, and some of the uncertainty surrounding genetic disorder detection.
Aims
In this lesson students should:

be introduced to the two main types of genetic disorder

consider the options available to people surrounding ideas about genetic
testing

discuss the implications of the choices surrounding knowing you carry a
disease-causing genetic variant

critically review the nature of research into genetic disorders
Lesson outline
What are genetic disorders? 5 min
Activity G2.1 Would you want to know?
5 min
Activity G2.2 Long QT: a single gene disorder
15 min
Activity G2.3 Eczema: a multifactorial disorder
15 min
Resources and references
Students’ own GCSE notes from science lessons (or revision guides) to help with
terminology surrounding genetic disorders
Films from the Nowgen Schools Genomics Programme ‘Genes and disease’:
www.nowgen.org.uk/genesanddisease
Web pages about long QT:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_QT_syndrome
What are genetic disorders?
(5 min)
Students will have learnt a significant amount of the science of genes and specific
genetic disorders in GCSE Science. They should be familiar with the terms: gene (a
length of DNA that codes for a specific chemical, often a protein), allele (a version of
a particular gene) and chromosome (structure formed from a coiled length of DNA,
found inside the nucleus). This brief introduction to the lesson should be used to recap
these terms and introduce the idea of disorders caused by single genes (or, more
specifically, alleles) or multiple genes and the environment.
Activity G2.1 Would you want to know? (5 min)
This first discussion activity is designed to encourage students to reflect on their
personal opinion about whether they would want to know if they carried a particular
genetic variant and what they would do with this information. Ideas at this time can be
fairly general as they will become more refined in light of the film clips that follow.
At the moment, students might have the naïve idea that it is easy to detect genetic
variants (it isn’t), disease-linked genes can be replaced (they can’t) and that it is
straightforward to make predictions about disorders from genetic profiles (it isn’t,
apart from in the case of single gene disorders).
It is advisable to limit this scene-setting discussion to no more than a few minutes
maximum in order to allow adequate time for the next two activities which will
explore the issues in greater depth.
Activity G2.2 Long QT: a single gene disorder (15 min)
This activity involves watching the first part of a film (0.00 – 7.34 minutes) (see
Resources). This is followed by the students summarising the points of view made by
the family in the film (some in favour of knowing they carry the genetic variant
associated with long QT, others not wanting to know).
After this, the students should use the “point of view/argument/counter-argument
framework” to explore the rationale behind the decisions made by the family member.
The idea here is that when people are reasoning about ethical questions (or indeed
about controversial questions in general), what they say can usefully be divided up
into their ‘point of view’ (their belief) and the reasons (the arguments) they give to
support this belief. So a first step is to break down an argument by looking for the
point of view that is being argued for, and the reasons that are given. However, since
ethical questions are usually controversial, there will be counter-arguments. Someone
who is reasoning well should consider the strongest possible counter-arguments, and
try to reply to them. This is not something that people tend to do as a matter of course,
so you might need to play ‘devil’s advocate’, and, when someone has put forward a
point of view with some reasoning, challenge them to consider counter-arguments to
what they have said.
The long QT disorder discussed in the film is associated with an irregular heartbeat
pattern. Students studying AS Biology might have done work on the waves of
electrical excitation that pass through the heart with each contraction, which can be
measured by an ECG.
Activity G2.3 Eczema: a multifactorial disorder (15 min)
The final activity is introduced by looking at the less harmful condition of eczema.
This skin condition varies in severity and is influenced by a number of different gene
variants, as well as environmental factors. The students should watch the second part
of the film (7.34-13.48 minutes) used in Activity G2.2, and then discuss the questions
posed in the Student Guide.
The questions focus on some of the research methods used when comparing people
who carry particular genetic variants with those who don’t. Focused case-control
studies normally have a relatively small number of affected people (cases) and
unaffected people (controls). Such studies focus on a small number of genes that are
thought to be involved in the condition. Statistical analyses are carried out to make
predictions about which genes are involved in specific disorders. Genome-wide
association studies (GWAS) look at lots (typically around a million) of points across
the genomes of affected and unaffected individuals; this is very time consuming but
provides many more data. Large sample sizes (numbers of cases and controls) are
needed in GWAS because comparing so many data points increases the chances of
finding random differences between people, which might be considered significant.
Typical studies use 1,000 people or more in each group and this is extremely
expensive. Because of the cost, GWAS are typically done by large consortia of
researchers (as was the case with the teams involved in the Human Genome Project).
Unlike focused case studies, GWAS carry the possibility of identifying previously
unsuspected factors. They exemplify an approach that is exploratory rather than
hypothesis-driven – which makes some people say they are not ‘real science’.
Nevertheless, they have been very successful over the past five years.
An important idea to emphasise with students is that GWAS do not look at the entire
genome, but examine up to one million single points across the genome known as
single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs, pronounced ‘snips’). The theory, although
this is by no means fully accepted by geneticists, is that SNPs can account for most the
differences within a population and that it is here that the major determinants of
multifactorial diseases will be found. This is in contrast with diseases caused by single
genes, where the gene responsible can only be detected by looking at a candidate gene,
or possibly by sequencing the whole of an individual’s genome.
While single gene disorders caused by 100% penetrant alleles (e.g. cystic fibrosis,
Huntington’s disease) can be detected and diagnosed with complete certainty, many of
the methods outlined above have uncertainty associated with them and this should be
emphasised during class feedback.
Further work
Testing for genetic disorders is a fruitful area for project work as there is scope for
students first to research the underlying science and then to discuss controversial
ethical and philosophical questions. The work suggested here in the Student Guide
could provide students with some ideas and possible starting points for their projects.
G2.2
Is it better to know or not know?
This lesson builds on the ideas students developed in lesson G2.1. Now students are
presented with a real-life dilemma associated with the inherited risk of breast cancer
within a family. Students are expected to reflect on the different decisions made by the
family members and then go on to consider some of the ethical questions surrounding
genomic information.
The lesson has very little teacher input, except as way of a five minute introduction at
the start. The remainder of the lesson is led by clips from a film followed by
discussion.
Aims
In this lesson students should:

reflect on the decisions made by a family with a history of breast cancer

consider the problems associated with population-wide genomic studies

discuss the some of the ethical issues surrounding biobanks
Lesson outline
What is genetic testing?
5 min
Activity G2.4 Dealing with uncertainty
10 min
Activity G2.5 Genome-wide association studies
Activity G2.6 The ethics of biobanks
10 min
15 min
Resources and references
Films from the Nowgen Schools Genomics Programme ‘Breast Cancer in the Family’:
http://www.nowgen.org.uk/breastcancerinthefamily
The homepage of the UK Biobank:
http://www.ukbiobank.ac.uk/
The homepage of the UK Biobank Ethics and Governance Council:
http://www.egcukbiobank.org.uk/
What is genetic testing?
(5 min)
This brief introduction to the lesson recaps some of the ideas about single gene and
multifactorial genetic disorders that were explored in the previous lesson. It is
important to emphasise the appropriate terms that students should be using (gene,
allele and genome) as these will be used throughout the film clips.
Activity G2.4 Dealing with uncertainty (10 min)
This activity, and the following two, use a 14 minute film (see Resources) in which a
family discuss the choices they are faced with in knowing they are at a high risk of
developing breast cancer. The film involves geneticists talking about the science of
gene control of cancer and a bioethicist raising questions about the ethics of genomic
studies.
Having watched the first section of the film (0.00-6.10) students should discuss the
decisions that the different family members made when faced with the possibility of
developing breast cancer and reflect on what they would do. It is interesting to note
that the uncle in the film elected for a bilateral mastectomy as preventative treatment
while his nieces are not considering this. In Question 2, students should justify their
decisions and positions they have reached (this draws on the skills developed during
Activity G2.2, Question 2, of the previous lesson).
Activity G2.5 Genome-wide association studies (10 min)
This activity is introduced by a very short piece in “What are we learning from
genomics?” which the students could read before watching the next part of the film
(6.10-10.00). During this clip, geneticists discuss genome-wide association studies
(see previous lesson) and the difficulties associated with diagnosing multifactorial
genetic disorders. During the Activity, students discuss the uncertainty associated with
many genetic diseases and also start to consider some of the inherent problems of
large-scale population surveys of genomes (cost, logistics, what to do with the
information collected and ownership issues).
Activity G2.6 The ethics of biobanks
(15 min)
As with the previous activity, students could read the short section ‘The ethics of
genomic studies’ and then watch the last section of the film 10.00-13.48). The film
introduces the idea of biobanks (which are used, amongst other things, as repositories
for genetic information used in genomic studies), this is followed by Michael Reiss (a
bioethicist and professor of science education) raising some interesting questions
about whether or not donors to biobanks should be told if they have genetic variants
linked to diseases. He also asks who else might want to, or should, have access to this
information (e.g. insurance companies).
NB the UK Biobank is not anonymous. The central Biobank data resource will follow
subjects’ future medical history until death, though actual specific investigations will
normally use samples that have been coded, so that the researchers don’t know of the
identity of subjects. The individual results are added to the central non-anonymous
database.
The homepage of the UK Biobank provides information for donors as well as a
description of the project, and the homepage of UK Biobank Ethics and Governance
Council has information on the control of biobanks in the UK. See Resources (above)
for weblinks.
Ethical frameworks
During the discussion activity that follows, students should reflect on the ideas raised
in the film and start to develop arguments surrounding what should be done with
information of this kind. In doing this, they might find it useful to think in terms of
ethical frameworks.
Utilitarian reasoning about the biobank will focus on the possible good (and bad) uses
to which the information stored there can be put.
There will also be issues about rights, such as privacy of information, and the need for
informed consent. If you allow genetic information about yourself to be used as part of
a scientific study, you might well be asked to give your consent to the information
being used for this particular purpose. The question of whether there is a need for
consent to be given when information is being used is worth discussing. There is also
the problem of whether ‘universal consent’ can be given: often, researchers do not
know what questions they will need to explore, using data from the biobank. So it will
be difficult to draft a statement of consent which is clear and specific, without ruling
out potentially fruitful lines of enquiry. Researchers will find that their lives are made
easier if a statement of ‘universal consent’ is signed. But on the other hand, a system
which requires participants to give consent for each particular use means that they can
opt out of proposed studies if they don’t like the sound of them,
A big current debate is what to do if your research coincidentally reveals that a person
is at high (or just increased) risk of developing some disease – a big issue if there is an
effective preventative measure. This is not new. For example, in a prenatal test for
Down syndrome, the geneticist looking at the chromosomes would notice if there were
other abnormalities. This has only become a major issue recently as DNA sequencing
technology has developed to the point where it is easy to sequence every gene in a
person’s DNA sample; until a year or so ago, technical and cost limitations meant you
could only look at one or a few genes. A related issue is the potential to be able to
elucidate new information from old sequence data: I have my genome sequenced
today and nothing interesting shows up, but in two years’ time, with more research, it
turns out that I have an undesirable variant.
Virtue theory might have some relevance here too: the virtues being those of scientific
enquiry and the value of pursuing useful scientific knowledge. Some people have
argued that knowledge is not necessarily a good thing: might there be limits to what
human beings should know. This perspective is associated, for some, with a religious
outlook. But it is difficult in general to see how a divine command perspective can be
applied here. It might also be worthwhile at this point thinking through the idea that
knowledge is a good in itself, regardless of its potential usefulness.
Further work
The whole area of biobanks is a rich source of questions and issues that could be
explored through students’ projects.
G2.3
What does risk mean?
This lesson is focused on the risks associated with genetic disease. Initially, students
consider what is meant by risk and its implications and then focus on decision making
surrounding genetic disease, both from the point of view of the individual and the
state.
Aims
In this lesson students should:

define the term risk

consider the risks in their daily life

understand the complexity of risk and genetic disease

reflect upon the individual and state responsibility surrounding risk and genetic
disease
Lesson outline
Life is risky
5 min
Activity G2.7 A risky day? 10 min
Activity G2.8 Risk and genetic diseases
20 min
Activity G2.9 Who should make decisions about risk?
5 min + homework
Resources and references
Films from the Nowgen Schools Genomics Programme ‘Genomics, Society and
Health’:
http://www.nowgen.org.uk/genomicssocietyandhealth
http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/condition/porphyria
Life is risky (5 min)
The lesson starts with a review of the term risk and sets up a useful definition to be
applied throughout the remainder of the lesson. It could be useful to have some
stimulus materials (perhaps pictures of a mobile phone, aeroplane, power station,
drugs) as a means of introducing the idea of risk as sometimes being out of our
control. This leads into Activity G2.7.
Activity G2.7
A risky day? (10 min)
During this activity students consider the risks they have taken throughout the day.
The exact details of the student ideas is not what is important here, the activity should
act as a stimulus to elicit ideas about risk.
The ranking activity (Question 2) might not be easy but students should consider it in
terms of likelihood and impact. This might also reveal some concerns or worries
students have about certain activities, for example, is brushing your teeth using
fluorinated water a risky activity? (The answer is no but it will protect you against
dental cavities.) Question three is focused on any surprising ideas and patterns the
student reveal, for example, the classroom (and specifically Science labs) are the
safest place in school, the playground the most risky.
Activity G2.8
Risk and genetic diseases
(20 min)
After a short introduction, the students should watch the film clip (see Resources)
which lasts 15 minutes. It introduces the idea of risk and genetic disease and the
responsibility for risk control. It is important that students should make notes during
the film, which will be useful during Activity G2.9.
The section on porphyria disorders introduces the idea that the risk surrounding
genetic diseases is complex. There are a number of porphyria disorders, each with
specific causes and symptoms, caused by the body not processing various
biochemicals involved in the production of haemoglobin (the protein involved in
oxygen transportation in red blood cells). An important one is acute porphyria which
causes short periods of abdominal pain, vomiting and episodes of paranoia and
hallucinations. This disorder is associated with a dominant allele (i.e. only one copy is
needed by the individual for the condition to develop). However, the condition is only
triggered in some people and only then through stimulation via a series of external
factors (including infection and barbiturates). Importantly, some people who carry the
genetic variant associated with accurate porphyria never develop the disorder.
The webpage listed above (see Resources) provides some further information about
porphyria disorders.
Activity G2.9
homework)
Who should make decisions about risk? (5 min +
This activity will in practice require more than the 5 minutes suggested here. It could
be introduced briefly within the lesson before students are asked to think about the
questions for homework, with a follow-up discussion taking place in a later lesson.
The ideas discussed in this activity are difficult: to make this easier, the task is sub
divided in mini-questions. Question 1 asks about choices involved in risk taking; this
is based on Activity G2.7. Prompt questions could be, for example, could you have
walked to school and not come in a car or on public transport? What difference would
this have made to the risks involved? Question 2 then develops into ideas about who
controls choice and who is responsible for making risky decisions. It might be useful
to introduce ideas about totalitarianism and individual choice here to aid student
discussion. The mini-questions lead the students through a logical way of thinking
about risk and decision making but do not expect them to reach a definite decision; in
fact, this cannot really be achieved and is an important message from the lesson.
Further work
The work suggested here could extend the discussion from Activity G2.9 in class, or
could be set for homework.
G2.4
Personalised medicine
The theme of this lesson is personalised medicine. It begins with some reflection on
the role of medicine in society and then focuses on the uses of personalised medicine
and the pros and cons of medicine moving in this direction.
Aims
In this lesson students should:

consider the place that medicine has in society and its role

reflect on the potential and concerns of personalised medicine

review the way the role of agencies like the NHS might change
Lesson outline
What is personalised medicine?
5 min
Activity G2.10
The role of medicine 5 min
Activity G2.11
The potential of personalised medicine
Activity G2.12
Healthcare by the mail
5 min
25 min
Teachers’ TV Secondary Science – Genetics and Medicine
Resources and references
Films from the Nowgen Schools Genomics Programme ‘Genomics, Society and
Health’:
www.nowgen.org.uk/genomicssocietyandhealth
The UK Genetic Testing Network:
http://www.ukgtn.nhs.uk/gtn/Home
What is personalised medicine?
(5 min)
The lesson starts with a review of what medicine is, the focus here being it is more
than curing disease but a holistic approach to patient care. It might be interesting to
elicit ideas from the students about their knowledge of drug development (something
some will have come across in GCSE Biology). Personalised medicine is much more
specific than general medicine and might help not just with patient care but also with
some of the problems associated with over-prescription of drugs.
Activity G2.10
The role of medicine
(5 min)
Here students should consider what medicine is for (a poll of how people’s experience
of medicine changes through time might be a good way to introduce this). The
students should then each compile their own lists of things they consider to be
‘medicine’ before contributing to a collective list for the whole class (e.g. on a
whiteboard or flip-chart). Encourage students to challenge and discuss one another’s
contributions. For example, should counselling be classified as medicine? What are
placebos and are they medicine?
Activity G2.11
The potential of personalised medicine
(5 min)
The first section of the film listed above (0.00-3.14) (see Resources) focuses on
personalised medicine. (The rest is about ownership of genetic material.) This film
clip serves as an introduction to the information provided in the Student Book.
During the clip, four experts discuss the ideas surrounding personalised medicine and
consider some of the problems. The clip is supplemented with information in the test
which discusses some of benefit and problems. It is important to emphasise that
genetic testing reveals information about specific genes in a person’s genome but what
use is this information without a professional to guide you through the data? The
issues of patient privacy and freedom of information are also introduced here.
Activity G2.12
Healthcare by the mail
(25 min)
This activity forms the main part of the lesson and focuses on the future with genetic
screening personalised medicine (something which might be the norm within 20
years). Question 1 encourages some personal reflection on how students cope with bad
news. This is then developed into a group discussion about how genetic data should
be treated and used. Here, specific cues such as ‘Would you take a direct-to-consumer
genetic test?’ might help to prompt discussion. A useful resource to support this
discussion is provided by UK Genetic Testing Network (see Resources).
Further work
The work suggested here extends the discussion from the lesson. You might want to
point out that the NHS does already provide personalised medicine. For example,
herceptin for breast cancer – the identification may not be genetic, but individuals are
still treated according to the specifics of their condition, rather than a generalised
approach.
Section G3 Genes and behaviour
G3.1
Breeding a better future?
This lesson and Lesson G3.2 form an introduction to Lessons G3.3, G3.4 and G3.5
which focus on the relationship between genetics and behaviour. In Lesson G3.1,
students are expected to consider and discuss some of the early ideas of eugenics and
to think critically about the way the misuse of scientific ideas can damage science.
Aims
In this lesson students should:

consider the history of eugenics

be introduced to the way that the ideas of eugenics can lead to improvement in
living things
Lesson outline
Eugenics: a brief history
5 min
Activity G3.1 Are there any benefits to eugenics? 10 min
Eugenics after the Nazis
5 min
Activity G3.2 Changing language
10 min
Activity G3.3 Eugenics today
10 min + homework
Resources and references
Access to dictionaries (hard copy or online)
Kevles, Daniel J (1995). In the name of eugenics: genetics and the uses of human
heredity. Harvard University Press.
Galton and eugenics
http://galton.org/
http://www.eugenics-watch.com/roots/chap02.html
Forced sterilisation in North Carolina
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-13700490
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BE5bF5DMEhQ
Eugenics: a brief history
(5 min)
The book by Kevles (see Resources) traces the science of eugenics from the late
nineteenth century to the field of genetic engineering.
This first section of the lesson introduces a brief history of the development of the
science of eugenics. To begin with, it might be useful to ask the students what they
understand by the term or possibly show them a picture of Francis Galton carrying out
some of his biometric measurements and ask them to respond. Lessons G3.3, 3.4 and
3.5 concentrate on the ‘nature-nurture’ debate surrounding genetics and behaviour, but
it could be useful to ask students to comment on what characteristics they think could
be under sole genetic control and which are probably brought about through a
combination of both genetics and the environment. It might also be interesting to ask
students to respond to some of the statements made by Beveridge (a social reformer),
such as “those men who through general defects are unable to fill such a whole place
in industry, are to be recognised as 'unemployable'. They must become the
acknowledged dependants of the State... but with complete and permanent loss of all
citizen rights — including not only the franchise but civil freedom and fatherhood”
and contrast these with some the policies of Nazis during the 1930s.
Activity G3.1 Are there any benefits to eugenics?
(10 min)
This activity is designed to get students to start considering the public response to
scientific claims and ideas and the ways that scientific knowledge is collected and
assimilated. For the first question, students might like to consider the authoritative
nature of science and the social class system in operation at the time that meant many
leading scientists were wealthy and from privileged backgrounds.
The second question draws on the ideas of the nature of science and requires students
to reflect on what they learnt about ‘How Science Works’ during GCSE Science. The
relationship between theoretical mathematical biologists and experimental biologists
is an interesting one. As examples, students might put forward ideas about modelling
increases in global temperature, population growth or the ideas of Newton and
Einstein as areas where subsequently, models have to be modified to fit reality.
Eugenics after the Nazis
(5 min)
In this short section of the lesson, students should consider the way that the term
‘eugenic’ became synonymous with bad science and ‘evil’ and that it was ‘rebranded’
with the ideas of genetic engineering in agriculture and medicine (these themes are
addressed in more detail in Lesson G4.2 ‘Food by design’). The relatively recent use
of sterilisation in the progressive countries of Canada and Sweden raises interesting
questions about the rights of humans and also how countries reconcile their past in the
present day.
The Human Genome Project, in contrast, is a great success and demonstrates the
collaborative power of science and what positive things can be achieved when
resources and expertise are channelled appropriately. The important question that this
raises (and is addressed in several of the lessons in this section) is what is done with
the information. It is interesting to note that Francis Crick (one of the co-authors of
the paper that described the structure of DNA) was one of the first people to donate to
the ‘genius sperm bank’.
Activity G3.2 Changing language (10 min)
Here, students consider how scientific language can be embraced in ‘everyday’
language, often with negative connotations. The word ‘eugenics’ literately means
‘better breeding’ but has now come to be associated with appalling cruelty and
genocide. How does this happen and does it matter? The terms ‘genetic modification’
and ‘enhancement’ have different, albeit not uncontroversial, implications.
Activity G3.3 Eugenics today
(10 min + homework)
This discussion needs to be treated with sensitivity. It might be useful for students to
consider what characteristics are inherited (i.e. genetic). Examples might include short
sightedness (myopia), colour-blindness, haemophilia, Alzheimer's disease, but point
out that almost no observable characteristics are controlled by single genes, including
tongue rolling [which is not even genetic], widow’s peak, attached earlobes, etc. The
criteria students use will vary but a common theme might be the risk associated (links
to lessons in Section 2) and social acceptability. Students should be encouraged to
reflect on what ‘social acceptability’ means.
The third part of this activity (researching the recent case where the state of North
Carolina apologised to thousands of people who had been forcibly sterilised) could be
set for homework. Also, it could provide the stimulus for project work.
Further work
Research into Galton’s work is one possible starting point for project work.
G3.2
Natural born criminals?
The main part of the lesson uses a case study of genetic research into the criminal
population as a basis for students to develop their scientific literacy skills regarding
the public understanding of science and the design of investigative work in science.
Aims
In this lesson students should:

reflect on the way science can be portrayed in the media

design a scientific investigation
Lesson outline
Multiple copies of chromosomes
10 min
Activity G3.4 Views about criminals and mental health
Activity G3.5 Researching populations
10 min
Activity G3.6 My genes made me do it
10 min
10 min
Resources and references
http://www.scienceclarified.com/dispute/Vol-1/Are-XYY-males-more-prone-toaggressive-behavior-than-XY-males.html
Beckwith, J. & King, J. The XYY syndrome: a dangerous myth. New Scientist 64
(923) 14 November 1974, pp 474-6.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XYY_syndrome
Access to Internet and library resources
Multiple copies of chromosomes
(10 min)
This brief description of problems with excessive or missing chromosomes should be
familiar to students who will have studied cell division in GCSE biology. The
important idea to emphasise it that, unlike most changes in non-sex chromosomes,
changes in sex chromosome number often have little or no effect.
This then leads into a mini case study of the work surrounding studies of prison
populations. The early studies were biased and selective in their methodology, for
example, one might expect more aggressive people to be found in prisons, and that is
what they found. Students should be given a brief account of the history of the work in
this field (much of which is still ongoing) but be reminded that this story is being used
as an introduction to Activity G3.4. You might wish to introduce terms such as
criminal and mental illness here so that an agreed language can be established, or you
might wish student to explore these ideas for themselves.
The Resources listed for this lesson include two websites that provide a balanced
argument for the evidence for and against XYY males and aggressive behaviour, and a
piece from New Scientist which did much to dispel the myth that XYY males are
prone to criminal behaviour
Activity G3.4
Views about criminals and mental health (10 min)
In this activity, students are encouraged to consider the way that science is reported in
the popular press. This will link to ideas they have explored in GCSE Science (How
Science Works). Students could be asked to describe how they feel about criminals
and the mentally ill and justify their positions. What kind of stories sell newspapers?
Are there any contemporary examples? Do people want to take solace from the idea
that behaviour they don’t like might, somehow, be beyond people’s control?
Activity G3.5 Researching populations
(10 min)
Students need time to brainstorm their ideas and then start to construct a methodology
to investigate the question. This will encourage them to consider the differences
between the classical scientific experiments they have carried out in science and the
reality of trying to measure things such as behaviour (i.e. a study that merges both
natural and social science). Students will suggest a range of ideas and problems but
some major ones lie in the difficulty of inferring what people mean from how they
behave (particularly if mental illness means their meanings might be other than the
‘norm’). Questions about who funds the research and possible desired outcomes may
also be explored.
Activity G3.6
My genes made me do it
(10 min)
This activity involves discussion of some difficult ideas about free will and
responsibility. Students might find it quite challenging and could probably benefit
from some input from you to guide their discussions.
This would be a good point at which to encourage students to consider how ideas
about what is ‘normal’ have been constructed over time, both in medicine and more
generally, and how science has influenced such discussions.
G3.3
Researching genetics and behaviour
This focus of this lesson is the relationship between genes and behaviour in nonhuman animals. The lesson covers ideas about early behavioural studies and then
examines more contemporary, although not uncontroversial work and then concludes
by examining the use of twins in human studies of this type.
Aims
In this lesson students should:

consider the early work on behavioural studies in non-human animals

reflect on the value and ethics surrounding non-human animal experimentation

discuss the use of twin studies
Lesson outline
What is behaviour?
5 min
Activity G3.7 Behaviour and reward
The kittens and the voles
5 min
5 min
Activity G3.8 The ethics of animal research
Activity G3.9 The twin problem
10 min
15 min
Resources and references
Conditioning
A pigeon showing operant conditioning:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I_ctJqjlrHA
Lorenz and his geese:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2UIU9XH-mUI
Voles and vasopressin
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/3812483.stm
Animal tests
Debate resource on animal tests:
http://www.neweconomics.org/sites/neweconomics.org/files/Democs_for_Schools_A
nimal_Experimentation.pdf
This is an activity (based around a game) about the ethics of animal experimentation.
The resource can be adapted and used in a range of different ways.
What is behaviour? (5 min)
In this introduction to the lesson, students should review some of the early work on
behavioural studies in non-human animals. There are some useful video clips (see
Resources) of some of Skinner’s experiments which could inform part of the
discussion that follows.
Activity G3.7
Behaviour and reward
(5 min)
In this short but important discussion, students should relate the experiments outlined
in the first part of the lesson to the significance of these types of behaviour in the wild.
This idea is important because it starts to raise the issue that not all behavioural
adaptations are obvious or necessarily easy to predict (this will be followed up by the
work on vasopressin release and the ‘pleasure response’ in voles and the possibility of
vasopressin also being involved in conditions like autism).
The classical conditioning experiments by Pavlov and Skinner are related to instinct
but also learning (reward for certain behaviour reinforces the behaviour). The work of
Lorenz addresses instinct alone; imprinting is useful because it means young animals
are protected and also in a position to learn from an ‘appropriate adult’.
The kittens and the voles
(5 min)
There is a fair amount of text here and you might wish to move through this quickly or
have the students carry out some preparatory work before the lesson. The kitten story
is a really interesting one and shows the influence the environment has on
development and behaviour (note, the number and type of neuron discussed in this
piece are controlled by genes).
The vole story draws together some useful ideas about how genes control behaviour:
the vasopressin production and the presence of the appropriate receptors are controlled
by genes.
Activity G3.8 The ethics of animal research (10 min)
Research using non-human animals is a cause of controversy and is actively opposed
by campaigners for animal rights. In this activity students should discuss the benefits
and problems and then try to justify when research of this type is acceptable. There are
very few primates used in research, the most common animal being rodents. In the UK
and the USA experimentation is tightly regulated to ensure high welfare standards as
well as minimal suffering occurs. It might be worth asking students to consider the
conditions that many pets live in (rabbits in cold wet hutches at the bottom of gardens
for example). It is noteworthy that research using invertebrates is largely unregulated
(though research on Octopuses provides a counter-instance), despite some having been
shown to have complex nervous systems. It might also be interesting to explore the
similarity of the behaviour of humans and non-human animals (for example, is what is
true of voles necessarily true of humans?)
This activity could be extended, possible through a debating society. The web link
under ‘animal tests’ (see Resources) is to an activity, based around a game, about the
ethics of animal experimentation, which can be adapted and used in a range of
different ways
Activity G3.9 The twin problem
(15 min)
Studies into the genetic control of human behaviour are problematic because you
cannot easily manipulate a situation where one group acts as the test subject (for
example, one child raised in a sensory-deprived environment) and one as the control
(one child raised in a normal environment), which is why twin studies hold much
promise. By comparing identical twins to non-identical twins, it is claimed that it is
possible to determine the degree of heritability of a trait (the extent to which it is
controlled by genes rather than environment.) Much progress has been made in this
field but it should be emphasised to the students that it is not without its critics. In this
activity, students should consider the issues surround twin studies. Question 1, about
how identical and non-identical twins are treated by their parents, is interesting; if
parents behave differently towards their children then there is a problem in terms of
using the fraternal twins as ‘control’ in twin experiments. By considering how twins
are treated in school, students might be able to draw on their personal experiences
when considering this problem.
Question 2 explores the ideas of nurture at home; studies suggest that parents and
teachers treat identical twins differently to non-identical twins; this will cause validity
problems with data comparison.
The final question is concerned with the ethics of twin studies (and human studies in
general). Whilst most of the testing carried out in these studies is non-invasive
(interviews, paper tests etc.) some require tests such as blood tests or scans, and some
of these are invasive. There are problems surrounding consent in children (similar to
those seen in medical consent issues) and also more general questions about whether
we should use twins as ‘guinea pigs’ in scientific research.
G3.4
All in the mind
This lesson is the first of two that look at the nature vs. nurture debate through case
studies. In this lesson, students think about these issues in terms of mental illness
(schizophrenia and ADHD) and consider our perception of mental illness and the
interplay between genes and the environment.
Aims
In this lesson students should:

consider the stigma associated with some types of mental illness

discuss the ways that mental illness might be influenced by genes and by the
environment

reflect upon how views about genetic determinism might cause negative views
of certain societal groups
Lesson outline
Activity G3.10
What is mental illness?
Genes and mental illness
Activity G3.11
10 min + homework
15 min
The nature-nurture debate
15 min
Resources and references
Hogarth’s engraving of Bedlam Hospital:
http://www.brooklynmuseum.org/opencollection/images/objects/size3/22.1844_acetat
e_bw.jpg
Films from the Nowgen Schools Genomics Programme ‘Genomics, Society and
Health – Personality and Behaviour’:
http://www.nowgen.org.uk/genomicssocietyandhealth
Activity G3.10
What is mental illness?
(10 min + homework)
This introduction to the lesson is a brief summary of what mental illness means and
the perception that the public often has of people with mental illness. It could be
useful to start by looking at Hogarth’s depiction of Bedlam Hospital (see Resources)
and asking students to comment on this vision of mental illness. The main point to
emphasise is that, particularly in the past, mental illness has often been perceived as
the ‘fault’ of the patient. A discussion of the difficulty of defining ‘normal’ behaviour
might also be relevant.
The research activity could be set for homework. Encourage students to look for a
variety of sources, such as reports in the popular media, scientific publications, and
literature from mental health organisations. Part of the purpose of this activity is that
students should evaluate the sources that they consult and be aware of any likely bias
or selective reporting.
Genes and mental illness
(15 min)
Introduce this section by showing the short film clip (see Resources) about the
influence of genetics on behaviour. This shows geneticists discussing the link between
genetics and behaviour.
The Student Guide then presents two case studies about schizophrenia and ADHD,
drawing comparisons between them with a focus on the relationship between genetic
and environmental influences on behaviour. The piece is then drawn together with a
short passage about the nature vs. nurture question. The important idea to emphasise is
the complexity of behaviour and the difficulty of linking specific genes to certain
behavioural traits.
Activity G3.11
The nature-nurture debate (15 min)
This discussion activity is designed to let students explore the interplay between genes
and the environment and to consider the way that people can be characterised using
simple terms that actually underlie complex ideas. The first question looks at how
‘traits’ should be categorised, things like blood group clearly are specific
characteristics but something like intelligence is much more vague. To encourage
discussion it could be useful to consider questions such as: how is IQ measured? What
does an IQ measurement mean? What is multiple intelligence? How are intelligence
and learning nurtured?
In the second discussion point, the ideas of genetic determinism are tested. This draws
on the ideas of eugenics introduced in Lesson G3.1. Some types of racial
discrimination have been based on genetic ideas with the concept of sub-species of
humans being a popular one in the USA during the 1960s. This has now been
discredited but some people still have deep-seated views of this type. A useful starting
point might be to mention the myth that people of sub-Saharan African descent are
‘bad’ swimmers.
Further work
The general area of mental conditions and genetics is a fruitful one for project work.
G3.5
Addiction
This lesson builds on the previous one by looking at two more case studies. The focus
this time is on addictive behaviour and the interplay between genes and the
environment. The main discussion activity encourages students to consider the
treatment of addiction and also whether this is a trait specific to humans.
Aims
In this lesson students should:

consider the term addiction and form their own definition

develop an understanding of the causes of certain types of addictive behaviour

discuss and reflect upon the treatment of addiction

consider addiction in non-human animals
Lesson outline
Activity G3.12
What is addiction?
10 min
Alcohol and obesity 10 min
Activity G3.13
An individual’s problem or one for society?
20 min
Resources and references
Films from the Nowgen Schools Genomics Programme ‘Genomics, Society and
Health – Personality and Behaviour’:
http://www.nowgen.org.uk/genomicssocietyandhealth
A summary of research findings on alcohol abuse and ethnic groups from the National
Institute of Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism:
http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/aa55.htm
Activity G3.12
What is addiction? (10 min)
This brief introduction to the lesson is focused on the definition of different types of
addiction. Drugs (substances that alter physiology) are associated with substance
addiction and, until recently, this was the only type of addiction recognised by the
medical profession. Behavioural addiction is becoming much more widespread and is
particularly seen in the under 40s.
The short film clip used in Lesson G3.4 is also relevant here, and it is useful to refer to
the NIAAA report listed above (see Resources).
During this activity students begin to develop their understanding of addiction. In
Question 1 they might generate a long list but common themes might be addiction to
computer games, money/ wealth, food, television programmes, gambling etc.
In Question 2, the characteristics that students identify are related to the availability of
these things, either through increased wealth or internet access. The increase in leisure
time also means people have more time to spend enjoying themselves. In Question 3,
students should justify their ranking of the harmful effects of the addictions they have
listed. In the end, this will be subjective but might be influenced by the effect the
behaviour might have on others (family, friends, society) and also the long term
consequences (e.g. gambling leading to loss of home, divorce, losing access to
children, loss of trust in wider family etc.).
Alcohol and obesity (10 min)
In this section of the lesson students should briefly review the ideas that explain
addictive behaviour surrounding alcohol and foods. In both cases, the emphasis is on
the interaction between genes and the environment to explain why people become
addicts. The important idea is the complexity of the relationship between genes and
the environment and how changes in the environment might trigger genes to be
activated in certain conditions.
Activity G3.13
An individual’s problem or one for society? (20 min)
This discussion is focused on what should be done about addiction. In Question 1,
students discuss the role the NHS has in helping people with these behaviours but also
in education and preventative treatment. It should be noted that some addictions are a
type of mental illness and so come well within the remit of NHS treatment and rapid
treatment might prevent long term (and costly) problems to patients.
In Question 2, the view of addiction being a human characteristic is considered.
Research into non-human animals shows that mammals have a similar response to
alcohol and fatty foods as humans, except in the wild these things are normally
unavailable. Obese pets are becoming a common problem in veterinary surgeries and
reflect the behaviour of the owners.
In the final question, students consider the role advertising plays in triggering
addictive behaviour. It might be useful to consider the history of tobacco and alcohol
advertising and reflect on whether a similar thing will be seen with fast food
advertising (particularly that directed at children).
Further work
Students may be interested in exploring the influence of advertising on food sales and
children’s behaviour. This would make a suitable starting point for a project.
Section G4 Genomes, evolution and breeding
G4.1The Ascent of Man
The focus of this lesson is on human evolution, our relationship with other living
things and genetic enhancement. Students are expected to reflect on their ideas about
the place of humans in the animal kingdom and then consider the ethics surrounding
research into, and consequences of, genetic enhancement.
Aims
In this lesson students should:

know the current theory to explain the evolution of humans out of Africa

consider the place that humans have in the animal kingdom

debate and reflect on the ethical issues surrounding genetic enhancement.
Lesson outline
Activity G4.1 Human origins
10 min
Human evolution and enhancement 10 min
Activity G4.2 A brave new world? 20 min
Resources and references
The Ascent of Man (Episode 1)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tHJrSZWFQFo
Haeckel’s ‘Tree of Humanity’:
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b9/Human-evolution.jpg
The Human Genetics Commission:
http://www.hgc.gov.uk/Client/index.asp?ContentId=1
Activity G4.1 Human origins
(10 min)
This opening section of the lesson introduces the ideas that research into human
evolution has a long history. Showing a clip of episode one of the Ascent of Man (see:
Resources) could be used as a starter. After approximately 7 minutes, the clips
introduce ideas about human evolution in Africa. (The preceding 7 minutes provide an
overview of the series which tells an interesting story of human advancement.)
Students should be introduced to the ideas that increasing knowledge has raised the
prospect that humans could be genetically engineered in very specific ways.
Students should then look at Haeckel’s Tree of Humanity (see Resources) and discuss
what this view of evolution tells us about what Haeckel thought about the place
humans occupy in the living world. This hierarchal approach to evolution was
widespread until fairly recently and still persists in some areas. One important idea to
emphasise is that humans did not evolve from chimpanzees: both humans and
chimpanzees share a common ancestor.
Student should think about the terms ‘advanced’ and ‘complex’: in terms of evolution,
there is no ‘drive’ to become more complex and whether values such as advanced and
primitive can be applied when making comparisons between living things, such as a
worm and a tree.
Human evolution and enhancement
(10 min)
This section relies on students reading a sizable portion of text, which falls into three
natural parts. You might choose to discuss each part briefly in turn; the first two really
act as background for possible projects. In the Human Enhancement section, it is
important to compare and contrast therapeutic genetic engineering (usually adding
functional genes or sometimes replacing disease-linked genes or screening embryos
for diseases) and genetic enhancement (changing the genome to improve it). It may be
necessary here to distinguish between gene doping, which is a somatic approach,
affecting only the individual being treated, and germ-line modification, which leads to
inherited changes. Germ-line modification is only a theoretical possibility at present
and therapeutic (somatic) genetic modification in humans has only taken place in a
research context; no standard/ approved treatments use genetic modification.
Activity G4.2 A brave new world? (20 min)
This activity forms the main part of the lesson. Students should be allowed time to
discuss their ideas in groups before opening up discussion to the entire class. The
ideas surrounding embryo research are emotive and it might be worth discussing the
differences between emotional and rational thinking and responses with the students
beforehand. The Human Genetics Commission website (see Resources) provides some
guidelines on the ethical considerations involved.
As with many ethical questions, it is fruitful here to apply the four ethical frameworks:
utilitarianism, rights and duties, divine command, and virtue ethics.
On the face of it, utilitarian arguments might seem to favour allowing genetic
enhancement, provided that it is beneficial to the individuals concerned, and not
harmful. But there are wider considerations, such as the impact on society as a whole.
These might not be positive. Suppose, for example, that a small number of people
profit from access to genetic enhancement. Comparatively, others are thereby
disadvantaged. This might seem to provide an ethical argument against allowing such
technology to be used. But it could be counter-argued that this is the way of life: goods
such as health and education are not distributed equitably amongst the population. The
extent to which we should seek to remedy this remains an ongoing matter of political
and ethical debate.
Rights-based arguments are difficult to use in this context. Students might like to
consider how a claim to a ‘right to enhancement’ could be justified. Arguments about
divine commandments will be relevant insofar as they tie in to concerns about justice:
is a society in which some are able to enhance themselves using genetic technology a
fair one? This links too with questions arising from consideration of virtues, since
justice is a cardinal virtue. There is also an argument about the ‘commodification’ of
offspring. The issue here is the effect that being able to bring about genetic
enhancement might have on the way we understand children. Would we still talk
about receiving the ‘gift’ of a child, if that child was the product of a deliberate
process of genetic enhancement?
Arguably, an argument which many students use (‘it’s not natural to modify
someone’s genome, therefore we shouldn’t’) is fallacious. There are many things
which are not natural, but which are not ethically wrong (there is nothing ethically
wrong with removing one’s natural body odour by use of an underarm deodorant). We
cannot infer that something is wrong because it ‘goes against nature.’ It might be
worth reminding students who worry about the risks of modifying the genome that
there might also be risks associated with not modifying it, not least that we continue to
suffer from existing genetic diseases.
Further work
The issues raised in this lesson could be explored further in a project.
G4.2
Food by design
This lesson builds on the work students will have covered in GCSE science
surrounding the production of food plants and animals using traditional breeding and
genetic engineering techniques. Making comparisons between these techniques
encourages students to explore the ethical and moral questions surrounding this
important area of biotechnology.
Aims
In this lesson students should:

consider the history of the development of agriculture from 10,000 years ago to
the present day

be introduced to examples of how new biotechnological techniques are being
used to develop novel crop plants and animals

reflect on the ethical and moral questions surrounding the development of
novel crop plants and animals.
Lesson outline
Activity G4.3 Early agriculture
10 min
Activity G4.4 Selective breeding of animals and plants
Modern methods of food production
10 min
5 min
Activity G4.5 Human responsibility for ‘nature’
15 min
Resources and references
Students’ own GCSE science notes (or revision guides)
Films from the Nowgen Schools Genomics Programme ‘Genomics, Society and
Health’:
http://www.nowgen.org.uk/genomicssocietyandhealth
Inherited disease in King Charles Cavalier Spaniel dogs:
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/7569064.stm
The Panama Disease in bananas:
http://www.plantmanagementnetwork.org/pub/php/management/bananapanama/
Double muscled cattle:
http://www.belgianblueinternational.com/pdf/canada1.pdf
Compassion in World Farming:
http://www.ciwf.org.uk/resources/education/genetic_engineering_farm_animals.aspx
Ownership of seeds:
http://www.newint.org/features/2010/09/01/keynote-seed-savers/
http://www.newint.org/features/2010/09/01/seeds-rural-south-india/
http://www.newint.org/features/2010/09/01/surviving-climate-change/
Activity G4.3 Early agriculture
The first part of the lesson is a very brief review of the history of development of
agriculture. This can be quickly achieved by brainstorming students’ ideas about the
term ‘agriculture’ and asking the students to list some important plants and animals
used for food. The earliest crop agricultural practices involved selecting suitable wild
plants and growing them in fields which had previously been cleared of vegetation and
providing irrigation systems. There is a wealth of evidence to show that these ideas
developed independently in many parts of the world. It might be interesting to
consider how the ‘hard wiring’ of the brain might support this type of innovation.
Activity G4.3 is designed to encourage students to recall the knowledge they learnt in
GCSE science and reflect on how it can be applied in a new situation. Even if the
students have only studied GCSE science, they will all have been exposed to the ideas
of Darwin and should be able to develop an answer using the principles of Natural
Selection to explain artificial selection. You would expect ideas about humans picking
animals with the most suitable characteristics (friendly, obedient, fast runner, strong
jaws) and then breeding encouraging individuals of this type to become part of their
family group. It might be interesting to also look at how Darwin introduced his ideas
in The Origin of Species, the opening chapters are focused on domestication;
something he perceived as more palatable for the general public before moving on to
discuss Natural Selection.
The second discussion point asks students to consider features early humans would
have selected for in plants. The ideas here might include productivity, energy potential
(from seeds, grain, fruits and roots), availability and resistance to pests and disease. It
is interesting that these same features are used today. Some reflection on the
perception of early humans as unsophisticated and primitive could be advantageous.
Activity G4.4 Selective breeding of plants and animals (10 min)
This section of the lesson can be covered very quickly and should be used to set the
scene for the modern methods now used in the developed world. In this short section,
students should be encouraged to recall information from GCSE science about
selective breeding in plants and animals. They might have had experience of practical
work involving taking plant cuttings (a type of reproductive cloning) and these ideas
could be elicited. Students might raise the idea of other, non-agricultural organisms
also being bred in this way, for example, pedigree dogs, flowers and plants involved in
medicine.
During Activity G4.4 students will begin to consider some of the biological and
human-centred consequences of reduction in genetic variation within a species
(specifically, a reduction in the gene pool). In the first question they consider this from
the biological stance; ideas might include the loss of resistance to disease or pests, the
inability to adapt to changes in the environment and the loss of as yet unknown
genetic resources. In the second question students will consider the consequences of
these ideas in terms of human survival. The major problems are that loss of genetic
variation in crops and animals might mean that we lose organisms and particularly
plants (which make up the diet of the majority of people) to disease and climate
change. A good example was the appearance in 2006 of the Panama fungal disease
that attacked bananas and almost led to the extinction of certain cultivars. The
question of whether biodiversity is an intrinsic good or just an instrumental one could
be explored, if there is time to explain these different environmental ethics
perspectives.
Modern methods of food production
(5 min)
Here the students should be encouraged to recall knowledge from GCSE science and
to use the keywords surrounding genomics they have developing throughout the
preceding EPQ Genomics lessons. They should consider how the development of new
technology, but also shifts in public opinion, have affected modern biotechnology.
There are also interesting ideas surrounding the differences between gene technology
with plants and with animals which students might raise. There are numerous
examples of how this technology has been used in the agricultural industry; for
example, the insertion of ‘anti freeze’ protein coding genes into strawberries and
sheep that have been engineered to produce a protein in their milk which can be used
to treat patients suffering from lung disease.
When considering how the world’s population might be fed, some graphs showing the
exponential growth of the population as a whole could be used. Some students might
raise the issue that in many developed countries the problem is not over-population
but a falling birth rate. Whilst this is true, the increase in global temperatures means
countries (such as the UK) that rely on wheat as a stable food crop might face
problems if this leads to a lack of suitable soil and climatic conditions for growing
these plants. The production of ‘super’ animals has been controversial, a good
example being double-muscled cattle. Some breeds of cattle (e.g. Belgian Blue) have a
random mutation of a gene which controls how muscle tissue is laid down; this
increase in size is useful for meat production but does have welfare issues, including
excessive wear of joints and problems of delivery of such large calves.
The ownership of genetic material is a controversial subject. In some cases, giant
agricultural companies have invested millions of pounds in research and development
to gain control over these data. This has not gone unnoticed by famers; for example,
following a devastating earthquake, a group of farmers from Haiti symbolically set fire
to bags of seeds produced by the giant US seed company Monsanto. The seeds had
been sent as part of the US aid package but farmers wanted to send a clear signal to
their government that they did not want to be beholden to Monsanto. However, it
should be noted that Monsanto has also been involved in the Humanitarian Free
License system, as exemplified by Golden Rice.
The ideas here link back to Section G1 and the ownership of genetic material. The
Nowgen film listed in the Resources for this lesson relevant here: it is a 15 minute
film of a discussion between two geneticists, a doctor and an expert in ethics about
issues surrounding genomics and society. There are some interesting ideas raised
about the ownership of genetic information and its implications.
Activity G4.5 Human responsibility for ‘nature’ (15 min)
During this activity students will reflect on the previous discussions during the lesson
and start to think about the wider implications of genetic engineering in the
agricultural industry. The statement: “Biotechnology companies have the right to
patent genes and products of genetic engineering” should encourage lots of
discussion. It might be useful for students to organise their ideas in a brainstorm
diagram or a table that allows for easy contrast and comparison between their ideas
and the utilitarianism approach. Students might need some guidance on the concept of
utilitarianism: the idea that things are right if they ultimately lead to greater happiness
in the world.
The question about pedigree dogs widens the discussion to include non-agricultural
animals. It might be useful to introduce this idea with a short clip from BBC news (see
Resources) highlighting some of the problems observed in King Charles Cavalier
Spaniel dogs. The report that this clip is based on led to the BBC withdrawing from
coverage of the Kennel Club dog show ‘Crufts’.
Further work
Questions about genetics and agriculture can be a fruitful source of ideas for project
work. Students how are interested in this area could start by visiting some of the
websites listed in the Resources for this lesson.
Section G5 Genetics in the laboratory
G5.1
Laboratory-based projects
This final ‘lesson’ is not really a lesson as such. Rather, its purpose is to suggest
possibilities for EPQ Genomics work involving investigation/fieldwork and/or the
making of an artefact.
Aims
To suggest possible laboratory-based genomics EPs
Resources and references
Science and Plants for Schools (SAPS):
http://www-saps.plantsci.cam.ac.uk/
Blades Biological Suppliers:
http://www.blades-bio.co.uk/default.asp
Wisconsin Fast Plants:
http://www.fastplants.org/about.php#menu
Getting practical with genetics in school?
Most EPs in the area of genomics are likely to involve writing a dissertation. Many of
the suggestions for Further work within these EPQ Genomics materials could be used
to develop focused research questions for students to explore in a dissertation-based
project. However, other types of project are possible within the general field of
genomics, and the pages for this ‘lesson’ in the Student Guide are intended as a
handout that can be discussed with students interested in carrying out laboratory-based
EP work that relates to genomics.
Unit 2 of the Edexcel EPQ states that students may undertake a practical investigatory
project involving the collection of data while Edexcel EPQ Unit 4 states students must
construct an artefact. Many investigations in genetics lend themselves to the
requirements of Unit 2 while artefact design and production lends itself to breeding
new cultivars and hybrids which are suited to a particular problem.
The ideas for possible projects in the Student Guide involve using plants in the genus
Brassica. These plants are useful for several reasons, they are very fast growing (a
typical life cycle is 40 days), they are easy to grow (although require good fluorescent
illumination), there are many mutants and cultivars, many species show selfincompatibility and they are readily available to schools. In addition, the interesting
genetic history of the group, and the importance of many species as crop plants, means
that the brassicas have been widely studied by geneticists and much of this work is
readily available via the Internet.
Some useful resources relating to brassicas are listed above.
SAPS are dedicated to encouraging plant science in school. Their website has lots of
useful ideas for investigative work as well as a discussion board where students and
teachers can ask questions of expert botanists.
Blades produce a kit for investigative work into brassicas. The Rapid-Cycling Brassica
Kit (code: DTS100) contains seeds, teacher and technical guides and ideas for
investigative work. At the time of writing (2011) the cost was £65.29 (inc VAT)
Wisconsin fast Plants is a website dedicated to research into fast plants with a focus
on school science. The site includes student activities, teacher notes and ideas for
investigative work.